Cvetković, V. & Šišović, V. (2024). Capacity Building in Serbia for Disaster and Climate Risk Education. Disaster and Climate Risk Education Insights from Knowledge to Action, edited by Ayse Yildiz and Rajib Shaw, book series Disaster Risk Reduction, Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd., 152 Beach Road.

Capacity Building in Serbia for Disaster and Climate Risk Education

Vladimir M. Cvetković and Vanja Šišović

Abstract The territory of the Republic of Serbia is exposed to various natural and technical–technological hazards that increasingly endanger people and their mate- rial goods. An integrated disaster risk management system (preparedness, mitigation, response and recovery) has not yet taken root in Serbia to a sufficient extent, although there are certain institutional and legal prerequisites for its smooth functioning. Aban- doning the reactive way of preparing for disasters and increasingly implementing proactive measures, societies are desperately trying to improve their resilience in resource-scarce situations and mitigate future consequences of disasters. In Serbia, there is insufficient resistance to disasters, reflected in the insufficiently improved ability of Serbian society exposed to dangers to respond to them and recover from the consequences of disasters promptly and efficiently. Despite this, many efforts are in vain, considering that the population’s awareness of various aspects of disaster management remains very low. The aim of this chapter refers to the comprehensive analysis and description of capacity building in Serbia for Disaster and Climate Risk Education. The undoubted importance of education in the field of disasters, which is increasingly receiving priority positions on various agendas around the world, emphasizes the necessity of continuous research on the perspectives of formal and informal education on disasters. One of the most effective tools used in all areas of integrated disaster risk management is education. Admittedly, it should be borne in mind that education is a complex and interactive psychological process in which the transfer of knowledge from different fields is carried out in a planned and clearly grounded manner in the form of a kind of transfer.

Keywords Disasters · Climate risk · Capacity building · Education · Serbia

 

V. M. Cvetković (B)

Faculty of Security Studies, University of Belgrade, Gospodara Vučića 50, 11040 Belgrade, Serbia e-mail: vmc@fb.bg.ac.rs

V. M. Cvetković · V. Šišović

Scientific-Professional Society for Disaster Risk Management, Dimitrija Tucovića 121, 11040 Belgrade, Serbia

V. M. Cvetković

International Institute for Disaster Research, Dmitrija Tucovića 121, 11040 Belgrade, Serbia

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024

A. Yildiz and R. Shaw (eds.), Disaster and Climate Risk Education, Disaster Risk Reduction, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5987-3_17

299

1. 1. Introduction

      In today’s period, more than ever before, developed and underdeveloped countries face the consequences of various natural and man-made disasters (Cvetković et al. 2023; El-Mougher et al. 2023; Iftikhar and Iqbalx 2023; Rajani et al. 2023; Sergey and Gennadiy 2022; Shibru et al. 2022). Abandoning the reactive way of preparing for disasters and increasingly implementing proactive measures, societies are desper- ately trying to find ways to improve their level of resilience in resource-scarce situations and mitigate future consequences of disasters (Aktar et al. 2021; Cruz and Ormilla 2022; Dukiya and Banji Adeleye 2022; El-Mougher 2022; Jaiye and Benjamine 2021; Janković 2021; Kabir et al. 2022; Mohammed and Maysaa 2022;

      Öcal 2021; Odero and Mahiri 2022).

      Despite this, many efforts are in vain, considering that the population’s awareness of various aspects of disaster management remains at a very low level (Cvetković and Dragićevic 2014; Cvetković et al. 2019b; Cvetković et al. 2020a, b; Cvetković and Stanišić 2015; Ocal et al. 2020). The implications of neglecting to find innovations in the field of education and training of the population leave behind tragic and very expensive consequences (Carla 2019; Cvetković 2019a, b; Goyal 2019; Kumiko and Shaw 2019; Mano and Rapaport 2019; Öcal 2019). In one of the studies, several types of deficiencies were identified that currently hinder the promotion of a culture of preparedness in the face of a particular disaster. These are (1) decision-making skills, (2) teamwork skills, (3) understanding of regulations, (4) compliance with regulations, and (5) radiation anxiety (Salleh and Yusof 2013). Consequently, it can be said that these factors represent a small part of the core competencies (knowledge, skills and attitude) in building a culture of preparedness (Cvetković et al. 2022a, b, c; Cvetković and Martinović 2021; Cvetković and Nikolić 2021; Cvetković et al. 2022a, b, c; Cvetković et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e; Cvetković et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e; Cvetković and Filipović 2020; Cvetković and Martinović 2020; Cvetković et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e; Cvetković et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e; Cvetković and Todorović 2020; Cvetković and Janković 2021; Janković and Cvetković 2020; Krnjić and Cvetković 2021a, b).

      Man has always found ways to protect himself and his neighbours from destructive phenomena that came from nature and his built environment (Cvetković and Janković 2020; Cvetković and Jovanović 2020; Cvetković et al. 2020a, b; Cvetković et al. 2018a, b, c, d; Cvetković and Bošković 2021; Cvetković et al. 2017a, b, c). Of course, it is difficult to say what, in that evolutionary sense, was destructive to man and his existence. Were these phenomena from nature that surprised him and very often subdued him, or did everything take on a different dimension when accelerated industrialization occurred? Not so rarely do people notice that we have become a society of risk, that absolute security has become such a hard-to-achieve phenomenon and that serious efforts are needed to adequately and timely prevent and, in the worst case, mitigate the risks of disasters. Elaborations of the concept of disaster risk reduction have indeed reached enormous proportions and serious discussions are taking place in different scientific disciplines, geographies and dialects (Kulatunga 2010).

      A disaster is an event in a certain time and space, in which society or one part of society suffers damage and social disruption so that all or some basic social values are violated. Such consequences arise because the event exceeds the usual protection measures. The concentration of disasters in a certain area defines a series of geographical areas that are identified as a series of concentric zones that show the impact and response to disasters. In practice, this zone of influence is more difficult to determine than it seems. For example, earthquake damage can cause power loss in areas where there is no physical damage. Therefore, defining the boundaries of the impact zone is a significant problem for disaster response researchers, as well as a problem for those trying to estimate where the effects of an earthquake actually occurred, let alone those trying to predict where an earthquake will actually occur (Lindell 2013).

      The prevailing and widely acknowledged perspectives of experts, juxtaposed with the opinions of non-expert political leaders, regarding the necessity or dispens- ability of training and educating the population, are becoming increasingly central in the arena of scholarly and professional discourse. These viewpoints take a promi- nent position in the ongoing clash of opinions on the scientific and professional stage. Experts typically advocate for increased investments in the education sector, while political leaders, often faced with pressures on other budgetary needs, may have different priorities. This dynamic creates discussions about the proper alloca- tion of resources and challenges in achieving long-term education goals. More and more voices are being heard calling for the community to focus on designing and implementing non-structural measures aimed at improving citizens’ behaviour and response to disasters. States can invest huge financial resources in various structural measures in order to mitigate certain aspects of disasters, but all this is in vain if, there are no trained individuals who will know how to protect themselves and their loved ones in the right way and in a timely manner. Precisely for this reason, it can be said that the secret of effective disaster risk management lies in the fact of compre- hensive, proactive action on people by improving their mental predispositions for proper disaster response.

      The undoubted importance of education in the field of disasters, which is increas- ingly receiving priority positions on various agendas around the world, emphasises the necessity of continuous research on the perspectives of formal and informal education on disasters (Cvetković et al. 2020a, b; Cvetković and Filipović 2020; Cvetkovic and Martinović 2020; Cvetković and Svrdlin 2020). The focus of this chapter entails a theoretical examination of the function of schools in mitigating the risk of disasters. Its primary objective is to provide a scholarly analysis of the current scenario, challenges, and potential avenues for future development in this realm. Employing a scientific description, the chapter aims to elucidate the multi- faceted aspects associated with the role of schools. Furthermore, it expands its scope to encompass various dimensions, wherein diverse educational approaches in the field of disaster studies across global nations are expounded upon. In pursuit of this scientific objective, the study aims to provide a comprehensive framework for understanding disaster education, emphasizing the pivotal role that schools play as fundamental components of formal education systems. Beyond mere organization,

      the research endeavours to delve into the nuanced aspects of disaster education’s significance, shedding light on its multifaceted dimensions within the educational landscape. Furthermore, the analysis acknowledges the dynamic nature of non-formal education, recognizing its diverse channels and methodologies. The exploration extends beyond the traditional classroom setting, encompassing community-based initiatives and awareness programs. By scrutinizing both formal and non-formal education, the study aims to offer a holistic perspective on their collective impact in effectively reducing the risks associated with disasters.

   2. Disaster Risk Reduction Through Formal and Informal Education

      In contemporary societies, the operation of social entities is inconceivable without the adoption of suitable structural and non-structural measures for reducing the risk of disasters (Cvetković and Filipović 2017; Cvetković et al. 2017a, b, c). Certainly, one of the most important measures of non-structural risk reduction from increasingly serious and frequent consequences of disasters is education. Education has become one of the most powerful weapons applied in all spheres of integrated disaster risk management. Admittedly, it should be borne in mind that education is a complex and interactive psychological process in which the transfer of knowledge from different fields is carried out in a planned and clearly grounded manner in the form of a kind of transfer.

      Starting from different forms of education, such as formal, non-formal and informal education, each of these types of education has its clear advantages and disadvantages that should be taken into account when creating educational programs (Jakovljević et al. 2015). A great deal of academic thinking is directed towards finding a genuine connection between the success and quality of education in the field of disaster studies and integrated disaster risk reduction. In all these studies (Cvetković et al. 2017a, b, c; Cvetković and Filipović 2018a, b, c; Ivanov and Cvetković 2014; Stanišić and Maksić 2014), the general conclusion is that disaster education is one of the basic prerequisites for improving the resilience of society at all levels. However, the importance of education should not be taken literally without including other important elements in the disaster risk reduction process. Namely, all structural measures to reduce the risk of disasters can be implemented, and if citizens are not sufficiently trained to use such measures, there may be inconsistencies in the functioning of the protection systems provided for in this way.

      There is a growing awareness of the impact of disasters on society. The establish- ment of the UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, “Enabling all societies to be resilient to the effects of natural hazards and related technological and environ- mental disasters, to reduce human, economic and social losses”, has proven to be an effective platform for worldwide discussion. The publication Living with Risk was

      a turning point. Various extraterritorial entities have already released an extensive array of reports and publications about the handling of disasters.

      The response during a disaster can be broken down into an alarm phase and also into a recovery or reconstruction phase. During the critical alarm phase, authorities vested with competence must navigate a complex series of decisions, process a diverse array of information, and subsequently assess the reliability of this information. They are tasked with determining the pertinence of the advice provided, carefully weighing its relevance to their specific circumstances. Extensive research consistently underscores that the pivotal juncture for formulating an effec- tive response lies in the recognition of the threat as tangible and imminent. Within this context, citizens play a crucial role as they actively engage in evaluating the credibility of authorities or other entities disseminating warnings. The availability of disaster information is of great importance. There are three well-known myths about citizen response that continue to be presented as the basis for government disaster preparedness. The first myth tells about the panic of citizens in disasters. In fact, what is realistic is that the initial fear that strikes citizens in emergency situations quickly stops because they start looking for ways to ensure their own and others’ safety. Contrary to another prevailing myth suggesting citizens’ helplessness and dependence on external assistance, this research contradicts such notions. The study reveals that citizens are far from powerless; in fact, they often take the initiative in initiating search and rescue operations. Addressing a third noteworthy myth, it pertains to the occurrence of robberies during and after disasters, despite the fact that the governments of nearly all countries are actively developing legislation aimed at safeguarding the interests of law-abiding citizens (Helsloot and Ruitenberg 2004). Recognizing and dispelling such misconceptions is crucial for enhancing disaster and climate risk education, fostering a more informed and resilient global community.

      1. The Importance of Educational Policies for Disaster Risk Reduction

         Policies serve all spheres of social existence to systematically guide people’s activ- ities to achieve some projected goals. Viewed from that perspective, disaster risk reduction education policies occupy a special place in non-structural disaster risk reduction measures (Chicatto et al. 2015). Unfortunately, there is no educational policy in Serbia that would comprehensively and systematically design and imple- ment certain measures aimed at reducing the risk of disasters (Cvetković 2023). Regarding climate risk education policies in Serbia, we could say that Serbia recog- nizes the importance of climate risk education and has implemented policies to raise awareness about climate-related challenges. Also, the Serbian government is committed to integrating climate risk education into the national curriculum to ensure that citizens are well-informed about the environmental threats the country faces. Initiatives in Serbia aim to foster a culture of environmental responsibility through

         comprehensive climate risk education policies. Besides that, educational institutions in Serbia are incorporating climate change topics into various subjects, providing students with a holistic understanding of the risks and impacts associated with climate change. On the other side, Serbia’s climate risk education policies seek to empower communities by equipping them with the knowledge and skills needed to adapt to changing environmental conditions. Public awareness campaigns in Serbia play a crucial role in communicating climate-related information, encouraging sustainable practices, and fostering a sense of urgency regarding environmental issues. Climate risk education in Serbia emphasizes the interconnectedness of global climate issues and the role individuals can play in mitigating climate change.

         The International Institute for Educational Planning at UNESCO has developed a guide for designing disaster education, which contains five framework chapters (Gwee et al. 2011): the first chapter provides a general overview (introduction, prevention and preparation for disasters, challenges in disasters and reconstructions, capacity building, disaster education for all); the second chapter refers to the supple- ment and content (rural population, gender, ethnicity/religion/children with develop- mental disabilities, facilities, open and distance learning, non-formal education); the third chapter concerns teachers and students (identification, selection, educational workers, teaching and learning methods, social support for learning); the fourth refers to curriculum and learning (curriculum, health and hygiene education) and the fifth chapter refers to capacity management (assessment of needs and resources, planning process, project management, legal work frameworks, budget and financial management).

         Educational policies should include teaching plans and programs, ways or modal- ities of performing theoretical and practical exercises, as well as proposals for work- shops depending on the age of the students (Cvetković 2023). One step further, it is necessary to clearly indicate in them the thematic units that should be based on all the identified hazards that were recognized in the National Disaster Risk Assessment in the Republic of Serbia. In addition, it is important to point out that the educational policy should include ways of support from the competent state authorities in terms of financing and sustainable development of this type of education (Cvetković et al. 2018a; b).

         Starting from local specificities and regionalization of the risks themselves, educa- tional policies should also be harmonized with the concrete risks of the given area. This actually means that it is unnecessary to burden the students of a certain area with the characteristics of dangers that are not recognized at the national or regional-local level. In order to develop educational policies, it is first necessary to carry out an analysis of the existing situation in terms: (a) potential dangers characteristic of the given area; (b) existing educational plans and programs; (c) potential modalities of student education in the field of emergency situations; (d) available resources for financing such a system.

         In the second step, it is necessary to carry out the analysis, selection and prioriti- zation of the thematic units and then of the specific teaching units with the experts of the appropriate profiles. In doing so, it is necessary to take into account the content of the teaching unit itself, which should include more social than natural aspects of

         protection from such events. More concretely, students should not be burdened with content from the etiology of various natural and technical–technological hazards but should immediately focus on the genesis of the manifestation of harmful effects and ways of protection against them. In relation to the spatial dimension, educational policies to reduce the risk of disasters could be adopted at the national, regional or local level. Certainly, it is recommended that educational policies be coordinated with each other along horizontal and vertical lines.

      2. Strategic Aspects of the Importance of Disaster Education

         The general impression and view are that disasters, extraordinary events and all dangers affect all parts of the world, and all peoples do not know borders in terms of religion, nation, or culture. The existence and respect of universal measures and mechanisms for joint action to combat and prevent the occurrence of disaster risks is necessary. It is crucial to harmonize policies at the national level when it comes to disasters. Investing in sustainable development is no less important and important, and this applies not only to environmental management but also to political and economic management, from the family to the international level (Trim 2004).

         Also of primary importance is the cooperation of competent institutions at the state level. It is also necessary to eradicate corruption at all levels in order to prevent risks. Moreover, individuals engaged in disaster management should pay careful atten- tion to the media. The influence wielded by the media, when wielded irresponsibly, can give rise to numerous challenges. These challenges may include the dissemi- nation of panic, the unjust discrediting of those providing accurate guidance, and the hindrance of the implementation of essential measures during emergency situa- tions. It is imperative to recognize and address the potential ramifications of media dynamics in disaster scenarios to ensure effective communication and response strate- gies. If individuals do not have a developed understanding of the requirements for adopting preventive measures, infrastructure costs in all sectors of human existence may not be adequate. Even if the building has state-of-the-art fire protection equip- ment, poorly informed and informed people will not be able to use it in an emergency. It is necessary to nurture community knowledge in addition to individual awareness of dangers and ways to mitigate them, starting with the understanding that local self-government plays an irreplaceable role in this. Citizens must draw attention to the following issues: (a) the nature and characteristics of various natural and tech- nological dangers that are present around them; (b) the importance of taking actions to prepare and mitigate the effects of disasters; (c) protective measures implemented before, during and after disasters; and (g) potential for risk mitigation using various risk transfer mechanisms (insurance). Public education, group seminars and training sessions, as well as the creation and execution of numerous campaigns, can help increase awareness (Cvetković 2020).

         The goals of training for appropriate and correct response to disasters can be multiple (Alexander 2002, p. 2): (a) testing and evaluation of the allocation and coordination of local and regional resources; (b) demonstration of the possibility of alerting the public in certain periods; (v) testing alternative communication systems to be activated and functional within 90 min from the occurrence of the disaster;

         (g) demonstration of the ability of the personnel in the headquarters to function at the operational level and make valid decisions; (d) testing the possibility of enabling the initial assessment of disasters within four hours; (đ) demonstrating the ability to provide food, communications and administrative, logistical support to the head- quarters staff; (e) demonstrating the ability to verify the existence of certain events or dangers and (h) assessing the possibility of the participation of various intervention and rescue services (Alexander 2002).

   3. Schools and Disaster Risk Reduction

      1. The Role of Primary Schools in Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Risk Education

         Elementary schools represent a kind of pillar of education in every country (Suarmika et al. 2022). The basic characteristic of primary education is reflected in the contin- uous transfer of knowledge from different subjects, that is, scientifically based disci- plines, in terms of their awareness of certain thematic entities. Students of a certain age attend classes in them, and all teaching content is adapted to their age level, that is, appropriate didactic and methodical methods are applied. Leaving aside the basic teaching content, unfortunately, in Serbia, there is no subject within which students in primary schools would be comprehensively educated on the issues of etiology of endangerment and protection of people in emergencies (Cvetković et al. 2016; Cvetković 2016a, b). Nevertheless, based on the all-purpose support of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the RS, and the Department for Emergency Situations, certain lectures are organized on various topics such as floods, fires, landslides, earthquakes, etc.

         Judging by the insufficiently systematized education of students in the field of emergencies in the RS, one can point out the insufficient responsibility of society to protect the most vulnerable categories, such as children up to the age of 14 and young people up to the age of 18. In developed countries, such as Germany and Japan, there are special plans and programs following which the education of students of that age is carried out, and the education methods themselves are very original and include various demonstration exercises such as demonstrations of how to extinguish fires, reacting in earthquake situations etc.

         Climate risk education refers to the incorporation of climate-related topics into educational curricula, aiming to equip individuals, particularly students, with knowl- edge and understanding of the risks associated with climate change. This form of

         education covers a range of subjects, including the science of climate change, its impacts on ecosystems and communities, and strategies for mitigation and adapta- tion. In many cases, climate risk education is increasingly recognized as essential for building a resilient and environmentally conscious society. Primary schools play a crucial role in laying the foundation for environmental awareness and responsibility. While the extent to which climate risk education is integrated into primary school curricula can vary globally, there is a growing trend towards incorporating these topics at early educational levels.

      2. The Role of Secondary and Higher Schools in Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Risk Education

         In contrast to primary education, secondary and higher education present the oppor- tunity to employ a broader range of methods and educational resources for enhancing awareness and knowledge in the realm of emergencies. The more advanced educa- tional levels allow for the implementation of diverse approaches, facilitating a richer learning experience through varied instructional materials and methodologies. Starting from the very characteristics of students to whom knowledge is transferred, it is possible to use more available terminology, which, unlike students in the primary school system, is simply impossible to use due to their understanding. Of course, the modalities of education in the field of disasters can differ according to the types of secondary schools, i.e. whether they are vocational or general education schools (Cvetković et al. 2019a; Cvetković et al. 2018a, b, c, d; Cvetković, Noji, et al. 2018a, b, c, d).

         Consequently, in secondary technical schools, students will receive certain prior knowledge in the field of technical–technological hazards, while in secondary schools of the general education system, it will be much more difficult (Cvetković and Filipović 2020; Cvetkovic and Martinović 2020; Cvetković and Svrdlin 2020). Despite organized attempts by academic organizations to introduce a subject that could be called “Safety culture”, one gets the impression that society is still not suffi- ciently interested in this type of education. The justification for such bad decisions is based on the argument that such teaching content can be implemented within the framework of other subjects, and indirectly, one gets the impression that the decision- makers themselves are not aware of the importance of such a subject (Cvetković et al. 2020a, b; Cvetković et al. 2018a, b, c, d; Cvetković 2017; Cvetković 2019a, b).

         Leaving aside the numerous imperfections of the functioning of society in Serbia, the question arises as to how all this is reflected in the level of the society’s resilience to disasters. Practice shows that by far, the largest number of people were saved in the first few hours after the manifestation of the disaster by neighbours or other people who happened to be nearby. Therefore, the members of the intervention and rescue services will not be able to provide help to all endangered people in a short period, and therefore it is necessary to make people active participants in the

         protection and rescue system and not passive victims who will wait for help from the competent intervention and rescue services. To achieve this, it is necessary that there are organized attempts by society to raise awareness and knowledge to a higher level and that the necessary strategic orientations be carried out. On the contrary, societies that are more developed and in which knowledge has taken an appropriate position better recognize the relevance of such activities, while on the other hand, everything in Serbia is exposed to devaluation and undermining of society’s resilience. In 2007, an international conference on school safety was held, which recognized the importance of ensuring the education of every child, as well as living in a safe environment to achieve zero per cent mortality of children in schools due to natural disasters. For these reasons, the following priorities are foreseen: disaster education will be implemented in schools; school facilities and other infrastructure must be disaster- resistant; strengthen the education of local community members to make them more resilient to disasters; make schools safer ( Cvetković and Filipović 2018a, b, c).

         The significance of secondary and higher educational institutions in advancing climate risk education in Serbia cannot be overstated, as they play a pivotal role in promoting environmental awareness and fostering sustainable practices. The evolution of ecological education in the country has traversed distinctive phases, progressing from marked anthropocentrism to the present era of dominant ecocen- trism. While primary schools establish the groundwork for environmental conscious- ness, secondary and higher schools assume a critical function in augmenting students’ comprehension and encouraging a more comprehensive engagement with issues related to climate (Stanišić 2019). Within the realm of the educational process, noteworthy advancements have been made in secondary and higher education by seamlessly integrating ecological and sustainable development content into existing subjects. Moreover, the inclusion of elective courses dedicated to ecological educa- tion significantly contributes to a more holistic curriculum. Beyond the confines of traditional classrooms, extracurricular activities have undergone enrichment with ecological content, aligning with overarching educational policies that delineate planned initiatives in this domain. Nevertheless, persistent challenges are discernible. A conspicuous gap exists between the acquired ecological knowledge and the indi- vidual actions taken in daily life to preserve the environment. Additionally, interdis- ciplinary approaches and project-based learning, validated by numerous studies for their efficacy, are not yet universally implemented in pedagogical practices.

         To effectively address these challenges and chart a course for future developments, recommendations advocate for a concentrated effort to create opportunities that facil- itate authentic, receptive, and reflective student engagement with nature. This neces- sitates the implementation of successful pedagogical approaches, including inter- disciplinary methods and project-based learning. The augmentation of extracurric- ular activities, encompassing the enhancement of existing initiatives such as field trips and nature classes, alongside the introduction of novel programs like ecological camps, holds promise in bridging the divide between theoretical knowledge and direct experiential learning in nature (Stanišić 2019). Notably, financial considerations are underscored, accentuating the imperative for increased investments in ecological education. Substantial funding would empower educational institutions to bolster

         their capacities, enrich educational resources, and provide comprehensive training for teaching staff. In summation, the recommendations underscore the pivotal role of a multifaceted approach encompassing pedagogical strategies, extracurricular activ- ities, and financial support to fortify the role of secondary and higher educational institutions in advancing climate risk education in Serbia.

      3. Disaster Risk Reduction and Environmental Education Programs

         In the scholarly discourse, considerable emphasis is placed on the pivotal role that schools play in equipping children to cope with disasters, as underscored by various researchers (Suarmika et al. 2022; Yusuf et al. 2021). The significance of this role is magnified by specific contextual factors. Generally, the vulnerability of youth to disasters diminishes significantly when they are equipped with pertinent informa- tion, and essential resources, and are actively engaged in disaster preparedness and response activities. Moreover, access to personal and community support further fortifies their resilience in the face of potential disasters. It is worth noting that the active participation of young individuals in processes related to disaster risk reduction extends beyond individual benefits, extending its impact to national and local levels. Involving youth in such initiatives, not only enhances their capacity to navigate and withstand disasters, but it also yields broader advantages for the community and the nation as a whole. This proactive engagement establishes a foun- dation for fostering a culture of preparedness, community cohesion, and an informed citizenry capable of responding effectively to unforeseen challenges. Consequently, schools serve as vital institutions for imparting not only academic knowledge but also practical skills and a sense of collective responsibility, contributing to the overall resilience of communities in the face of potential disasters.

         For example, in southern Thailand, during the disaster caused by the tsunami in 2004, young people who actively participated in the management processes during the mentioned event had a significant role and comprehensive support in the processes of direct or indirect assistance to their own and other people’s families, as well as to local communities. By transferring knowledge and experience among young people, it is possible to reduce the risk of disasters through processes of mutual support and guidance. A study conducted in Serbia (Krnjić and Cvetković 2021a, b) revealed that a significant majority of participants rely on the Internet as their primary source of information regarding disasters, with almost half of the respondents (185 individuals, or 49.2%) expressing this preference. Additionally, 105 respondents (27.9%) reported obtaining information through public channels, while 40 participants (11.2%) indi- cated that family conversations were a source of awareness. Interestingly, a mere 28 students (7.4%) mentioned learning about disasters through formal education at school. The smallest proportion, comprising 16 respondents (4.3%), attributed their awareness of disasters to social and video games. These findings highlight the diverse

         sources from which individuals gather information about disasters, underscoring the need for comprehensive and varied educational approaches.

         Environmental education in Serbia plays a crucial role in shaping students’ aware- ness of environmental protection. The initial recognition of its importance occurred at the First Congress of Ecologists in Yugoslavia in 1973, as noted by Radović (1996). Since this recognition became official, there has been significant progress in integrating the content and activities of environmental education into the regular curricula of primary schools throughout the country. Although environmental topics have been present in school programs for the past two decades, it has been observed that students are not sufficiently motivated to translate their knowledge into practical action. This challenge underscores the need for stronger integration and coordination among different subjects to stimulate student engagement. Enhancing environmental education requires not only teaching strategies that encourage active student partici- pation but also promoting awareness of the importance of preserving the environment. Through the collaborative efforts of teachers, curriculum development, and motiva- tion, a deeper understanding of environmental challenges can be achieved, fostering long-term changes in attitudes toward the environment.

      4. Comparative Practice of School Education in the Field of Disaster Risk Reduction

         According to research, children can learn how to take disaster precautions and the best place for them to learn these skills is at school (Coates 2021; Johnson et al. 2014; Luna 2012; Nakano et al. 2020). In 2004, the English Government sent to all households a corresponding brochure with advice on how to react in disaster conditions, as well as advice on how to turn off gas, electricity, etc. Therefore, in that brochure, citizens are advised on how to best protect themselves and help others. However, in the period after that and everything that followed, it can be said that there was no significant effect (Page et al. 2008). Namely, after one year, on July 7, 2005, a bomb attack took place in London, on that occasion, 52 passengers were killed, and many people were directly or indirectly affected by this event. In the survey after the mentioned event, respondents were asked whether they had read the brochure. However, slightly more than half of the respondents refused to receive the brochure, even though the government sent a copy to every household. Only 300 people (52.3%) confirmed receiving the brochure, while 239 (41.6%) people said they had read the same brochure. It can be said that the receipt of the brochure influenced the collection of supplies but not the development of plans for adequate disaster response (Page et al. 2008).

         The literature has recommended certain components that are necessary for the development of disaster education programs, including (1) adopting a disaster management perspective that supports teaching protective behaviours before and during disasters, (2) using a gradual sequence of learning activities throughout

         the school years, and (3) incorporating activities that facilitate interaction between children and parents (Ronan and Johnston 2001).

         In Germany, there are two master’s degree programs directly related to emer- gency and disaster management, which are implemented within the framework of two schools and several universities. Namely, continuing education in the field of disaster prevention and disaster management is offered by the University of Bonn in cooperation with the Federal Office for Civil Protection and Disaster Relief (BBK). It is interdisciplinary and teaches actions and key competencies that are useful and necessary for sustainable disaster risk reduction and, therefore, sustainable disaster management. The course is intended for university graduates who have at least three years of relevant professional experience and wish to obtain further academic qualifications (https://www.uni-bonn.de/).

         In the Czech Republic, certain aspects of disaster reduction are incorporated into the curriculum within physics and chemistry subjects from primary to secondary school, catering to students aged 10 to 15. Secondary schools specifically integrate components of disaster prevention into their programs. However, educating adults poses a greater challenge. Although the mass media occasionally covers disaster risk reduction, it lacks a systematic approach. Notably, public interest in disaster risk reduction tends to surge during actual disasters (Education 2007). This indicates a need for more structured and consistent adult education programs and media engage- ment in promoting disaster awareness and preparedness. When it comes to China, it should be emphasized that Article 30 of the “Law on Emergency Response of the People’s Republic of China” stipulates that schools of all levels and types incor- porate education about emergencies into their curriculum, educate students about disaster knowledge and foster students’ awareness of safety and self-rescue and the ability to rescue each other. To improve safety awareness and the ability to respond to disasters in the whole society, it is emphasized that it is necessary to educate students about knowledge about disasters in the stage of school education. Colleges and universities should educate students on disaster prevention and emergency rescue knowledge according to the characteristics of disciplines and majors (http://www. jyb.cn/rmtzcg).

         In China, May 12 is designated as the National “Disaster Prevention and Reduction Day”, to conduct disaster prevention education for the general public and students and promote disaster prevention awareness, disaster prevention knowledge and disaster prevention skills. Education on disaster prevention in schools only started with the adoption of the five-year plan for comprehensive national prevention and disaster risk reduction. Education on disaster prevention is incorporated into the national education system and education on disaster prevention and knowledge on disaster mitigation. On the other hand, compared to elementary and middle schools and kindergartens, colleges and universities are relatively slow in disaster prevention education. In the implementation of disaster prevention education, there is a common phenomenon of emphasizing theory over practice and emphasizing form over real effect, the construction of a curriculum system for disaster education is lacking (http:// www.jyb.cn).

         An extensive seven-hour program has been meticulously crafted for students across secondary, primary, and preschool education levels in France. Within secondary education, each school designates a “correspondent” for the program, a role that can be assumed by either a teacher or a parent. The primary responsibility of these assistants is to support teachers in addressing challenges and to enhance awareness of the principles outlined in the Prevention-First Gestures program among their peers. Additionally, these assistants are tasked with organizing local risk exhibi- tions. At the elementary school level, the lead teacher imparts training to students on appropriate reactions and behaviours during emergencies. Meanwhile, in preschool settings, the designated correspondent guides students to observe adults and prac- tice fundamental “first gestures”. Between 1996 and December 2002, a substantial number of individuals, exceeding 6,200, in the Grasse area actively participated in diverse training programs. Since 1999, the program has engaged over 3,300 students, encompassing 663 prevention assistants, 153 lead teachers, and 166 school teachers. This concerted effort has involved the participation of more than 5,000 students and 300 adults in comprehensive training programs, underscoring the commitment to promoting disaster preparedness and awareness (Education 2007).

   4. Curricula and Programs in the Field of Disaster Risk Reduction

      1. Basic Characteristics of Educational Programs in the Field of Disasters

         Globally, a plethora of educational programs in the field of disaster studies have been established, as evidenced by scholarly works such as those by Boon and Pagliano (2014), Faupel et al. (1992), and Johnson et al. (2016). Within this domain, Johnson et al. (2014) conducted a significant study that methodically delved into the land- scape of evaluating the effectiveness of disaster education programs for children. The crux of their research lay in conducting a meticulous review of the methodological literature to ascertain how scholars and practitioners presently measure and assess the impact of disaster education programs through evaluations. A systematic explo- ration of published literature unveiled 35 relevant studies, which were then analysed to formulate a comprehensive categorization of operational components within the existing body of research.

         This categorization encompassed various facets, including the types and sources of evaluations, research methods and designs, research participants, outcome indicators, analysis approaches, and inherent research limitations. By methodically examining these elements, the study aimed to contribute to a nuanced understanding of the current state of evaluating disaster education programs for children, shedding light on both the strengths and limitations within the existing research landscape. As asserted by Johnson et al. (2014), a substantial insight emerges from their analysis:

         the majority of insights into the efficacy of disaster education programs for children derive from quantitative studies primarily centred on assessing children’s awareness of disaster risks, protective measures, and their self-reported preparedness actions. The effectiveness of programs in most descriptive and quasi-experimental studies is often gauged by the percentage of positive shifts in children’s accurate responses in surveys. Likewise, correlational studies frequently establish a link between positive outcomes, such as enhanced household preparedness, and children’s engagement in disaster education programs. Despite these findings, the authors underscore the noteworthy prevalence of methodological limitations across many studies. Notably, they highlight a critical gap in empirical evidence concerning how disaster education programs influence children’s contributions to household preparedness, their self- protective capabilities, and their inclination to prepare for disasters in adulthood, despite indications of valuable knowledge changes. In addition to emphasizing the imperative to identify and refine program theory and meaningful outcome indicators, the authors propose various avenues for future research. This includes exploring the multifaceted ways in which disaster education programs shape children’s roles in household preparedness, bolster their capacity for self-protection, and influence their long-term preparedness behaviours as they transition into adulthood.

         The multidimensionality of resilience (Cvetković et al. 2021a, b, c, d, e; Cvetković and Filipović 2018a, b, c; Cvetković and Filipović 2017), which is based on the national, local and individual level, is primarily based on having an appropriate level of knowledge and awareness in the field of disasters, which indicates the necessity of having developed and high-quality educational programs in the field of disaster studies. Nevertheless, an examination of assessments of disaster education initia- tives aimed at children has unearthed substantial voids in the evidential foundation regarding the effectiveness of these programs (Back et al. 2009). Both the US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and UNICEF have meticulously cata- logued a diverse array of educational initiatives for children in the context of disas- ters across the globe. These initiatives encompass formal and informal programs within communities, schools, and extracurricular activities, often receiving support from either governmental or private entities (FEMA 2010). The growing emphasis on the development and investment in disaster education programs for children is indicative of the international consensus that these educational endeavours yield discernible benefits for individual and community disaster resilience. However, numerous scholars assert that a critical dearth of formal evaluations hampers the ability to assess the efficacy of these programs in achieving desired learning and behavioural outcomes (Ronan and Towers 2014).

         In line with this, Johnson et al. (2014) contend that, to fulfil the ambitious objec- tives of reshaping the culture of safety and resilience, children’s disaster education programs must exhibit both efficacy and scalability. A majority of existing studies gauge the outcomes of ad hoc disaster education initiatives implemented for a limited number of children. Given the pivotal aim of the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005– 2015 to integrate disaster education into school curricula, there is a compelling need for research into national curriculum integration processes. Such research would not only aid in identifying scalable models but would also facilitate the incorporation

         of disaster education within broader academic subjects, such as science, geography, and social studies (Johnson et al. 2014). This strategic approach holds the potential to pave the way for widespread adoption and replication of successful models on an international scale.

         As outlined by Cvetković (2020), a pivotal aspect of curricula lies in the eleva- tion of citizens’ awareness on several fronts: (a) comprehending the nature and attributes of diverse natural and technical–technological hazards that encompass their surroundings; (b) recognizing the significance of adopting measures to alleviate and prepare for disasters; (c) understanding the protective measures to be implemented in different phases—pre-disaster, during the event, and in the aftermath; and (d) grasping the potential for risk mitigation through diverse mechanisms, including risk transfer methods like insurance. The cultivation of heightened awareness is a multi- faceted endeavour that can be actualized through public information dissemination, the orchestration of collective training sessions and workshops, and the conception and execution of various campaigns explicitly tailored to augment the awareness levels of both individual citizens and society at large (Cvetković 2020).

      2. Representation and Diversity of Disaster and Climate Risk Topics in Curricula

         The significance of education in disaster risk reduction has received notable attention across various international platforms, encompassing agendas, frameworks, confer- ences, and United Nations programs. Spanning from the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction to the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, and progressing through the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005–2015 to the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030, the global consensus under- scores the pivotal role education plays in mitigating the impact of disasters. In Japan, formal education takes a dual-pronged approach to addressing natural disas- ters, involving both subject-specific learning and extracurricular activities. Within formal education, a focus on particular subject areas, particularly the social sciences and scientific disciplines related to the natural landscape, the causes of natural disas- ters, and their repercussions on human populations, is evident. However, despite recognizing the necessity for an interdisciplinary approach, the treatment of natural disasters often remains compartmentalized within specific subject domains. Natural education and social studies, for instance, tend to address the natural and social environments separately, lacking a comprehensive integration of the two.

         Concurrently, extracurricular educational activities occurring beyond regular teaching hours place a heightened emphasis on practical engagement rather than delving deeply into the scientific underpinnings of natural disasters. This practical approach manifests in activities like disaster drills and the development of disaster prevention manuals. Notably, the emphasis in these activities is often placed on pragmatic aspects, such as life-saving techniques and evacuation training, focusing

         on actions during and after a natural disaster (Fujioka 2016). In terms of curriculum development for disaster risk reduction, a technical guide divides the process into four distinct stages. This systematic breakdown facilitates a clear and easily understand- able depiction of the development process, presenting it in a format that can be seam- lessly adapted into a checklist for various stakeholders involved in the educational landscape (UNICEF 2014):

         1. Initial planning and preparation of the terrain: determining the need for curriculum development and building a broad-based consensus around the need; uniting interested parties around a common need; conducting “state-of- the-art” research into the existing curriculum, its functioning and implementa- tion through a review of the curriculum, a basic study or a needs assessment; consensus building around specific needs revealed through “state-of-the-art” research; determining the focus (curriculum and class location) for curriculum development; establishing a schedule, with milestones and deadlines, for the curriculum development process; forming a team for curriculum development, determining the roles and responsibilities of the team members and establishing a modus operandi for cooperation, teamwork and meetings.
         2. Crafting the curriculum involves several key steps: delineating the desired learning outcomes, encompassing knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviours; meticulously selecting and arranging curriculum content to effectively achieve the specified outcomes; transforming chosen content into age-appropriate learning materials; creating engaging learning activities supported by relevant materials to bring about decisive outcomes; scrutinizing and assessing existing teaching materials and activities to ascertain their potential inclusion in the curriculum, thus avoiding redundancy; actively seeking feedback from stake- holders, including panels of seasoned educators, on curriculum materials and making revisions as needed.
         3. Executing the curriculum involves a phased approach: pinpointing schools and educators for the initial pilot implementation of the new curriculum; providing comprehensive training to pilot teachers to adeptly instruct in alignment with the new curriculum; overseeing, monitoring, and evaluating the pilot implemen- tation; refining teaching materials and training activities based on the evaluation outcomes; conducting subsequent rounds of teacher training and pilot testing, gradually expanding to involve a larger pool of learners and educators; executing widespread teacher training initiatives following their participation in ‘training of trainers’ events; incorporating new materials and activities into pre-service teacher training; ensuring the formal endorsement of the curriculum by national, regional, or local educational authorities.

         Oversight, assessment, and enhancement of the curriculum: Formulating strate- gies for systematic data collection to periodically evaluate the impact and calibre of the updated curriculum. This involves assessing its efficacy in attaining antici- pated learning outcomes and discerning any unanticipated effects, whether positive or negative. Compiling comprehensive reports on the monitoring and evaluation processes is essential. Additionally, instituting mechanisms for routine revisions to

         the curriculum based on the insights garnered from the evaluation process is crucial. This iterative approach ensures a dynamic and responsive curriculum that aligns with evolving educational needs and goals.

         The incorporation of environmental content into primary school curricula is preva- lent, with ecological themes seamlessly integrated across various subjects. Unlike some educational systems, there is not a dedicated subject specifically focusing on Ecology or Environmental Education at the primary school level. Instead, the emphasis lies on embedding ecological content within the frameworks of different subjects, primarily those falling under the umbrella of natural sciences (Stanišić and Maksić 2014). Despite early proposals advocating for Ecology as a distinct and compulsory subject, efforts faced challenges. The First Congress of Ecologists in Yugoslavia initially proposed the idea of making ecology a mandatory subject at all educational levels. However, subsequent international gatherings showcased diverse opinions on this matter. Presently, the educational approach favours the integration of ecological topics within existing subjects rather than having a standalone subject. This current perspective emphasizes that ecological principles should be interwoven into various disciplines, offering students a multidimensional understanding of envi- ronmental issues. Critics argue that designating a specific subject to Ecology might not necessarily lead to a more profound understanding if treated in isolation. Instead, the integrated approach allows students to explore ecological concepts within the context of different subjects, fostering a more interconnected understanding of the environment. While there were early initiatives to establish Ecology as a standalone subject in our primary schools, the prevailing trend leans towards integrating ecolog- ical content across various subjects. This approach reflects a holistic perspective, aiming to provide students with a comprehensive and interconnected understanding of ecological principles within the broader context of their education.

      3. Education of Teaching Staff for the Needs of Education in the Field of Disasters

         To actualize education focused on disasters, it becomes imperative for educational strategies not only to envision the methods of instruction but also to intricately consider the educational background of the instructors themselves. This sparks a pivotal discourse revolving around the question of whether educators delivering such content should be drawn from those currently teaching established subjects like geography or chemistry, or if the role is better suited for individuals with a university background in the field of security. This deliberation unfolds as a critical consideration, prompting an exploration of the merits and drawbacks inherent in each proposed alternative.

         Teachers who are already teaching within the framework of the existing curricula could, within their thematic units, implement teaching in the field of emergency situations as well. In addition, resources would be saved because there would be

         no need for additional employment. On the other hand, if teachers were hired for these needs who would be specialized in this type of teaching in the mentioned field, additional perfection would be achieved in terms of the teaching units themselves. It is advisable for individuals to have graduated from the Faculty of Security and successfully completed the study program focusing on the management of emer- gency situations and environmental security. In this sense, it is necessary to define an educational policy as soon as possible, within which the prerequisites that should be met by teachers who would perform such classes would be defined in advance. In other developed countries, different practices are applied, according to which there are different modalities mentioned above. Certainly, it is recommended to carry out all necessary additional analyses within certain project activities and to clearly determine all advantages and disadvantages.

   5. Conclusion

The role of schools in reducing the risk of disasters is an unavoidable topic in all world agendas where innovative solutions for mitigating the consequences of disas- ters are discussed. Today, it has become unthinkable to discuss structural disaster risk reduction measures without referring to the importance of education in that process. Unfortunately, in Serbia, little attention is paid to educating citizens about disaster risk reduction, which could be the result of mistaken beliefs that it is one of the marginal topics in the disaster risk management process itself. Although calls for the introduction of the subject safety culture in schools could be heard in several places, the decision-makers explicitly refuse to include such a subject in primary and secondary schools in Serbia. The reasons for such decisions can be found in insufficient knowledge of the area of risk reduction and not giving adequate impor- tance to such non-structural measures of risk reduction. Unfortunately, there is still no sufficient consensus in Serbia regarding the necessity and importance of intro- ducing the subject of security culture. One gets the impression that all other content is prioritized more than security content.

The reason for such a situation can also be found in the fact that there is still a socialist view of security, according to which citizens should not take measures, but the competent state authorities, such as the police, fire-rescue units, emergency medical services, etc. However, practice shows that the largest number of people were saved by neighbours or other friends who happened to be nearby at the time when the harmful effects of disasters, such as shock and heat waves, radioactive radiation, biological contamination, etc., were manifested. Also, one of the famous examples of the power of knowledge in the field of disaster studies is the girl Tilly Smith, who saved her peers on the shores of the Indian Ocean when she warned them that the retreat of water towards the centre of the ocean meant that a tsunami would occur. She then warned the teacher who started the evacuation of the children who survived, thanks to that. Regardless of all that, it is necessary to continue improving theoret- ical knowledge and implementing practical training in Serbia. Certainly, in future

planning documents, it is very important to highlight the importance of education in the field of disaster studies and to further develop all possible ways of its realization. In addition, it is important to improve curricula and programs in the field of emer- gencies. To achieve this, it is recommended to introduce the subject safety culture in primary and secondary schools.

The significance of this chapter lies in shedding light on the critical role of schools in disaster risk reduction, a topic of undeniable importance in global discussions on innovative strategies to mitigate the aftermath of disasters. The text emphasizes that contemporary deliberations on structural measures for disaster risk reduction are incomplete without acknowledging the pivotal role of education in this process. The paper underscores a concerning trend in Serbia, where minimal attention is directed towards educating citizens about disaster risk reduction. This negligence may stem from misconceptions that view it as a peripheral aspect within the broader disaster risk management framework. Despite calls for the inclusion of a safety culture subject in schools, decision-makers in Serbia resist its incorporation into primary and secondary education, citing insufficient knowledge of risk reduction and a lack of recognition for non-structural risk reduction measures. The text identifies a potential reason for this situation in the lingering socialist perspective that advocates citizens should not take individual measures but rely on competent state authorities. However, practical examples reveal that, in reality, community members, such as neighbours and friends, play a crucial role in saving lives during disasters.

Highlighting the power of knowledge in disaster studies, the text references the inspiring case of Tilly Smith, who, armed with her understanding, saved her peers from a tsunami. Despite such examples, the need for continuous improvement in theoretical knowledge and practical training in Serbia is emphasized. The paper advocates for future planning documents to underscore the importance of education in disaster studies, urging the development of various avenues for its implementation. Furthermore, it stresses the need to enhance curricula and programs related to emer- gencies, recommending the introduction of a safety culture subject in primary and secondary schools. In essence, the paper calls for a paradigm shift in Serbia towards recognizing the central role of education in fostering resilience and preparedness in the face of disasters.

The integration of disaster and climate risk education into educational curricula is crucial. It is recommended to incorporate specific modules on disasters and climate risks into relevant academic programs across all levels of education. This integration could span subjects such as geography, biology, chemistry, and other natural and social sciences. Empowering educators is essential for effective implementation. Regular training sessions and seminars should be organized to enhance teachers’ understanding and delivery of content related to disasters and climate risks. Addi- tionally, specific courses or certification programs focusing on this area should be developed for teachers. Active community involvement is key. Schools and educa- tional institutions should actively engage local communities in disaster education programs. Workshops, lectures, or simulations could be organized to raise aware- ness about natural risks and disaster preparedness among the local population. Leveraging modern technologies is imperative. The introduction of technological

resources, such as interactive guides, simulations, and online courses, can enhance disaster and climate risk education. Developing applications or platforms that facil- itate access to information on climate risks and provide guidance on appropriate actions is recommended. Establishing partnerships with governmental bodies, non- governmental organizations, and international collaborators will facilitate the sharing of best practices and resources.

Building a network that supports ongoing education on disasters and climate risks is critical. Enhancing capacity in disaster and climate risk education in Serbia is vital for constructing a resilient society. The holistic approach involves integrating this field into the educational system, empowering educators, actively engaging local communities, and leveraging modern technologies. These initiatives not only prepare citizens at all levels for the challenges associated with disasters and climate change but also contribute to overall societal security and sustainability. Collaboration with relevant partners and continuous monitoring and adaptation of these initiatives will further strengthen national capacities in this critical area.

References

‌Aktar MA, Shohani K, Hasan MN, Hasan MK (2021) Flood vulnerability assessment by flood vulnerability index (FVI) method: a study on Sirajganj Sadar Upazila. Int J Disaster Risk Manage 3(1):1–14

‌Alexander DE (2002) Principles of emergency planning and management. Oxford University Press on Demand

‌Back E, Cameron C, Tanner T (2009) Children and disaster risk reduction: taking stock and moving forward

‌Boon HJ, Pagliano PJ (2014) Disaster education in Australian schools. Aust J Environ Educ 30(2):187–197

‌Carla SRG (2019) School-community collaboration: disaster preparedness towards building resilient communities. Int J Disaster Risk Manage 1(2):45–59

‌Chicatto JA, Vieira R, Bohn N (2015) Disaster risk management and non-structural civil defense’s actions in the municipality of blumenau/SC. Pesquisa Em Educação Ambiental 10(2):124–143 Coates R (2021) Educational hazards? The politics of disaster risk education in Rio de Janeiro.‌

Disasters 45(1):86–106

‌Cruz RDD, Ormilla RCG (2022) Disaster risk reduction management implementation in the public elementary schools of the department of education, Philippines. Int J Disaster Risk Manage 4(2):1–15

‌Cvetković V (2019a) Risk perception of building fires in Belgrade. Int J Disaster Risk Manage 1(1):81–91

‌Cvetković V (2020) Upravljanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama [Disaster risk management].

Beograd: Naučno-stručno društvo za upravljanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama

‌Cvetković VPS, Janković B (2021) Private security preparedness for disasters caused by fires. J Criminalistic and Law, NBP 26(1)

Cvetković V, Bošković N, Ocal A (2021) Individual citizens’ resilience to disasters caused by floods: a case study of Belgrade. PREPRINT (Version 2) available at Research Square. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-923368/v2

‌Cvetković V, Dragašević A, Protić D, Janković B, Nikolić N, Milošević P (2022a) Fire safety behavior model for residential buildings: implications for disaster risk reduction. Int J Disaster Risk Reduction 75:102981

‌Cvetković V, Dragićevic S (2014) Spatial and temporal distribution of natural disasters. J Geogr Institute/Geogr Inst “Jovan Cvijić” 64(3):293–309‌

‌Cvetković V, Filipović M (2017) Research into students’ knowledge of the proper way of acting during natural disasters. Bezbjednost, Policija i Građani 13(2):105–121

Cvetković V, Filipović M (2018) Koncept otpornosti na katastrofe [Concept of disaster resilience].

Ecologica 25(89)

‌Cvetković V, Filipović M, Popović D, Ostojić G (2017a) Činioci uticaja na znanje o prirodnim katastrofama [Factors influencing knowledge about natural disasters]. Ecologica 24(85):121– 126

‌Cvetković V, Jakovljević V, Gačić J, Filipović M (2017b) Obuka građana za reagovanje u vanrednim situacijama [Citizen training for emergency response]. Ecologica 24(88):856–882

‌Cvetković V, Janković B (2020) Private security preparedness for disasters caused by natural and anthropogenic hazards. Int J Disaster Risk Manage 2(1)

‌Cvetković V, Jovanović M (2020) Examination of the factors that influence public perception of mythically-based human behavior in disaster conditions. Glasnik Srpskog Geografskog Drustva 100(2):161–179

‌Cvetković V, Kevin R, Shaw R, Filipović M, Mano R, Gačić J, Jakovljević V (2019a) Household earthquake preparedness in Serbia—a study from selected municipalities. Acta Geographica 59(2):27–43

‌Cvetković V, Martinović J (2021) Upravljanje u nuklearnim katastrofama [Nuclear Disaster Management]. Naučno-stručno društvo za upravljanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama, Beograd

‌Cvetković V, Milašinović S, LazićŽ (2018a) Examination of citizens’ attitudes towards providign support to vulnerable people and voluntereeing during disasters. J Social Sci, TEME 42(1):35–56

‌Cvetković V, Nikolić M (2021) The role of social networks in disaster risk reduction: a case study Belgrade. Bezbednost 61(3):25–42

‌Cvetković V, Nikolić N, Nenadić RU, Ocal A, Zečević M (2020a) Preparedness and preventive behaviors for a pandemic disaster caused by COVID-19 in Serbia. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17(11):4124

‌Cvetković V, Nikolić N, Ocal A, Martinović J, Dragašević A (2022b) A predictive model of pandemic disaster fear caused by coronavirus (COVID-19): implications for decision-makers. Int J Environ Res Public Health 19:652

‌Cvetković V, Noji E, Filipović M, Marija MP, Želimir K, Nenad R (2018b) Public risk perspectives regarding the threat of terrorism in belgrade: implications for risk management decision-making for individuals, communities and public authorities. J Criminal Invest Criminology/revija Za Kriminalistiko in Kriminologijo 69(4):279–298

‌Cvetković V, Öcal A, Ivanov A (2019b) Young adults’ fear of disasters: a case study of residents from Turkey, Serbia and Macedonia. Int J Disaster Risk Reduction 35:101095

‌Cvetković V, Öcal A, Lyamzina Y, Noji E, Milošević G, Jovanović M (2020) Public risk perception of nuclear power in Serbia: fear of exposure to radiation versus social benefits. Advance. Preprint, advance-13082240

‌Cvetković V, Öcal A, Lyamzina Y, Noji E, Nikolić N, Milošević G (2021b) Nuclear power risk perception in Serbia: fear of exposure to radiation versus social benefits. Energies 14:2464

‌Cvetković V, Pavlović S, Janković BD (2021c) Factors of influence on preparedness of the private security members for fire emergencies. NBP-J Criminalistics and Law 26(1):35–59

‌Cvetković V, Ristanović E, Gačić J (2018c) Citizens attitudes about the emergency situations caused by epidemics in Serbia. Iran J Public Health 47(8):1213–1214

‌Cvetković V, Roder GOA, Tarolli P, Dragićević S (2018d) The role of gender in preparedness and response behaviors towards flood risk in Serbia. Int J Environ Res Public Health 15(12):2761

‌Cvetković V, Stanišić J (2015) Relationship between demographic and environmental factors with knowledge of secondary school students on natural disasters, SASA. J Geogr Inst Jovan Cvijic 65(3):323–340

‌Cvetković VM (2016a) Fear and floods in Serbia: citizens preparedness for responding to natural disaster. Zbornik Matice Srpske Za Drustvene Nauke 155–156:303–324

‌Cvetković VM (2016b) The impact of the level of motivation on the preparedness of citizens of the Republic of Serbia to respond to natural disaster caused by flood. Vojno Delo 68(3):141–171

‌Cvetković VM (2017) Crises: readiness of state, local community and citizens. Vojno Delo 69(7):122–136

‌Cvetković VM (2019) First aid disaster kit for a family: A case study of Serbia. Archibald Reiss Days 9(1)

‌Cvetković VM, Bošković N (2021) Conceptual bases and dimensions of resilience to disasters. Zbornik radova Naučno-stručnog društva za upravljanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama i Međunarodnog instituta za istraživanje katastrofa, pp 175–191

‌Cvetković VM, Filipović B (2020) The survey of citizen attitudes toward preparedness for disasters caused by wildfires: case study: Prijepolje. Žurnal Za Bezbjednost i Kriminalistiku 2(2):11–24

‌Cvetković VM, Filipović M (2018) The role of the family in reducing risks of natural disasters.

Nauka, bezbednost, policija (NBP) 23(1):71–85

‌Cvetkovic VM, Martinović J (2020) Innovative solutions for flood risk management. Int J Disaster Risk Manage 2(2):71–100

‌Cvetković VM, Radovanović MP, Milašinović SM (2021d) Disaster risk communication: attitudes of Serbian citizens. Sociološki Pregled 55(4):1610–1647

‌Cvetković VM, Romanić S, Beriša H (2023) Religion influence on disaster risk reduction: a case study of Serbia. Int J Disaster Risk Manage 5(1):66–81

‌Cvetković VM, Svrdlin M (2020) The vulnerability of women from the consequences of a natural disaster: a case study of Svilajnac. Bezbednost, Beograd 62(3):43–61

‌Cvetković VM, Tanasić J, Ocal A, Kešetović Ž, Nikolić N, Dragašević A (2021e) Capacity devel- opment of local self-governments for disaster risk management. Int J Environ Res Public Health 18(19):10406

‌Cvetković VM, Todorović S (2020) Comparative analysis of disaster risk management policies in the region of South-East Europe, in press

‌Cvetković V (2023) Otpornost na katastrofe – Vodič za prevenciju, reagovanje i oporavak (Disaster resilience – A Guide to Prevention, Response, and Recovery). Beograd: Naučno-stručno društvo za upravljanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama

‌Cvetković V, Tarolli P, Roder G, Ivanov A, Ronan K, Ocam A, Kutub R (2017) Citizens education about floods: a Serbian case study. Paper presented at the VII International scientific conference Archibald Reiss days

‌Cvetković V, Milašinović S, Gostimirović L (2016) The impact of age on flood preparedness in Serbia. Int J Soc Sci Humanities, USA 6(10):10–23

‌Cvetković V, Rikanović S, Knežević S (2022) Resilience of society in disasters caused by nuclear accidents. In: IAI Academic Conference Proceedings, Budapest Conference, 5 May 2022

‌Cvetković VM, Filipović M (2018c) Ispitivanje uloge porodice u edukaciji dece o prirodnim katastrofama. Nauka, Bezbednost, Policija 23(1):71–85

‌Dukiya JJ, Banji Adeleye AB (2022) Remote sensing and GIS assessment of domestic fuel energy supply: a threat to global DRR crusade in south-western Nigeria. Int J Disaster Risk Manage 4(2):45–59

‌Education D (2007) Building Research Institute (BRI) and National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies (GRIPS). Tokyo, Japan

‌El-Mougher MM (2022) Level of coordination between the humanitarian and governmental organi- zations in Gaza Strip and its impact on the humanitarian interventions to the Internally Displaced People (IDPs) following May escalation 2021. Int J Disaster Risk Manage 4(2):15–45

‌El-Mougher MM, Abu Sharekh DSAM, Abu Ali MRF, Zuhud DEAAM (2023) Risk management of gas stations that urban expansion crept into in the Gaza strip. Int J Disaster Risk Manage 5(1):13–27

‌Faupel CE, Kelley SP, Petee T (1992) The impact of disaster education on household preparedness for Hurricane Hugo. Int J Mass Emerg Disasters 10(1):5–24

‌Federal Emergency Management Agency (2010) Youth emergency preparedness education paper.

Philadelphia, PA: Regional Advisory Council, FEMA Region III

‌Fujioka T (2016) Disaster prevention education in the Japanese school curricula in recent years: current status and future challenges. In: Disaster resilience of education systems. Springer, pp 39–52

‌Goyal N (2019) Disaster governance and community resilience: the law and the role of SDMAs.

Int J Disaster Risk Manage 1(2):61–75

‌Gwee QR, Shaw R, Takeuchi Y (2011) Disaster education policy: current and future. Emerald Group Publishing Limited, In Disaster education

‌Helsloot I, Ruitenberg A (2004) Citizen response to disasters: a survey of literature and some practical implications. J Contingencies Crisis Manage 12(3):98–111

‌Iftikhar A, Iqbal J (2023) The factors responsible for urban flooding in Karachi (a case study of DHA). Int J Disaster Risk Manage 5(1):81–103

‌Ivanov A, Cvetković V (2014) The role of education in natural disaster risk reduction. Horizons—Int Sci J 10(16):115–131

‌Jaiye DJ, Benjamine O (2021) Building resilience through local and international partnerships, Nigeria experiences. Int J Disaster Risk Manage 3(2):11–24

‌Jakovljević V, Cvetković V, Gačić J (2015) Prirodne katastrofe i obrazovanje (Natural disaster and education). Univerzitet u Beogradu, Fakultet bezbednosti, Beograd

‌Janković B (2021) The role of the police in disasters caused by pandemic infectious diseases. Int J Disaster Risk Manage 3(1):41–50

‌Janković B, Cvetković V (2020) Public perception of police behaviors in the disaster COVID-19— the Case of Serbia. Policing An Int J Police Strategies Manage

‌Johnson VA, Ronan KR, Johnston DM, Peace R (2014) Evaluations of disaster education programs for children: a methodological review. Int J Disaster Risk Reduction 9:107–123

‌Johnson VA, Ronan KR, Johnston DM, Peace R (2016) Improving the impact and implementa- tion of disaster education: programs for children through theory-based evaluation. Risk Anal 36(11):2120–2135

‌Kabir MH, Hossain T, Haque MW (2022) Resilience to natural disasters: a case study on southwestern region of coastal Bangladesh. Int J Disaster Risk Manage 4(2):91–105

‌Krnjić I, Cvetković V (2021a) Investigating student’s attitudes and preferences towards disaster learning multimedia to enhance preparedness. Bull Serbian Geogr Soc 101(2):79–96

‌Krnjić I, Cvetković V (2021) The role of multimedia content in educating young people about disasters. Pravni i bezbednosni aspekti upravljanja rizicima od prirodnih i antropogenih katas- trofa—Legal and security aspects of natural and man-made disaster risk management (Vol. 1): Scientific-Professional Society for Disaster Risk Management, Belgrade

‌Kulatunga U (2010) Impact of culture towards disaster risk reduction. Int J Strateg Prop Manag 14(4):304–313

‌Kumiko F, Shaw R (2019) Preparing international joint project: use of Japanese flood hazard map in Bangladesh. Int J Disaster Risk Manage 1(1):62–80

‌Lindell MK (2013) Disaster studies. Curr Sociol 61(5–6):797–825

‌Luna EM (2012) Education and disaster. In: The Routledge handbook of hazards and disaster risk reduction. Routledge, pp 750–760

‌Mano R, Kirshcenbaum A, Rapaport C (2019) Earthquake preparedness: a social media fit perspec- tive to accessing and disseminating earthquake information. Int J Disaster Risk Managem 1(2):19–31

‌Mohammed E-M, Maysaa J (2022) International experiences in sheltering the Syrian refugees in Germany and Turkey. Int J Disaster Risk Manage 4(1):1–15

‌Nakano G, Suwa S, Gautam A, Yamori K (2020) Long-term evaluation of proactive attitudes toward disaster education in Nepal. Int J Disaster Risk Reduction 50:101866

‌Öcal A (2019) Natural disasters in Turkey: social and economic perspective. Int J Disaster Risk Manage 1(1):51–61

‌Öcal A (2021) Disaster management in Turkey: a spatial approach. Int J Disaster Risk Manage 3(1):15–22

‌Ocal A, Cvetković V, Baytiyeh H, Tedim F, Zečević M (2020) Public reactions to the disaster COVID-19: a comparative study in Italy, Lebanon, Portugal, and Serbia. Geomat Nat Haz Risk 11(1):1864–1885

‌Odero NA, Mahiri I (2022) The complacency of flood victims, socio economic factors, and effects and vulnerabilities of floods in Lower Kano Plains, Kisumu County, Kenya. Int J Disaster Risk Manage 4(2):59–77

‌Page L, Rubin J, Amlôt R, Simpson J, Wessely S (2008) Are Londoners prepared for an emergency?

‌A longitudinal study following the London bombings. Biosecur Bioterror 6(4):309–319 Radović I (1996) Ekološko obrazovanje i zaštita životne sredine [Ecological education for envi-

ronmetal protection]. Vaspitanje i Obrazovanje, 5–6, 3–20; Alexander DE (2002) Principles of emergency planning and management. Oxford University Press on Demand

‌Rajani A, Tuhin R, Rina A (2023) The challenges of women in post-disaster health management: a study in Khulna District. Int J Disaster Risk Manage 5(1):51–66

‌Ronan KR, Johnston DM (2001) Correlates of hazard education programs for youth. Risk Anal 21(6):1055–1064

‌Ronan KR, Towers B (2014) Systems education for a sustainable planet: preparing children for natural disasters. Systems 2(1):1–23

‌Salleh SH, Yusof NAM (2013) A preliminary study on prepared culture amongst healthcare practitioners for nuclear and radiological emergency in Malaysia. Procedia Soc Behav Sci 81:416–421

‌Sergey K, Gennadiy N (2022) Methodology for the risk monitoring of geological hazards for buildings and structures. Int Jo Disaster Risk Manage 4(1):41–49

‌Shibru M, Operea A, Omondi P, Gichaba M (2022) Impact of 2016–2017 drought on household livestock assets and food security: the case of pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in Borana zone, southern Ethiopia. Int J Disaster Risk Manage 4(1):49–69

‌Stanišić J, Maksić S (2014) Environmental education in serbian primary schools: challenges and changes in curriculum, pedagogy, and teacher training. J Environ Educ 45(2):118–131

‌Stanišić J (2019) Ekološko obrazovanje u Srbiji: trenutno stanje i pravci razvoja. Obrazovanje u funkciji modernizacije društva, pp 30–33.

‌Suarmika PE, Arnyana IBP, Suastra IW, Margunayasa IG (2022) Reconstruction of disaster educa- tion: the role of indigenous disaster mitigation for learning in Indonesian elementary schools. Int J Disaster Risk Reduction 72:102874

‌UNICEF (2014) Towards a learning culture of safety and resilience: Technical guidance for integrating disaster risk reduction in the school curriculum. UNESCO

‌Yusuf R, Yunus M, Maimun M, Fajri I (2022) Environmental education: a correlational study among environmental literacy, disaster knowledge, environmental sensitivity, and clean-living behavior of post tsunami disaster in aceh communities, Indonesia. Polish J Environ Stud 31(1); Aktar MA, Shohani K, Hasan MN, Hasan MK (2021) Flood vulnerability assessment by flood vulnerability index (FVI) method: a study on Sirajganj Sadar Upazila. Int J Disaster Risk Manage 3(1):1–14

 

Chapter 18

Experiences of First Responders in Enhancing Disaster Education Capacity

Sefa Mızrak and Ramazan Aslan

Abstract First responders contribute to the community to be more resilient in disaster situations by using their disaster response skills. However, they encounter environmental, social, institutional, organizational and psychological problems while responding to disasters. The experiences and observations of those involved in disaster response are critical for the creation of more effective strategies for disaster education and training. This section revealed the experiences of sixteen people who participated in the response activities after the earthquakes that affected more than ten cities in Türkiye on February 6, 2023. The study was designed using a phenomenological model. Data were collected with semi-structured interview forms in September 2023 and analyzed with the Maxqda 2020 qualitative data analysis program. Consequently, four key themes emerged: benefits of disaster education, challenges and solution proposals about disaster education, training experiences in the disaster processes and suggestions for training topics. Participants stated that disaster education increased institutional capacity and provided social benefits. They also expressed many negative opinions about the content of the disaster training they received and its implementation during earthquakes and offered suggestions for future disaster training based on their experiences. The findings of this study will enhance the disaster education capacity in Türkiye and other countries experiencing similar challenges.

Keywords Earthquakes · Disaster education · Disaster experience · First responders · Türkiye

 

S. Mızrak (B)

Faculty of Health Sciences, Emergency Aid and Disaster Management Department, Gümüshane University, Gümüşhane, Türkiye

e-mail: sefamizrak1@gmail.com

R. Aslan

Faculty of Health Sciences, Emergency Aid and Disaster Management Department, Ardahan University, Ardahan, Türkiye

e-mail: ramazan.att.aslan@gmail.com

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2024

A. Yildiz and R. Shaw (eds.), Disaster and Climate Risk Education, Disaster Risk Reduction, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5987-3_18

325