Large-scale disasters, from naturally occurring events such as earthquakes and tsunamis through to man-made ones including industrial accidents and financial crises—have been increasing of late in frequency and intensity, with long-lasting effects on societies and infrastructures while bursting into the global economy. Some of the drivers underlying these challenges—such as climate change, rapid urbanization, technological changes, and geopolitical instability—are becoming increasingly urgent, hence making current risks more complex. This changing scenario requires much more sophisticated ways of managing risks and preventing disasters.

Recently, much focus has been directed toward Disaster Risk Reduction, which focuses on reducing the impact of disasters through improved preparedness, mitigation strategies, and rapid response plans. Global frameworks, such as the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030, draw attention to how data-driven risk assessments underpin resilience at levels ranging from the community to the nation state and global levels. The increasing frequency and impact of disasters, further compelled by causes that are becoming increasingly interlinked, raise the need for accurate and comprehensive data to higher levels than ever before if risks are to be reduced effectively.

The comprehensive mapping of risks and challenges of natural and artificial (technological) hazards and disasters, which was called for by the monograph entitled Comprehensive Databases on Natural and Man-Made (Technological) Hazards and Disasters: Mapping Risks and Challenges, discusses in some considerable detail the matter of pressing need for reliable data in disaster risk reduction. It goes on to give in-depth analysis regarding databases recording the occurrence of both natural hazards—such as earthquakes, floods, and storms—and human-made hazards that include industrial accidents and chemical spills. The effort here is to provide improved access to fundamental information necessary to reduce the impact of disasters and vulnerabilities worldwide through the analysis of more than 50 of the most relevant databases.

The authors would like to express their gratitude in this regard to Grammarly Premium and ChatGPT 4.0 for grammatical editing and reviewing this book chapter for clarity and quality in translation regarding English. Language improvement suggestions have been provided by the AI tools, but they have not been involved in the elaboration of the scientific content. Full responsibility for originality, validity, and integrity of the manuscript lies with the authors.

The basis of any successful disaster risk management is having access to the right information at the right time. Forecasting natural disasters, monitoring environmental conditions that could cause industrial accidents, or tracking disease outbreaks—in all these areas, access to relevant information is key in making contextually informed decisions. However, this movement from pure response to proactive risk reduction has been prompted more than anything by leaps forward in the ways we can gather and integrate data and then analyze it.

Data allows the professionals and the policymakers to predict when the events are likely to happen in the future owing to patterns from the past, weather trends, and geological insight in natural disasters. Seismic data, for example, informs the estimation of earthquake risk for areas around active fault lines; similarly, hydrologic models might forecast flood risk in heavy rain seasons. For man-made disasters, for instance, databases that track industrial process, hazardous material storage and safety protocols can find those most prone to accident and undertake precise preventative action before any accident occurs.

Nevertheless, the availability and quality of disaster-related data still depend on the individual type of hazard, region, and local capacity for its collection. Whereas in most parts of the world certain risks, such as earthquakes or floods, are quantified, others—in particular, technological or economic hazards—are underreported, with no standardized data collection systems in place. The current monograph closes these gaps by means of a critical review of the diverse methodologies of the individual databases through pointing out strengths and weaknesses and by offering suggestions on how disaster data could be made more comprehensive and usable.

Objectives of the Monograph

The primary goal of this monograph is to provide a thorough analysis of the available databases that track both natural and technological hazards. Specifically, it aims to:

a)Offer a detailed overview of the most prominent databases that monitor various hazards, focusing on their scope, data collection methods, sources, and relevance to disaster risk management.
b)Investigate the challenges associated with collecting, integrating, and utilizing disaster data, with a particular focus on issues of data quality, accessibility, and real-time application.
c)Examine how technological advancements—such as satellite imagery, geospatial analysis, and real-time monitoring—are improving the way disaster data is collected and analyzed.
d)Provide practical recommendations for enhancing disaster-related data systems, emphasizing the importance of data sharing, standardized reporting, and the incorporation of emerging technologies.
e)Promote collaboration between researchers, policymakers, and disaster management professionals by creating a consolidated resource for understanding and utilizing disaster data effectively.

Structure of the Monograph

The monograph is divided into two sections: Natural Hazards and Disasters and Man-Made (Technological) Hazards and Disasters. These contain several chapters covering specific kinds of hazards and the tracking and analysis databases for each. This is aimed at presenting the reader with a complete, systematic overview of the disaster data landscape for both natural and technological risks.

This chapter, “Natural Hazards and Disasters,” presents a comprehensive analysis, of geological events like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions to hydrological and meteorological hazards, including floods, droughts, hurricanes, and biological hazards that affect human populations and ecosystems. Each chapter examines key databases for monitoring these hazards, discussing their role in disaster risk reduction, early warning systems, and response planning.

a) Geological Hazards and Disasters: Seismic events, volcanic activity, and tsunamis are covered here, with databases like the USGS Earthquake Database and the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program. These resources focus on assessing and improving early warning systems for geological hazards.
b) Hydrological Hazards and Disasters: From floods to droughts, hydrological events can often be worsened by climate change. This section discusses databases like the Global Disaster Alert and Coordination System (GDACS) and the Netherlands Flood Database, which help monitor flood risks and improve water management.
c) Meteorological Hazards and Disasters: Extreme weather events such as hurricanes, tornadoes, and heatwaves, influenced by climate change, are becoming more frequent and severe. This chapter reviews databases like the NOAA Storm Events Database and the World Meteorological Organization’s Severe Weather Database, which assist authorities in predicting and preparing for these atmospheric phenomena.
d) Biological Hazards and Disasters: Epidemics, pandemics, and invasive species cause significant health crises and environmental damage. This chapter explores databases like the WHO’s Epidemic Data Platform and the Global Invasive Species Database (GISD), which monitor biological hazards and guide public health responses.

This section “Man-Made (Technological) Hazards and Disasters” examines different man-made hazards that result from human activities, such as industrial operations, transportation systems, and urban development. These risks include industrial accidents, chemical spills, nuclear incidents, and urban disasters, all of which can cause significant harm to people, property, and the environment.

a)Technological Hazards and Disasters: Industrial accidents, chemical spills, and nuclear incidents are explored in this chapter. It analyzes databases like the European Major Accident Reporting System (eMARS) and the International Atomic Energy Agency’s Nuclear Events Web-based System (NEWS), which provide insights into the causes, impacts, and preventive measures for technological disasters.
b)Urban Hazards and Disasters: As cities grow, the risk of urban hazards—such as building collapses, fires, and traffic accidents—rises. This chapter looks at databases like the National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS) and the Global Building Collapse Incident Database, which track urban risks and help shape urban planning and safety regulations.
c)Social and Economic Hazards and Disasters: Social unrest, terrorism, and economic collapses are significant man-made hazards that can destabilize societies and economies. This chapter examines databases like the Global Terrorism Database (GTD) and the International Disaster Database (EM-DAT), which track incidents of terrorism, political instability, and economic crises, helping policymakers assess risks and develop mitigation strategies.

This monograph uses a detailed, systematic approach, evaluating over 50 different databases that track disaster risks. We chose each database based on how relevant it is to specific hazards, its geographical coverage, how reliable the data is, and how easy it is to access. These databases cover a range of sectors, like public health, environmental science, industrial safety, and urban planning. We looked at each one closely, evaluating its effectiveness in disaster risk reduction, its strengths and weaknesses, and how well it could fit into larger data systems.

We also dug deep into the challenges that come with collecting disaster-related data. A lot of the issues stem from things like inconsistent standards across regions, difficulties with data-sharing, and the hurdles of using real-time data. By identifying where current data systems fall short, we’ve made practical suggestions for improvement, aiming to add to the global conversation around disaster preparedness and resilience.

Challenges and Opportunities in Disaster Data Collection

One of the biggest headaches with disaster data collection is the lack of consistency in how different regions, industries, and hazards report their information. Some databases provide detailed, real-time data, while others have significant gaps, outdated info, or cover only small areas. This monograph tackles these issues by pushing for standardized data collection methods that can work universally across different sectors and regions.

On the flip side, new technologies like artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, satellite imagery, and geospatial analysis are creating exciting opportunities. These tools improve the accuracy of disaster data, make real-time collection easier, and help create predictive models that aid decision-making. AI and machine learning, for instance, are changing how we identify risk patterns, forecast hazards more accurately, and issue timely alerts. Meanwhile, satellite imaging and remote sensing are game-changers for tracking natural disasters like floods, hurricanes, and wildfires, allowing emergency teams to respond more quickly.

Geospatial analysis has become crucial for disaster risk reduction too, giving governments and organizations the insights they need to invest in the right mitigation efforts. Tools like Geographic Information Systems (GIS) layer multiple data sets to create detailed risk maps, showing vulnerable areas and forecasting how future disasters might play out. This tech is now widely used in disaster management, helping to better allocate resources and plan during crises.

When it comes to managing disaster risks, international collaboration is crucial, especially because disasters often don’t respect borders and can impact several countries at once. Sharing data, research, and best practices among nations strengthens global efforts to improve early warning systems, disaster response strategies, and risk mitigation measures. This monograph emphasizes the importance of initiatives like the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, which promotes international cooperation in data collection and sharing. Platforms like the Global Disaster Alert and Coordination System (GDACS) combine data from various countries, offering real-time alerts and comprehensive risk assessments for all kinds of disasters.

International organizations like the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) are key players in setting global standards for data collection and encouraging cross-border cooperation. They offer platforms where disaster data can be shared transparently, making sure that countries have the information they need to respond effectively to emergencies.

This monograph explores how these global efforts help build a more resilient world, especially for vulnerable populations.The monograph also looks at how integrating regional databases into global systems can improve disaster risk reduction. For example, databases like the European Major Accident Reporting System (eMARS) and the United States Geological Survey (USGS) provide localized data that, when integrated into global networks, enhance monitoring and response efforts. By combining regional and global insights, disaster preparedness becomes more coordinated, improving cross-border collaboration.

Data Gaps and Future Directions

Despite progress in disaster data collection, there are still big gaps, particularly in developing countries where resources for collecting and analyzing data are limited. This lack of accurate, timely data often leads to underreporting, incomplete datasets, and less capacity to address disaster risks globally. Certain hazards, like slow-onset disasters such as droughts, or complex risks involving technological failures, are also underrepresented in global databases because of the challenges in tracking and reporting them.

This monograph highlights these gaps and suggests strategies to address them. Strengthening local capacity for data collection, investing in new technologies, and building international partnerships are critical steps toward filling these gaps. Additionally, non-traditional data sources, like social media and crowd-sourced information, can offer real-time, community-driven insights that complement traditional disaster monitoring systems.

Looking ahead, there’s a lot of potential for new technologies to revolutionize disaster data systems. Blockchain, for instance, could improve secure data sharing, cloud computing could boost real-time data storage and analysis, and smart city technologies could integrate disaster risk management into urban planning. The Internet of Things (IoT) adds another layer of opportunity, with sensors monitoring environmental conditions and infrastructure in real-time, allowing preventive measures to be taken before disasters strike.

Collecting and using disaster-related data comes with some serious ethical responsibilities. It’s crucial to make sure that the processes we use to gather this data respect people’s privacy and dignity, especially when we’re dealing with health-related information. For example, when tracking disease outbreaks, public health surveillance might need personal data, but it’s essential that this data is handled with care to protect individual privacy. International organizations, like the Global Health Security Initiative (GHSI), have set guidelines for how to ethically collect data during health emergencies, but these standards really need to be applied across all forms of disaster monitoring.

Another big ethical issue is the gap between wealthy and poorer countries when it comes to accessing disaster-related data. Wealthier nations often have advanced systems to gather and analyze data, while developing countries might not have the infrastructure or resources to do the same. This imbalance puts vulnerable populations at even greater risk. Closing this gap will require international cooperation, capacity-building efforts, and data-sharing agreements that make sure all countries have the tools they need to manage disaster risks effectively.

Lastly, we also need to think about who owns the data and how it’s controlled. With more private companies getting involved in data collection—whether it’s through satellite imagery, telecoms, or AI-powered analytics—there are valid concerns about who actually owns that data and how it’s being used. Governments and international organizations need to set clear rules to ensure that disaster-related data remains a public resource, available to all, and used for the good of society as a whole.

I. Natural Hazards and Disasters

1.1. Geological Hazards and Disasters

Natural disasters in the lithosphere are the result of deep processes within the Earth’s crust, mainly caused by the shifting of lithospheric plates [1, 2]. These disasters include major natural events like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis, all of which can greatly disrupt human life and cause severe damage to property[3-15]. The movement of tectonic plates is largely powered by forces within the Earth itself, leading to these shifts [16, 17]. The theory of plate tectonics is key to understanding how features like volcanoes, mountain ranges, and other geological formations come about. Whether slow or sudden, tectonic plate movements play a critical role in shaping the Earth’s surface [18].

According to the plate tectonics theory, the Earth’s outer layer is divided into large plates that float on a softer layer beneath, called the asthenosphere [19]. These plates are constantly moving, though very slowly, and their interactions at the edges are responsible for much of the Earth’s geological activity. When plates collide at convergent boundaries, mountain ranges form, while at divergent boundaries, like mid-ocean ridges, new crust is created[1, 19-23]. Earthquakes tend to occur along transform boundaries, where plates slide past each other[24, 25].

The driving force behind the movement of these plates is the heat from deep within the Earth, which causes convection currents in the mantle. As the plates move, they may collide, pull apart, or slip past one another, triggering some of the most powerful natural events on Earth [26-29]. Earthquakes happen when stress that has built up along fault lines is suddenly released, and volcanic eruptions occur when magma rises to the surface through cracks, often at plate boundaries or hotspots. Tsunamis, often caused by undersea earthquakes, can also be triggered by volcanic activity or landslides, leading to widespread coastal destruction [10, 30-33].

Tectonic forces also shape landscapes over time. Broad, slow-moving processes (epeirogenic) can raise or lower vast areas of the Earth’s crust, changing the overall topography. On the other hand, more intense movements (orogenic) create mountain ranges as continental plates collide [34-43]. These tectonic activities not only influence the Earth’s structure but also affect long-term climate patterns, ocean currents, and the habitability of various regions[44-52].

1.1.1. Earthquakes

1.1.1.1. United States Geological Survey (USGS) Earthquake Database

The USGS Earthquake Database is an essential tool that keeps tabs on seismic activity worldwide. This resource was developed to bolster scientific research and promote public safety by providing detailed information about earthquakes, such as their magnitude, precise location, depth, and timing. This database is invaluable to geologists, seismologists, emergency managers, and policymakers committed to understanding earthquakes and mitigating their effects.

With its wealth of information, the USGS Earthquake Database helps identify seismic trends and patterns, allowing experts to highlight regions susceptible to earthquakes and assess potential risks. This data is vital for crafting earthquake hazard assessments and building codes, which are crucial for protecting public safety and ensuring infrastructure can withstand earthquakes. The detailed seismic information the database provides is also crucial for emergency response efforts, aiding in coordinating rescue and relief operations after major earthquakes.

The USGS collaborates with both national and international partners to maintain the accuracy and completeness of its earthquake data. By integrating information from a worldwide network of seismic stations, the database allows for real-time monitoring and reporting of seismic events. This global cooperation boosts our understanding of seismic activities and supports international research and risk reduction efforts.

Open to the public, the USGS Earthquake Database allows users to search for and download earthquake data. This accessible approach promotes education and increases awareness of seismic risks, empowering individuals and communities to better prepare for earthquakes. The database is consistently updated with the latest seismic information, ensuring users always have access to current data.

Additionally, the database is equipped with advanced tools that enable users to visualize seismic data using interactive maps and graphs. These features help users grasp the geographic spread of earthquakes and their potential impacts. It also serves as a valuable resource for researchers studying seismic activity, tectonic movements, and other geological phenomena.

Through comprehensive and reliable data, the USGS Earthquake Database plays a crucial role in advancing the science of earthquakes and promoting global disaster resilience. It deepens our understanding of seismic hazards and aids in developing strategies and policies to reduce earthquake risks.[1]

1.1.1.2. Global Seismographic Network (GSN)

The Global Seismographic Network (GSN) is a worldwide network of state-of-the-art seismic monitoring stations dedicated to recording seismic activity across the globe. Managed by a collaboration between the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS), and various international partners, the GSN provides crucial data for earthquake monitoring, scientific research, and public safety initiatives.

The GSN consists of over 150 permanent seismic stations strategically distributed worldwide to ensure comprehensive coverage of seismic activity. Each station is equipped with highly sensitive instruments capable of detecting and recording ground motion with remarkable precision. This data is vital for understanding the dynamics of earthquakes, as well as other seismic phenomena such as volcanic eruptions and tectonic movements.

One of the primary goals of the GSN is to provide real-time seismic data to scientists, emergency management officials, and policymakers. This information is essential for assessing earthquake hazards, developing early warning systems, and improving the overall preparedness and resilience of communities to seismic events. By continuously monitoring seismic activity, the GSN plays a crucial role in reducing the risks associated with earthquakes and related hazards.

The GSN also supports a wide range of scientific research endeavors. The high-quality seismic data collected by the network is used to study the Earth’s internal structure, investigate the physics of earthquake processes, and explore the complex interactions between tectonic plates. This research contributes to the advancement of earthquake science and helps to improve our understanding of the Earth’s geophysical properties.

In addition to its scientific and safety applications, the GSN serves as a valuable educational resource. The network provides access to seismic data and educational materials, supporting efforts to raise public awareness about earthquake risks and promote preparedness measures. Educational institutions and organizations around the world utilize GSN data to teach students and the public about seismology and the importance of earthquake resilience.

The GSN is continuously being upgraded and expanded to incorporate the latest technological advancements in seismic monitoring. This ongoing development ensures that the network remains at the forefront of earthquake science and continues to provide accurate and reliable data for researchers and decision-makers. By offering comprehensive and real-time seismic data, the Global Seismographic Network is a cornerstone of global efforts to understand and mitigate the impacts of seismic hazards. It fosters international collaboration in earthquake research and risk reduction, contributing to a safer and more resilient world.[2]

1.1.1.3. Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS)

The Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS) is a consortium made up of over 120 universities and research institutions working together to deepen our understanding of the Earth’s seismic activity. Since its founding in 1984, IRIS has been instrumental in coordinating and supporting global seismological research and education. Its mission is to facilitate the gathering and sharing of high-quality seismic data to drive scientific discovery and enhance public safety.

IRIS runs various programs and initiatives aimed at pushing the boundaries of seismology. A cornerstone of these efforts is the Global Seismographic Network (GSN), which IRIS manages in partnership with the United States Geological Survey (USGS). This network comprises over 150 seismic stations scattered around the globe, offering real-time data crucial for monitoring earthquakes and exploring the Earth’s inner workings.

Beyond the GSN, IRIS operates the Transportable Array—a network of portable seismographs that can be temporarily set up to study specific regions or seismic events. This adaptability enables scientists to collect detailed data on aftershocks, volcanic activity, and other seismic phenomena.

IRIS also oversees the Data Management Center (DMC), which archives and distributes seismic data from its networks and partner organizations. The DMC offers open access to an extensive repository of seismic data, providing researchers, educators, and emergency responders with essential information for their work. This open-access model supports a wide range of scientific research and encourages collaboration within the global seismological community.

Education and outreach are at the heart of IRIS’s mission. The organization provides numerous educational resources, such as workshops, training programs, and online materials, to improve public understanding of seismology and earthquake preparedness. These initiatives help raise awareness of seismic risks and bolster resilience in communities prone to earthquakes.

IRIS’s work is funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and other agencies, ensuring it remains at the cutting edge of seismic research and technology. Through its innovative programs and international partnerships, IRIS continues to advance seismology and contribute to global efforts in earthquake risk reduction and disaster resilience. By supplying high-quality seismic data and promoting collaboration among researchers, IRIS plays a vital role in enhancing our understanding of earthquakes and related geophysical processes. Its efforts aid in developing more effective strategies for mitigating the impacts of seismic hazards and strengthening the resilience of communities worldwide.[3]

1.1.1.4. European-Mediterranean Seismological Centre (EMSC)

The European-Mediterranean Seismological Centre (EMSC) is a highly regarded organization focused on quickly detecting and reporting earthquakes in Europe, the Mediterranean, and beyond. Established in 1975, the EMSC is a non-profit entity that collaborates with national seismological agencies, research bodies, and international partners to provide accurate and timely information on seismic events.

One of the EMSC’s main goals is to deliver real-time earthquake information to the public, scientists, and emergency responders. To achieve this, the organization employs an innovative multi-source approach, integrating data from seismic networks, eyewitness accounts, and online observations. This comprehensive method allows the EMSC to rapidly verify and distribute information about seismic events, thereby improving public awareness and response.

The EMSC manages the European-Mediterranean Seismological Network (EMSN), a wide-reaching network of seismic stations that offers detailed data on regional seismic activity. Supported by advanced technology and data analysis tools, this network enables the EMSC to monitor seismic events with exceptional precision and reliability.

Beyond real-time monitoring, the EMSC plays a crucial role in promoting international collaboration in seismology. It leads the Virtual Seismologist Project, which seeks to develop innovative techniques for automatic earthquake detection and characterization. By partnering with seismological agencies and research institutions, the EMSC advances earthquake science and helps create effective risk reduction strategies.

Public education and outreach are also key aspects of EMSC’s mission. The organization provides a variety of resources, such as educational materials, interactive maps, and online platforms, to raise awareness about earthquake risks and encourage preparedness. EMSC’s commitment to engaging the public and providing accessible information is central to its goal of enhancing earthquake resilience in Europe and the Mediterranean.

The EMSC is also renowned for its innovative use of digital and social media to communicate with the public during seismic events. It operates the LastQuake app, a mobile application that delivers real-time earthquake alerts and enables users to share their experiences, offering valuable eyewitness data for EMSC’s analysis.

By supplying rapid and reliable earthquake information, the EMSC significantly enhances the safety and resilience of communities across Europe and the Mediterranean. Its efforts to further seismological research and promote international cooperation greatly contribute to global initiatives in earthquake risk reduction and disaster preparedness.[4]

1.1.1.5. International Seismological Centre (ISC)

The International Seismological Centre (ISC) is a prominent organization focused on gathering, analyzing, and sharing seismic data worldwide. Founded in 1964, ISC serves as a central hub for seismological information, offering a thorough and reliable database of seismic events across the globe. Its mission centers on fostering international collaboration in seismology and deepening our understanding of seismic activity and its effects.

ISC gathers data from an extensive network of seismological agencies and research institutions worldwide, integrating information from more than 150 national and regional networks. This broad collaboration allows ISC to produce a global earthquake catalog, widely recognized as one of the most comprehensive and accurate resources available to seismologists, researchers, and emergency management experts.

A primary function of ISC is maintaining the ISC Bulletin, an expansive and continuously updated database of seismic events. This bulletin includes detailed information on earthquake locations, magnitudes, depths, and other essential parameters. It is a crucial resource for researchers studying seismic patterns and trends and for those involved in earthquake hazard assessments and risk reduction initiatives. Beyond being a data repository, ISC actively engages in various research projects aimed at enhancing the accuracy and reliability of seismic data. The organization conducts studies on seismic event detection, location algorithms, and magnitude determination, significantly contributing to advances in seismological science and technology.

ISC is committed to promoting open access to seismic data and encourages the use of its resources for scientific research, education, and public awareness. By offering free access to its databases and tools, ISC supports a wide array of research activities and fosters collaboration within the global seismological community.

Educational outreach is another key component of ISC’s work. The organization provides training and support to seismologists and researchers worldwide, helping build capacity and enhance expertise in seismic data analysis and interpretation. Through its dedication to compiling and distributing high-quality seismic data, ISC plays a vital role in advancing our understanding of earthquakes and their impacts. Its work aids in developing effective strategies for earthquake risk reduction and contributes significantly to global efforts to improve public safety and resilience against seismic hazards.[5]

1.1.1.6. Global Centroid Moment Tensor (GCMT) Catalog

The Global Centroid Moment Tensor (GCMT) Catalog is a comprehensive database offering detailed information about the seismic source parameters of earthquakes across the globe. Established in 1977, this catalog serves as a crucial resource for seismologists and geophysicists, providing valuable insights into the mechanisms and characteristics of seismic events. The GCMT Catalog is centered around the centroid moment tensor (CMT) solutions, which describe the orientation and magnitude of fault slip during an earthquake. These solutions are derived from analyzing seismic waveforms recorded by global seismic networks. By supplying accurate and standardized information on earthquake sources, the GCMT Catalog enhances our understanding of seismic processes and aids in earthquake hazard assessments and risk mitigation efforts.

Key features of the GCMT Catalog include:

Global Coverage: The catalog covers earthquakes worldwide, ensuring comprehensive data on seismic events of various magnitudes and depths.
Detailed Source Parameters: Each catalog entry offers detailed information about an earthquake’s source parameters, including centroid location, depth, moment magnitude, and fault plane orientation.
Long-term Data Record: The GCMT Catalog provides a long-term record of seismic activity, allowing researchers to study patterns and trends in earthquake occurrence and behavior over time.
Research and Analysis: Widely used in seismic research, the catalog supports studies on earthquake mechanics, tectonic processes, and fault system dynamics. It is also invaluable for developing and validating models of seismic wave propagation and ground motion.
Public Accessibility: The GCMT Catalog is publicly accessible, allowing researchers, educators, and policymakers to access its data for scientific and educational purposes.

Maintained by the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, the GCMT Catalog is continually updated and expanded to include new seismic events and improve data accuracy. It is a key component of global seismological research, providing critical information that helps advance our understanding of earthquake processes and contribute to effective risk reduction strategies.

By offering detailed and reliable information on earthquake source mechanisms, the GCMT Catalog plays a vital role in enhancing scientific understanding of seismic phenomena and supporting efforts to mitigate the impacts of earthquakes on communities worldwide.[6]

1.1.1.7. Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) Earthquake Database

The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) Earthquake Database is an essential tool for monitoring and analyzing seismic activity in Japan and its surrounding areas. Japan, being one of the most seismically active regions on the planet, relies heavily on the JMA for accurate and timely earthquake information to ensure public safety and preparedness. The JMA is at the heart of Japan’s efforts in earthquake monitoring and risk reduction, tasked with collecting, analyzing, and disseminating seismic data.

Key features and functions of the JMA Earthquake Database include:

Real-Time Monitoring: The JMA operates an extensive network of seismic stations throughout Japan, providing real-time data on seismic activity. This setup allows for the rapid detection and analysis of earthquakes, enabling the JMA to issue timely alerts and warnings to the public and emergency management authorities.
Comprehensive Earthquake Information: The database offers detailed information about each earthquake, including magnitude, location, depth, and time of occurrence. It also provides data on seismic intensity, which measures the effects of an earthquake at specific locations.
Earthquake Early Warning System: The JMA is renowned for its Earthquake Early Warning (EEW) system, which uses data from its seismic network to give advance warnings of incoming seismic waves. This system helps mitigate damage and save lives by allowing individuals and organizations to take protective actions before the shaking begins.
Tsunami Monitoring and Warnings: Beyond earthquake monitoring, the JMA plays a crucial role in tsunami forecasting and warnings. The agency uses seismic data to assess tsunami potential and issue alerts, helping protect coastal communities from tsunami hazards.
Research and Analysis: The JMA Earthquake Database supports extensive scientific research on seismic activity, tectonic processes, and earthquake prediction. Researchers use this data to study earthquake mechanisms, assess seismic hazards, and develop models to improve earthquake forecasting and risk reduction strategies.
Public Education and Outreach: The JMA provides educational resources and conducts outreach activities to raise public awareness about earthquake risks and preparedness. These efforts ensure that individuals and communities are informed and ready to respond to seismic events.

By maintaining a comprehensive and reliable earthquake database, the Japan Meteorological Agency plays a critical role in protecting Japan’s people from the impacts of seismic hazards. Its ongoing work in monitoring, research, and public education significantly enhances earthquake resilience and reduces the risks associated with seismic events.[7]

1.1.1.8. National Earthquake Information Center (NEIC)

The National Earthquake Information Center (NEIC) is a vital facility operated by the United States Geological Survey (USGS), focused on detecting and analyzing earthquake activity in the United States and around the world. Located in Golden, Colorado, the NEIC is central to the global effort to monitor seismic events, providing crucial information for emergency response, scientific research, and public safety.

Key functions and features of the NEIC include:

Global Earthquake Monitoring: The NEIC operates a vast network of seismographic stations and collaborates with international partners to detect earthquakes globally. This extensive network enables the NEIC to quickly identify and locate seismic events, providing real-time data to various stakeholders.
Seismic Data Analysis: At the NEIC, seismic waveforms are analyzed to determine the location, magnitude, depth, and other critical parameters of earthquakes. This detailed analysis is essential for understanding the nature and potential impacts of seismic events, aiding in the development of effective response strategies.
Earthquake Alerts and Information: The NEIC is responsible for issuing alerts and information bulletins about significant earthquakes. These alerts are shared with government agencies, emergency management organizations, the media, and the public, helping to coordinate response efforts and keep communities informed about seismic risks.
Earthquake Data Archive: The NEIC maintains a comprehensive archive of seismic data that is publicly accessible for research and educational purposes. This archive supports a wide range of scientific studies, from earthquake hazard assessments to investigations of tectonic processes and seismic wave propagation.
Support for Emergency Management: After significant earthquakes, the NEIC provides critical information to emergency management officials to guide rescue and recovery operations. The center’s rapid response capabilities ensure that accurate data is available when it is most needed.
Research and Development: The NEIC engages in ongoing research to improve earthquake detection and analysis techniques, including developing new algorithms and technologies to enhance the accuracy and timeliness of seismic monitoring.
Public Education and Outreach: The NEIC provides educational resources and conducts outreach programs to raise awareness about earthquake preparedness and risk reduction. These efforts aim to improve public understanding of seismic hazards and promote community resilience.

By delivering accurate and timely earthquake information, the National Earthquake Information Center plays an essential role in enhancing public safety and supporting global efforts to reduce seismic hazard risks. Its work contributes significantly to advancing earthquake science and helps build more resilient communities worldwide.[8]

1.1.1.9. Southern California Earthquake Data Center (SCEDC)

The Southern California Earthquake Data Center (SCEDC) is a key resource for monitoring and analyzing seismic activity in Southern California, one of the most seismically active regions in the United States. Operated by the Caltech Seismological Laboratory, the SCEDC serves as a hub for collecting, processing, and distributing earthquake data, supporting both scientific research and public safety initiatives.

Key features and functions of the SCEDC include:

Comprehensive Earthquake Monitoring: The SCEDC operates in collaboration with the Southern California Seismic Network (SCSN), which consists of hundreds of seismic stations strategically located throughout Southern California. This network provides real-time data on seismic events, allowing for rapid detection and analysis of earthquakes.
Data Collection and Analysis: The SCEDC processes seismic data to determine the location, magnitude, and depth of earthquakes. It also analyzes waveforms to understand the characteristics of seismic events, such as fault mechanisms and aftershock sequences. This information is crucial for assessing earthquake hazards and guiding emergency response efforts.
Seismic Data Archive: The SCEDC maintains an extensive archive of seismic data, which is accessible to researchers, educators, and the public. This archive supports a wide range of scientific studies, from understanding the physics of earthquakes to evaluating seismic risk and developing earthquake-resistant infrastructure.
Public Earthquake Information: The SCEDC provides timely and accurate information about earthquakes to the public and emergency management agencies. Through its website and various communication channels, the SCEDC disseminates details about recent seismic activity, including maps, reports, and educational materials.
Research and Innovation: The SCEDC supports cutting-edge research on earthquake processes and hazard mitigation. Its data is used to develop and test new models of seismic wave propagation, fault dynamics, and earthquake prediction. The SCEDC also collaborates with academic and governmental institutions to advance the understanding of seismic hazards in Southern California.
Educational Outreach: The SCEDC is committed to raising public awareness about earthquake risks and promoting preparedness. It offers educational resources and conducts outreach activities aimed at enhancing community resilience to seismic events.
Technical Infrastructure: The SCEDC is equipped with state-of-the-art technology for data acquisition, storage, and analysis. Its infrastructure ensures the reliability and accuracy of seismic data, supporting both real-time monitoring and long-term research efforts.

By providing high-quality seismic data and fostering collaboration among researchers, the Southern California Earthquake Data Center plays a vital role in advancing earthquake science and enhancing the resilience of communities in Southern California. Its efforts contribute to a better understanding of seismic hazards and the development of effective strategies for reducing earthquake risk.[9]

1.1.1.10. Seismological Society of America (SSA)

The Seismological Society of America (SSA) is a prestigious international scientific organization dedicated to the advancement of seismology and the understanding of earthquakes and related phenomena. Founded in 1906, the SSA plays a crucial role in promoting research, fostering communication among scientists, and disseminating knowledge about seismology to the broader community.

Key aspects and contributions of the SSA include:

The SSA is renowned for its scientific publications, including two leading journals, Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America (BSSA) and Seismological Research Letters (SRL). These journals publish high-quality research articles, reviews, and reports on various aspects of seismology, from earthquake mechanics to seismic hazard assessments.
The SSA organizes annual meetings and conferences that bring together seismologists, geophysicists, engineers, and other professionals from around the world. These events provide a platform for sharing research findings, discussing new developments, and fostering collaborations in the field of seismology.
The SSA is committed to promoting education and outreach in seismology. It offers resources for educators, students, and the public to enhance their understanding of earthquakes and seismic risks. The SSA also supports programs aimed at inspiring the next generation of seismologists and geoscientists.
The SSA advocates for the importance of earthquake science in public policy and decision-making. It works with government agencies, industry partners, and other organizations to promote the integration of scientific knowledge into earthquake preparedness and risk reduction strategies.
The SSA provides opportunities for professional growth and networking among its members. Through workshops, webinars, and mentorship programs, the society supports the development of skills and knowledge essential for careers in seismology and related fields.
The SSA recognizes outstanding contributions to the field of seismology through various awards and honors. These accolades highlight the achievements of individuals and teams who have made significant advancements in earthquake research and public safety.
The SSA collaborates with international seismological organizations and networks to advance the global understanding of seismic phenomena. By fostering partnerships and sharing knowledge across borders, the SSA contributes to worldwide efforts in earthquake research and disaster risk reduction.

The Seismological Society of America is instrumental in advancing the science of seismology and promoting the understanding of earthquakes. Through its publications, conferences, and educational initiatives, the SSA plays a vital role in enhancing public awareness of seismic hazards and supporting efforts to mitigate the impacts of earthquakes on society.[10]

1.1.1.11. Pacific Northwest Seismic Network (PNSN)

The Pacific Northwest Seismic Network (PNSN) is a collaborative organization focused on monitoring and studying seismic activity in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States, covering Washington, Oregon, and Northern California. Managed by the University of Washington and the University of Oregon, the PNSN provides crucial information about earthquakes and volcanic activity in this geologically active area, enhancing public safety and scientific understanding.

Key features and functions of the PNSN include:

The PNSN operates an extensive network of seismic stations that continuously monitor ground motion across the Pacific Northwest. This network detects and records seismic events, providing real-time data that helps identify and assess earthquakes and volcanic activity in the region.
The PNSN quickly analyzes seismic data to determine the location, magnitude, and depth of earthquakes. This information is essential for understanding the nature of seismic events and assessing potential impacts, allowing for effective response and risk mitigation strategies.
In addition to earthquake detection, the PNSN monitors volcanic activity in the Cascade Range, which includes several active volcanoes such as Mount St. Helens and Mount Rainier. The network provides critical data that helps scientists track changes in volcanic behavior and assess eruption risks.
Public Alerts and Information: The PNSN issues alerts and updates on seismic and volcanic activity, informing the public, emergency management agencies, and other stakeholders. The network’s website and communication channels provide accessible information on recent events, educational resources, and preparedness measures.
Research and Collaboration: The PNSN supports a wide range of research initiatives aimed at improving the understanding of seismic and volcanic processes. It collaborates with government agencies, academic institutions, and other organizations to advance scientific knowledge and develop effective hazard reduction strategies.
Education and Outreach: The PNSN is committed to raising public awareness about earthquake and volcanic hazards. It offers educational programs, workshops, and materials to help communities understand the risks and prepare for seismic and volcanic events.
Technological Innovation: The PNSN utilizes advanced technology and data analysis tools to enhance its monitoring capabilities. It continuously works to improve the accuracy and reliability of its seismic and volcanic data, supporting both real-time monitoring and long-term research efforts.

By providing high-quality seismic and volcanic data, the Pacific Northwest Seismic Network plays a crucial role in enhancing the resilience of communities in the Pacific Northwest. Its efforts contribute to a better understanding of regional hazards and support developing strategies to mitigate the impacts of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.[11]

1.1.1.12. Alaska Earthquake Center

The Alaska Earthquake Center is a leading organization committed to monitoring, researching, and analyzing seismic activity in Alaska, one of the world’s most seismically active regions. Based at the University of Alaska Fairbanks, the center provides vital earthquake information to enhance public safety, support scientific research, and inform disaster preparedness efforts.

The center operates an extensive network of seismic stations across the state, enabling continuous monitoring of earthquake activity. This network allows for the rapid detection and analysis of earthquakes, ensuring accurate information is readily available to decision-makers and the public. The center is responsible for determining the location, magnitude, and depth of earthquakes in Alaska. Its detailed analyses help characterize seismic events, assess potential impacts, and inform response strategies.

In collaboration with the National Tsunami Warning Center, the Alaska Earthquake Center plays a crucial role in monitoring tsunamis generated by seismic events in the region. It provides critical data that helps assess tsunami risks and issue warnings to coastal communities. The center disseminates timely and accurate earthquake information to the public, emergency management agencies, and other stakeholders. Its website and communication platforms provide access to recent earthquake data, educational resources, and preparedness information.

The Alaska Earthquake Center conducts and supports research on various aspects of seismology, including earthquake mechanics, tectonics, and seismic hazard assessment. It collaborates with national and international partners to advance scientific understanding and improve hazard mitigation strategies.

The center is committed to raising awareness about earthquake hazards and promoting preparedness in Alaska’s communities. It offers educational programs, workshops, and materials to help individuals and organizations understand seismic risks and take appropriate actions.

Utilizing state-of-the-art technology and data analysis tools, the Alaska Earthquake Center continuously works to improve the quality and accessibility of its seismic data, supporting both real-time monitoring and long-term scientific investigations. By providing high-quality seismic data and fostering collaboration among researchers, the Alaska Earthquake Center plays a vital role in enhancing the resilience of communities in Alaska. Its efforts contribute to a better understanding of regional seismic hazards and support the development of effective strategies to mitigate the impacts of earthquakes and tsunamis.[12]

1.1.1.13. California Integrated Seismic Network (CISN)

The California Integrated Seismic Network (CISN) is a collaborative initiative involving several organizations dedicated to monitoring and analyzing seismic activity in California, one of the most earthquake-prone regions in the United States. This partnership includes the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), the University of California, Berkeley, and the California Geological Survey. Together, these organizations operate a wide-ranging network of seismic stations that provide real-time earthquake data, enhancing public safety and scientific research.

The primary goal of the CISN is to deliver accurate and timely earthquake information to emergency responders, government agencies, and the public. By integrating data from multiple seismic networks, CISN offers comprehensive coverage of seismic activity across California, allowing for the rapid detection and analysis of earthquakes. This capability is crucial for assessing earthquake impacts and coordinating response efforts.

CISN plays a vital role in earthquake early warning systems, supplying critical data that enables alerts to be issued seconds before significant shaking begins. These warnings can help reduce injuries and save lives by allowing individuals and organizations to take protective actions. Beyond its monitoring capabilities, CISN supports scientific research on earthquake processes and hazards. Its data is used to study fault dynamics, ground motion, and seismic risk assessment, contributing to the development of strategies to mitigate earthquake impacts.

The network also focuses on public education and outreach, offering resources and information to help Californians prepare for earthquakes and understand the risks they face. Through workshops, publications, and online tools, CISN works to raise awareness and promote resilience in communities throughout the state.

By integrating advanced technology and fostering collaboration among leading seismological institutions, the California Integrated Seismic Network enhances the ability to monitor and respond to earthquakes in California. Its efforts are crucial for protecting lives and property and advancing the scientific understanding of seismic phenomena in one of the world’s most active seismic regions.[13]

1.1.1.14. New Zealand GeoNet

New Zealand GeoNet is a comprehensive geological monitoring system dedicated to tracking and analyzing seismic activity, volcanic eruptions, landslides, and tsunamis throughout New Zealand. Established in 2001, GeoNet is a collaborative initiative managed by GNS Science and funded by various New Zealand government agencies, including the Earthquake Commission (EQC). The network plays an essential role in enhancing public safety and increasing the resilience of New Zealand communities against geological hazards.

GeoNet operates an extensive array of seismic, volcanic, and geodetic monitoring instruments strategically positioned across New Zealand. This network provides real-time data on earthquakes and other geological events, enabling rapid detection and analysis. By continuously monitoring seismic activity, GeoNet ensures that timely alerts and warnings are issued, helping to protect lives and property.

In addition to monitoring earthquakes, GeoNet is responsible for tracking volcanic activity in New Zealand’s active volcanic regions. The network delivers crucial data on volcanic unrest, eruption forecasts, and potential hazards, aiding emergency management authorities in decision-making and helping ensure public safety.

GeoNet also plays a significant role in tsunami monitoring and warning systems. By analyzing seismic and sea-level data, the network assesses tsunami risks and issues alerts to coastal communities, minimizing the impact of these potentially devastating events.

The data collected by GeoNet supports a wide range of scientific research initiatives. Researchers utilize GeoNet data to study earthquake mechanics, tectonic processes, and the dynamics of volcanic and landslide activity. These studies contribute to a deeper understanding of geological hazards and inform the development of effective risk mitigation strategies.

GeoNet is committed to public education and outreach, providing resources and information to help New Zealanders understand and prepare for geological hazards. Through its website and various communication platforms, GeoNet offers accessible information about recent events, hazard maps, and preparedness measures.

By leveraging advanced technology and fostering collaboration with scientific and governmental organizations, New Zealand GeoNet plays a crucial role in enhancing the country’s resilience to geological hazards. Its efforts are vital for protecting lives, property, and infrastructure in one of the world’s most seismically active regions.[14]

1.1.1.15. Earthquake Data Enhanced Cyber-Infrastructure for the Geosciences (EarthCube)

Earthquake Data Enhanced Cyber-Infrastructure for the Geo-sciences, better known as EarthCube, is a groundbreaking initiative designed to build a comprehensive cyberinfrastructure that supports geoscientific research and data management. Funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF), EarthCube aims to integrate and improve access to diverse geoscientific data, including earthquake data, to propel research and innovation across the geosciences.

EarthCube offers a collaborative platform that enables researchers, data scientists, and educators to access, share, and analyze a wide array of geoscientific data. By leveraging state-of-the-art technologies and tools, EarthCube facilitates the integration of data from various sources, such as seismic networks, satellite observations, and geological surveys. This integration enhances the ability to conduct interdisciplinary research and tackle complex scientific questions related to earthquakes and other geophysical phenomena.

One of EarthCube’s key goals is to enhance the discoverability and usability of earthquake data and related geoscientific information. The initiative encourages the development of standardized data formats, metadata, and data-sharing protocols, ensuring researchers can easily access and use data from multiple sources. This approach fosters collaboration and enables the geoscience community to conduct more comprehensive and impactful research.

EarthCube supports a variety of applications, including earthquake hazard assessment, seismic risk analysis, and the study of tectonic processes. By providing advanced tools for data visualization, modeling, and analysis, EarthCube empowers researchers to gain new insights into earthquake dynamics and develop innovative solutions for mitigating the impacts of seismic hazards.

In addition to its research-focused initiatives, EarthCube emphasizes education and outreach. The platform offers resources and training opportunities for educators, students, and the public, promoting a deeper understanding of earthquake science and geoscience data. By engaging with a broad audience, EarthCube helps raise awareness of geoscientific issues and inspire the next generation of researchers and innovators.

Through its collaborative approach and advanced cyberinfrastructure, EarthCube plays a crucial role in advancing earthquake science and enhancing the resilience of communities to seismic hazards. Its efforts contribute to the development of more effective strategies for managing and mitigating the risks associated with earthquakes and other geophysical events.[15]

1.1.1.16. Seismic Hazard Assessment Database

The Seismic Hazard Assessment Database is an extensive resource designed to provide detailed information on seismic hazards and risks across various regions worldwide. This database is essential for researchers, engineers, urban planners, and policymakers working to understand and mitigate the impacts of earthquakes on communities and infrastructure.

The primary goal of the Seismic Hazard Assessment Database is to compile and present data related to seismic hazard assessments, which evaluate the potential ground shaking and other seismic effects that can occur at a specific location. These assessments are based on a combination of historical earthquake data, geological studies, tectonic analyses, and probabilistic models. The database serves as a centralized repository for this information, making it accessible and useful for a wide range of applications.

Key features of the Seismic Hazard Assessment Database include:

The database includes seismic hazard assessments for regions worldwide, allowing users to compare and analyze seismic risks in different areas. This global perspective is essential for understanding how seismic hazards vary across different tectonic settings and geographies;
Provides probabilistic seismic hazard models that estimate the likelihood of different levels of ground shaking occurring within a specific time frame. These models are critical for developing building codes, engineering designs, and land-use planning strategies that account for seismic risks;
Incorporates historical earthquake data, offering insights into past seismic activity and its impacts. This historical perspective helps researchers identify trends and patterns that can inform future hazard assessments and risk reduction strategies;
Users can access interactive maps and tools that visualize seismic hazard data, enabling them to explore and interpret the information in a user-friendly format. These tools support decision-making processes by providing clear and actionable insights into seismic risks;
The database is a valuable resource for scientific research, contributing to studies on earthquake dynamics, risk assessment, and mitigation strategies. It also supports policymakers and emergency management officials in developing effective disaster preparedness and response plans;
The Seismic Hazard Assessment Database is publicly accessible, promoting transparency and knowledge sharing. It provides educational resources that help raise awareness about seismic hazards and the importance of preparedness among communities and stakeholders.

By offering comprehensive and reliable information on seismic hazards, the Seismic Hazard Assessment Database plays a critical role in enhancing the resilience of communities and infrastructure to earthquakes. Its efforts support the development of informed strategies for managing seismic risks and protecting lives and property from the impacts of seismic events.[16]

1.1.1.17. ANSS Comprehensive Earthquake Catalog (ComCat)

The Advanced National Seismic System (ANSS) Comprehensive Earthquake Catalog (ComCat) is a detailed repository that includes a range of parameters related to earthquake sources. This includes essential data such as hypocenters, magnitudes, phase picks, and amplitudes. In addition to these fundamental parameters, ComCat also provides a variety of supplementary products produced by contributing seismic networks. These additional resources encompass moment tensor solutions, macroseismic information, tectonic summaries, and various maps. The catalog serves as a central hub for accessing comprehensive seismic information and analyses, facilitating research and application in earthquake science by aggregating data from multiple sources and presenting it in an integrated, user-friendly format.

1.1.1.18. National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) Significant Earthquake Database

The Significant Earthquake Database encompasses information on destructive earthquakes dating from 2150 BCE to the present day, provided they meet at least one of the following criteria: moderate damage (approximately one million dollars or more), ten or more fatalities, a magnitude of 7.5 or greater, a Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) of X or higher, or if the earthquake triggered a tsunami.

This database can also be visualized and queried using an interactive natural hazards map. The publicly available dataset from the National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) of NOAA offers a comprehensive global list of over 5,700 earthquakes from 2150 BCE to the present.

The dataset includes detailed information such as the date and time of occurrence, geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude), focal depth, magnitude, maximum intensity on the Modified Mercalli Intensity scale, and socio-economic data. This socio-economic information covers the total number of casualties, injuries, destroyed and damaged homes, as well as monetary estimates of damage.

1.1.1.19. European Archive of Historical Earthquake Data (AHEAD)

The European Archive of Historical Earthquake Data (AHEAD) is a comprehensive database that compiles historical earthquake data across Europe. Managed by the European-Mediterranean Seismological Centre, AHEAD is dedicated to preserving and making accessible seismic records dating back centuries, providing crucial insights into historical seismic activity in Europe.

AHEAD includes detailed records of earthquake events, including location, magnitude, intensity, and impacts, based on historical sources such as documents, reports, and archives. This data allows researchers to understand the long-term patterns of seismic activity in Europe, offering valuable context for assessing current seismic risks and hazards.

By preserving historical data, AHEAD supports research on seismic hazard modeling, risk assessment, and urban planning, helping communities prepare for potential earthquakes. The platform also facilitates collaboration among European researchers and institutions, fostering a unified approach to seismic research.

AHEAD is widely used by seismologists, historians, and policymakers. Its comprehensive archive of historical earthquakes provides essential data for understanding earthquake patterns and helps Europe enhance its resilience to future seismic events.[17]

1.1.1.20. Tectonic Database of the World

The Tectonic Database of the World is an extensive global resource providing data on tectonic plate boundaries, fault lines, and other geological structures that influence seismic activity. This database, managed by multiple international organizations, compiles data from geological surveys, remote sensing, and field studies, offering insights into the dynamics of tectonic processes worldwide.

The database includes information on the location and characteristics of tectonic boundaries, fault lines, and crustal movements, supporting seismic hazard analysis and risk assessment. By mapping tectonic features, the Tectonic Database of the World helps researchers identify regions at high risk for earthquakes and develop predictive models of seismic activity.

The database is valuable for researchers, geologists, and seismologists studying the relationship between tectonic activity and seismic risks. It also supports public policy by informing urban planning and infrastructure development in tectonically active regions.

Through global collaboration, the Tectonic Database of the World is a key resource for understanding seismic hazards and contributes to international efforts in earthquake preparedness and mitigation.[18]

1.1.1.21. QuakeML – An XML Representation of Seismological Data

QuakeML is an open standard XML format developed to facilitate the exchange of seismological data. This format standardizes the representation of earthquake event information, including origin, magnitude, location, and waveform data, making it easier for researchers and agencies worldwide to share and analyze seismic data.

QuakeML supports a variety of data types, including seismic events, metadata, and waveform information, enabling comprehensive data interoperability. The format is used by seismic networks, research institutions, and disaster response agencies, providing a unified system for accessing earthquake information and improving response efficiency.

The standardization provided by QuakeML enhances global seismic data exchange, allowing researchers to compile large datasets and conduct cross-border analyses on seismic trends and earthquake risks. This interoperability also improves disaster response efforts by allowing agencies to access accurate and timely data during seismic events.

QuakeML is a valuable tool for the seismology community, supporting collaborative research and facilitating the rapid dissemination of earthquake information on a global scale.[19]

1.1.1.22. Northern California Earthquake Data Center (NCEDC)

The Northern California Earthquake Data Center (NCEDC) is a regional repository for earthquake data covering Northern California. Operated by the Berkeley Seismological Laboratory and the US Geological Survey, NCEDC provides detailed records on seismic events, including waveform data, event locations, and magnitude information.

NCEDC’s data is essential for understanding the seismic activity in Northern California, a region with significant earthquake hazards due to the San Andreas Fault system. The platform includes real-time earthquake monitoring, as well as historical data that supports long-term research on seismic risks in the region.

Researchers and public agencies use NCEDC to analyze seismic patterns, assess earthquake risks, and plan emergency response efforts. The platform also collaborates with other seismic networks, providing data to enhance earthquake science and public safety across the state and beyond.

The Northern California Earthquake Data Center plays a crucial role in protecting communities in Northern California by supporting research, policy development, and emergency preparedness related to earthquake hazards.[20]

1.1.1.23. GeoHub – Seismic Hazard and Risk Data

GeoHub is a comprehensive platform for accessing seismic hazard and risk data at a global scale. Developed through a collaboration of international agencies and research institutions, GeoHub provides data on earthquake hazards, vulnerability, and risk assessments that support preparedness, mitigation, and disaster response efforts.

GeoHub includes seismic hazard maps, risk models, and earthquake impact assessments. The platform integrates data from seismological networks, tectonic databases, and demographic studies to provide a detailed analysis of earthquake risks in different regions. These tools help decision-makers assess the potential impact of earthquakes on infrastructure and communities, supporting proactive disaster management.

By providing open access to high-quality data, GeoHub enables collaboration among governments, researchers, and NGOs. This collaborative approach supports the development of effective risk reduction strategies that protect lives and assets in earthquake-prone areas.

GeoHub is a valuable resource for policymakers, emergency planners, and engineers. Its data-driven approach facilitates resilience-building and helps reduce the impact of seismic hazards worldwide.[21]

1.1.1.24. International Federation of Digital Seismograph Networks (FDSN)

The International Federation of Digital Seismograph Networks (FDSN) is an organization that supports global seismological data sharing by maintaining a network of digital seismographs across the world. FDSN coordinates data collection and dissemination, enabling real-time and archival access to seismic data from multiple international stations.

FDSN provides standardized seismological data, including earthquake locations, magnitudes, and waveform data. The organization’s open-access model supports global earthquake research, allowing scientists to analyze seismic patterns and conduct cross-border studies on tectonic activity and seismic hazards.

In addition to its data-sharing initiatives, FDSN sets technical standards for seismological instrumentation, ensuring data compatibility across networks. This interoperability enhances collaborative research, improving the overall understanding of seismic risks and advancing earthquake science.

The FDSN platform is widely used by seismologists, researchers, and disaster management agencies. By promoting global data sharing and collaboration, FDSN plays a crucial role in advancing earthquake research and supporting international preparedness efforts.[22]

1.1.1.25. Seismic Hazard Harmonization in Europe (SHARE)

The Seismic Hazard Harmonization in Europe (SHARE) project is an initiative aimed at creating a unified seismic hazard model for Europe. Supported by the European Union, SHARE combines seismic data, tectonic modeling, and risk assessment tools to develop a comprehensive hazard map for the continent. This model is essential for informing building codes, risk assessments, and urban planning in seismically active regions.

SHARE provides hazard maps that display seismic risk levels across Europe, helping authorities identify areas with higher vulnerability to earthquakes. The platform’s data includes regional tectonic information, historical earthquake records, and probabilistic models that estimate the likelihood of future seismic events.

By creating a standardized hazard model, SHARE supports national and regional efforts to enhance earthquake resilience. The data and tools offered by SHARE are widely used by policymakers, urban planners, and engineers to implement safer construction practices and reduce the risk of earthquake damage.

The SHARE project represents a major step in harmonizing seismic hazard assessment across Europe, helping to protect communities and infrastructure from earthquake impacts.[23]

1.1.1.26. Canadian National Seismograph Network (CNSN)

The Canadian National Seismograph Network (CNSN) is Canada’s national network for seismic monitoring. Managed by Natural Resources Canada, CNSN provides real-time data on earthquake occurrences, including location, magnitude, and depth. The network supports research on seismic activity in Canada and helps authorities monitor and respond to earthquake hazards.

CNSN includes a range of seismograph stations across Canada, from the west coast’s tectonically active zones to more stable regions. This extensive network ensures comprehensive coverage of seismic activity, allowing scientists to track and analyze earthquakes and tremors throughout the country.

The data collected by CNSN is publicly accessible, supporting research, public safety, and earthquake preparedness initiatives. By monitoring seismic activity, CNSN helps Canadian communities and industries plan for potential risks and improve resilience to earthquakes.

The Canadian National Seismograph Network is a critical resource for protecting lives and property in Canada, enhancing understanding of the country’s unique seismic landscape and contributing to global earthquake research.[24]

1.1.1.27. Geoscience Australia Earthquake Database

The Geoscience Australia Earthquake Database is a centralized repository of earthquake data for Australia and surrounding regions. Managed by Geoscience Australia, this database provides information on earthquake events, including location, magnitude, depth, and impact assessments. The platform is essential for understanding and mitigating earthquake risks across Australia’s diverse geological environments.

The Earthquake Database includes historical earthquake data and real-time monitoring of seismic events. These resources support research on seismic hazards and provide critical information for emergency management and infrastructure planning. By tracking seismic activity, Geoscience Australia helps communities prepare for and respond to earthquake risks.

Publicly accessible, the database is widely used by scientists, policymakers, and the general public. Geoscience Australia also collaborates with other regional and global networks to improve earthquake data sharing and enhance the understanding of seismic activity in the Indo-Pacific region.

The Geoscience Australia Earthquake Database plays a key role in Australia’s national earthquake preparedness efforts, helping protect communities and inform resilient infrastructure development.[25]

1.1.1.28. Central and Eastern United States Seismic Network (CEUSN)

The Central and Eastern United States Seismic Network (CEUSN) is a regional seismograph network that monitors earthquake activity across the central and eastern United States. Operated by the US Geological Survey (USGS), CEUSN was established to enhance the understanding of seismic hazards in this region, where significant earthquakes are less frequent but still pose risks to populated areas and infrastructure.

CEUSN includes a comprehensive array of seismograph stations that provide real-time data on earthquake occurrences, including magnitude, depth, and location. The network’s data is crucial for assessing earthquake risks, particularly in regions with older infrastructure that may be vulnerable to seismic activity.

The CEUSN platform is used by researchers, emergency planners, and government agencies to monitor seismic activity and plan for potential earthquake impacts. By focusing on a region that has historically been under-monitored, CEUSN contributes to a more complete picture of seismic risks in the United States.

This network is an essential resource for enhancing earthquake preparedness and public safety in the central and eastern U.S., providing data that supports both regional and national hazard assessments.[26]

1.1.1.29. South American Seismographic Network (SASN)

The South American Seismographic Network (SASN) is a collaborative platform dedicated to monitoring and sharing seismic data across South America. SASN integrates data from multiple national seismograph networks across the continent, supporting research on seismic hazards and providing real-time earthquake monitoring in regions with high tectonic activity.

SASN’s data includes detailed earthquake event information such as location, magnitude, depth, and seismic waveforms. The platform plays a crucial role in supporting emergency response efforts and seismic hazard assessments, particularly in countries along the Andean mountain range, which is known for its frequent and intense seismic activity.

By promoting data-sharing and collaboration, SASN enhances the capacity of South American countries to understand and manage seismic risks. The network also supports public education initiatives, helping communities prepare for earthquakes and understand seismic safety.

SASN is a valuable resource for scientists, policymakers, and emergency managers working to reduce the impact of earthquakes in South America, and it contributes to broader regional resilience against seismic hazards.[27]

1.1.1.30. Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS)

The Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) provides earthquake and tsunami monitoring data for the Indian Ocean region. INCOIS operates a network of seismic and oceanographic sensors that detect underwater earthquakes, helping to assess the potential for tsunamis and providing early warnings to vulnerable coastal communities.

INCOIS’s data includes earthquake event parameters, real-time wave monitoring, and tsunami risk assessments. The center’s tsunami early warning system is crucial for India and neighboring countries, as it helps mitigate the impact of ocean-based seismic events on coastal populations and infrastructure.

In addition to its monitoring efforts, INCOIS engages in public education campaigns, providing communities with information on tsunami preparedness and safety practices. These resources help improve community resilience to seismic hazards in the Indian Ocean region.

The Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services plays a vital role in regional disaster risk reduction, supporting the safety and preparedness of Indian Ocean coastal communities against earthquake and tsunami threats.[28]

1.1.1.31. Italian National Seismic Network (RSN)

The Italian National Seismic Network (RSN) is Italy’s primary network for monitoring earthquake activity, managed by the Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV). RSN provides real-time seismic data on earthquake occurrences across Italy, including magnitude, location, depth, and impact assessments.

Italy is one of Europe’s most seismically active countries due to its complex tectonic setting. RSN’s comprehensive data on earthquake events supports research on seismic hazards and aids local authorities in implementing effective response and preparedness strategies.

In addition to professional resources, RSN provides public educational materials to inform citizens about earthquake safety and preparedness. By promoting public awareness, RSN enhances Italy’s resilience to seismic hazards and helps protect communities from earthquake-related damages.

The Italian National Seismic Network is a critical resource for Italy’s earthquake preparedness and response efforts, supporting scientific research and public safety initiatives in one of Europe’s most earthquake-prone regions.[29]

1.1.1.32. Australian Seismological Centre Database

The Australian Seismological Centre Database is a national resource that monitors and records seismic activity across Australia. Managed by Geoscience Australia, this database provides comprehensive information on earthquake events, including location, magnitude, depth, and timing. Although Australia experiences lower seismic activity compared to tectonically active regions, earthquakes do occur, and this data is essential for understanding the country’s unique seismic profile.

The Australian Seismological Centre Database offers both real-time earthquake monitoring and historical records, supporting research on seismic hazards and enabling authorities to implement appropriate preparedness measures. Data from this platform is publicly accessible and is used by researchers, emergency responders, and policymakers for planning and response purposes.

Public education is also an important aspect of the center’s work, as it helps to raise awareness about earthquake risks and safety in a region where such events can be unexpected. This educational outreach contributes to a more resilient population, prepared for potential seismic events.

The Australian Seismological Centre Database is critical for enhancing earthquake preparedness and understanding seismic hazards in Australia, supporting the safety of both communities and infrastructure.[30]

1.1.1.33. China Earthquake Networks Center (CENC)

The China Earthquake Networks Center (CENC) is China’s official organization for monitoring seismic activity across the country. Operated by the China Earthquake Administration, CENC provides real-time data on earthquakes, including location, magnitude, depth, and intensity. China is highly susceptible to seismic activity due to its location along major tectonic boundaries, making this data crucial for national disaster management.

CENC’s data includes real-time earthquake alerts, historical records, and impact assessments that support emergency response and public safety. The center also collaborates with other international seismic networks, contributing to global earthquake monitoring efforts and enabling cross-border research on seismic hazards.

CENC emphasizes public safety and awareness, offering resources to educate citizens on earthquake preparedness and safety practices. By engaging communities, CENC helps reduce the impact of seismic events and supports national efforts to enhance resilience against earthquakes.

The China Earthquake Networks Center plays a vital role in protecting lives and infrastructure in one of the world’s most seismically active regions, providing essential data for effective response and preparedness strategies.[31]

1.1.1.34. Mexico Seismological Service (SSN)

The Mexico Seismological Service (SSN) is Mexico’s national agency responsible for monitoring seismic activity across the country. Managed by the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), SSN provides real-time earthquake data, including location, magnitude, depth, and aftershock analysis. Mexico’s position along the Pacific Ring of Fire makes it particularly vulnerable to seismic events, and SSN’s data is essential for national earthquake preparedness.

SSN provides real-time alerts, historical data, and analysis of seismic trends, which are invaluable for researchers studying seismic risks in Mexico. This data also informs emergency responders and government agencies, enabling them to plan and implement effective disaster response and preparedness strategies.

Public engagement is a core component of SSN’s mission, with the agency promoting earthquake awareness and preparedness throughout Mexico. Through educational campaigns, SSN helps communities understand earthquake risks and adopt safety practices, contributing to a more resilient population.

The Mexico Seismological Service is critical for enhancing national resilience to earthquakes, protecting lives, and supporting research on seismic hazards in one of the world’s most active seismic regions.[32]

1.1.1.35. Korean Seismological Network (KSN)

The Korean Seismological Network (KSN) is a national network dedicated to monitoring seismic activity throughout South Korea. Operated by the Korea Meteorological Administration (KMA), KSN provides real-time earthquake data, including location, magnitude, and intensity. While South Korea is not located in a highly active seismic zone, the region has experienced significant seismic events, making earthquake monitoring essential for public safety and infrastructure protection.

KSN offers tools for tracking earthquake activity, assessing seismic trends, and conducting aftershock analyses. This data supports national efforts in earthquake preparedness and helps local authorities plan for potential seismic hazards. The network collaborates with other regional networks to enhance data-sharing and improve the understanding of seismic activity in Northeast Asia.

Public education is an important part of KSN’s mission. By providing information on earthquake preparedness and safety, KSN helps to improve community awareness and reduce risks associated with unexpected seismic events. The Korean Seismological Network is a valuable resource for South Korea, supporting public safety and contributing to a greater understanding of seismic risks in the region.[33]

1.1.1.36. Earthquake Research Institute (ERI) – University of Tokyo

The Earthquake Research Institute (ERI) at the University of Tokyo is a leading research institution dedicated to studying seismic activity and earthquake risks in Japan and beyond. Japan’s position along tectonic boundaries makes it one of the world’s most seismically active countries, and ERI provides critical data and research findings that contribute to earthquake science and risk mitigation.

ERI collects data on seismic events, tectonic movement, and volcanic activity, and conducts advanced research on earthquake prediction, seismic wave propagation, and disaster preparedness. ERI also collaborates with international research institutions and seismic networks, facilitating data sharing and global research on earthquake dynamics.

The institute engages in public outreach, providing educational materials and resources to help Japanese communities prepare for earthquakes. This proactive approach to public education enhances Japan’s resilience to seismic hazards and promotes a culture of preparedness.

The Earthquake Research Institute plays a crucial role in Japan’s earthquake research and risk management, advancing scientific understanding and supporting disaster resilience efforts.[34]

1.1.1.37. National Observatory of Athens (NOA) Seismological Data

The National Observatory of Athens (NOA) Seismological Data platform provides comprehensive earthquake monitoring and research in Greece. NOA, one of the oldest research institutions in Europe, offers real-time earthquake data, including magnitude, location, and depth, for seismic events across Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean region.

Greece’s high seismic activity, due to its location along tectonic fault lines, makes NOA’s data essential for assessing earthquake risks and enhancing public safety. NOA’s platform includes historical earthquake data, hazard maps, and seismic risk assessments, supporting researchers and authorities in planning for potential seismic events.

NOA promotes public awareness on earthquake safety through educational initiatives, helping Greek communities understand earthquake risks and adopt safe practices. By involving the public in earthquake preparedness, NOA contributes to a culture of resilience and reduces the impact of seismic events.

The National Observatory of Athens Seismological Data is a vital resource for Greece’s earthquake research, public safety, and disaster preparedness, advancing knowledge on seismic hazards in the region.[35]

1.1.1.38. Turkish National Seismic Network (TNSN)

The Turkish National Seismic Network (TNSN) is Turkey’s primary network for monitoring and analyzing earthquake activity. Operated by the Disaster and Emergency Management Authority (AFAD), TNSN provides real-time earthquake data, including location, magnitude, and depth. Turkey’s tectonic setting makes it one of the most earthquake-prone countries in Europe and the Middle East, making TNSN’s data critical for national earthquake preparedness.

TNSN’s platform offers real-time seismic monitoring, historical earthquake records, and hazard assessments. These resources enable researchers and emergency planners to study seismic patterns, evaluate risks, and implement appropriate disaster response strategies. TNSN collaborates with international seismic networks to enhance data-sharing and support cross-border earthquake research.

AFAD also emphasizes public education, offering resources to inform Turkish communities about earthquake risks and preparedness measures. This outreach strengthens community resilience and helps reduce the impact of earthquakes on lives and infrastructure.The Turkish National Seismic Network is an essential resource for Turkey’s earthquake preparedness and research efforts, contributing to the country’s resilience against seismic hazards.[36]

1.1.1.39. Iran Strong Motion Network (ISMN)

The Iran Strong Motion Network (ISMN) is Iran’s national system for monitoring strong seismic activity, particularly in regions with significant earthquake risks. Operated by the International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES), ISMN focuses on collecting data from strong-motion sensors, which measure ground shaking during seismic events, particularly those with the potential to impact infrastructure and public safety.

ISMN’s data includes acceleration, velocity, and displacement readings from earthquakes, allowing researchers and engineers to assess how structures and soils respond to seismic forces. This information is crucial for developing building codes, retrofitting strategies, and public safety measures in one of the world’s most seismically active regions.

ISMN also plays a significant role in educating the public and government agencies about earthquake resilience. By providing real-time monitoring and historical records, ISMN supports Iran’s efforts to prepare for, and mitigate, the impact of large earthquakes on its communities and infrastructure. The Iran Strong Motion Network is a vital resource for Iranian seismic research, structural engineering, and disaster preparedness, supporting the country’s overall resilience to seismic hazards.[37]

1.1.1.40. Earthquake Data from the Institute of Seismology, University of Helsinki

The Institute of Seismology at the University of Helsinki provides earthquake data and research focused on seismic activity in Finland and the surrounding regions. This data is essential for understanding local seismic hazards, although Finland has lower seismicity compared to tectonically active regions. The institute collects and analyzes data on minor seismic events, tectonic movements, and artificial seismic sources, such as mining activities.

The Institute of Seismology’s platform includes earthquake catalogs, waveform data, and research publications on Finland’s seismic characteristics. The institute also collaborates with regional and international networks to improve seismic monitoring across Northern Europe and the Arctic region, supporting cross-border research initiatives.

Public education is an important component of the institute’s work, helping Finnish communities understand seismic risks and preparedness strategies. Through outreach and educational programs, the Institute of Seismology promotes seismic awareness across Finland. The Earthquake Data from the Institute of Seismology is a valuable resource for regional seismic research, contributing to the understanding of Northern Europe’s seismic profile.[38]

1.1.1.41. National Seismological Service of Argentina (INPRES)

The National Seismological Service of Argentina (INPRES) is Argentina’s primary organization for monitoring seismic activity throughout the country. Managed by the National Institute of Seismic Prevention (INPRES), the service provides real-time earthquake data, including event location, magnitude, depth, and intensity. Argentina’s position along the Andes mountain range makes it highly susceptible to seismic activity, making INPRES’s data essential for national preparedness.

INPRES provides real-time earthquake alerts, historical data, and tools for seismic risk analysis, supporting both emergency responders and researchers. The agency collaborates with international seismic networks to share data, enhancing global understanding of seismic hazards in South America.

Public awareness is an important component of INPRES’s mission. Through educational outreach, INPRES promotes earthquake preparedness and safety practices, contributing to Argentina’s resilience against seismic events. The National Seismological Service of Argentina is a critical resource for protecting communities and supporting seismic research, advancing earthquake safety efforts across the country.[39]

1.1.1.42. Swiss Seismological Service (SED)

The Swiss Seismological Service (SED), based at ETH Zurich, is Switzerland’s national organization for earthquake monitoring and research. SED provides real-time data on seismic events, including magnitude, location, depth, and impact assessments. While Switzerland is not in a high seismic risk zone, the region experiences moderate seismic activity, making this data important for public safety and infrastructure resilience.

SED’s platform offers a variety of tools, including earthquake catalogs, hazard maps, and risk assessments that inform building codes and disaster preparedness strategies. SED also collaborates with European seismic networks, contributing to the understanding of seismic hazards across central Europe.

In addition to real-time monitoring, SED places a strong emphasis on public education, offering resources to help Swiss communities understand earthquake risks and prepare for potential seismic events. The Swiss Seismological Service is an essential resource for enhancing earthquake safety in Switzerland, supporting both scientific research and public awareness initiatives.[40]

1.1.1.43. Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO) Earthquake Database

The Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO) Earthquake Database provides data on seismic activity in Iceland, a country with significant seismic and volcanic activity due to its position along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. IMO offers real-time earthquake monitoring, including magnitude, depth, and location, as well as impact assessments for events that may affect communities or infrastructure.

IMO’s earthquake data includes historical records, predictive models, and tools for monitoring volcanic and tectonic activity. The database is widely used by emergency management agencies, researchers, and policymakers in Iceland and beyond, supporting response efforts for both earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Public safety and awareness are key components of IMO’s mission, with resources available to educate Icelanders on earthquake and volcano preparedness. This outreach helps communities understand the unique seismic hazards in Iceland and promotes a proactive approach to safety.

The Icelandic Meteorological Office Earthquake Database is vital for disaster management and scientific research in Iceland, advancing understanding of the region’s complex tectonic environment.[41]

1.1.1.44. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS)

The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) is the Philippines’ national agency for monitoring seismic and volcanic activity. PHIVOLCS provides real-time data on earthquakes, including magnitude, location, and depth, and offers tsunami warning services for coastal communities. Given the Philippines’ location on the Pacific Ring of Fire, PHIVOLCS’s data is crucial for disaster preparedness.

PHIVOLCS’s platform includes earthquake catalogs, hazard maps, and risk assessments. The agency also engages in extensive public education, offering resources to inform communities about earthquake and tsunami safety and promote preparedness. PHIVOLCS collaborates with international organizations to improve monitoring and response capabilities. Its data is essential for government agencies, researchers, and the public in understanding and mitigating the impacts of seismic hazards in the Philippines.

The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology is a critical resource for national disaster preparedness, helping to protect lives and infrastructure from the impacts of seismic events and tsunamis.[42]

1.1.1.45. Caribbean Seismic Research Centre (CSRC)

The Caribbean Seismic Research Centre (CSRC), based at the University of the West Indies, is a regional research institution dedicated to monitoring and studying seismic activity across the Caribbean. This region, due to tectonic interactions, faces high seismic and volcanic risks, making CSRC’s work essential for local resilience and disaster preparedness.

CSRC’s platform provides real-time earthquake monitoring, detailed event data, and hazard assessments. The center also collaborates with neighboring countries and international networks to improve data sharing and enhance regional preparedness. In addition to earthquake monitoring, CSRC collects data on volcanic activity, supporting early warning systems for eruptions.

Public outreach is a significant part of CSRC’s mission, as it offers educational resources on earthquake safety and disaster preparedness. By promoting awareness and readiness, CSRC helps reduce the impact of earthquakes and volcanic activity on Caribbean communities.

The Caribbean Seismic Research Centre is essential for protecting the region from seismic hazards, supporting both research and community resilience initiatives.[43]

1.1.1.46. Indonesia Tsunami Early Warning System (InaTEWS)

The Indonesia Tsunami Early Warning System (InaTEWS) is a comprehensive monitoring and warning system designed to mitigate tsunami risks in Indonesia. Operated by the Indonesian Meteorology, Climatology, and Geophysical Agency (BMKG), InaTEWS provides real-time earthquake data and issues tsunami alerts to protect coastal populations.

InaTEWS includes seismic monitoring stations, deep-sea buoys, and coastal tide gauges, which work together to detect undersea earthquakes that may trigger tsunamis. The system processes data rapidly, issuing alerts within minutes to allow for timely evacuations. This network is crucial for Indonesia, a country highly susceptible to tsunamis due to its location along the Pacific Ring of Fire.

Public awareness campaigns are also a part of InaTEWS’s strategy. BMKG provides educational resources to coastal communities, ensuring residents understand evacuation procedures and tsunami risks.

The Indonesia Tsunami Early Warning System is critical for safeguarding Indonesian communities against tsunamis, enhancing the country’s overall resilience to seismic hazards.[44]

1.1.1.47. Romanian Seismological Network (RSN)

The Romanian Seismological Network (RSN) is Romania’s primary system for monitoring earthquake activity. Operated by the National Institute for Earth Physics (NIEP), RSN provides real-time data on seismic events, including location, magnitude, and depth, with a particular focus on the Vrancea region, which is known for its significant seismic activity.

RSN includes a network of seismograph stations across Romania, collecting data that is used for research, hazard assessments, and disaster preparedness. The network collaborates with European seismic networks to improve data-sharing and enhance earthquake monitoring capabilities.

Public education and outreach are also key components of RSN’s work. Through workshops, publications, and online resources, RSN educates Romanian communities about earthquake risks and promotes preparedness practices. The Romanian Seismological Network is vital for improving earthquake resilience and protecting communities in one of Europe’s more seismically active regions.[45]

1.1.1.48. Chilean National Seismological Center (CSN)

The Chilean National Seismological Center (CSN), based at the University of Chile, monitors and analyzes seismic activity throughout Chile, a country with one of the highest earthquake risks in the world due to its position along the Pacific Ring of Fire. CSN provides real-time data on earthquakes, including magnitude, depth, and epicenter location.

CSN’s data includes real-time alerts, historical earthquake records, and tools for risk assessment, all of which are essential for emergency planning and public safety in Chile. The center collaborates with international networks to improve seismic monitoring and contributes valuable data for research on seismic hazards in South America.

Public education is also central to CSN’s mission. Through community outreach, CSN provides resources on earthquake preparedness, helping Chilean communities understand seismic risks and adopt safety practices. The Chilean National Seismological Center plays a crucial role in Chile’s earthquake preparedness and research efforts, helping to protect lives and enhance resilience against seismic threats.[46]

1.1.1.49. Geological Survey of India (GSI) Seismic Data

The Geological Survey of India (GSI) Seismic Data platform provides information on earthquake occurrences across India. GSI, as a national institution, collects and disseminates seismic data, including earthquake location, magnitude, depth, and related geological features. Given India’s susceptibility to earthquakes, particularly in the Himalayan region, GSI’s data is essential for national disaster preparedness and public safety.

The GSI Seismic Data platform includes real-time monitoring, historical records, and risk assessments, supporting research and policy development in seismic hazard management. GSI also collaborates with other national agencies to provide comprehensive resources on earthquake preparedness and response.

Educational outreach is a part of GSI’s mission, aimed at raising public awareness of earthquake risks and promoting safety practices across India. This initiative helps communities, especially those in high-risk areas, prepare for seismic events. The Geological Survey of India’s seismic data contributes to India’s national resilience against earthquakes, supporting both research and disaster management efforts.[47]

1.1.1.50. British Geological Survey (BGS) Earthquake Seismology

The British Geological Survey (BGS) Earthquake Seismology platform is the United Kingdom’s primary resource for monitoring and researching seismic activity. While the UK experiences relatively low seismicity compared to tectonically active regions, BGS provides real-time data on earthquake events, including location, magnitude, and depth, to enhance understanding of regional seismic hazards.

BGS Earthquake Seismology includes tools for tracking active seismic events, historical earthquake catalogs, and seismic risk assessments. The data supports both public safety and research, helping engineers, planners, and policymakers develop resilience strategies for potential seismic events.

Public outreach is integral to BGS’s mission. The agency provides educational resources to raise awareness about earthquake science, risks, and preparedness, fostering a proactive approach to seismic safety in the UK. The British Geological Survey’s Earthquake Seismology platform is a valuable resource for the UK’s earthquake preparedness, scientific research, and public education initiatives, promoting resilience to seismic hazards.[48]

1.1.2. Tsunamis

1.1.2.1. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Tsunami Database

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Tsunami Database serves as an invaluable resource, providing detailed records of tsunami events from around the globe. Under NOAA’s management, this database captures a wide array of information about tsunamis, including their origins, impacts, and characteristics. Spanning an extensive historical timeline, it offers essential insights into the frequency and effects of tsunamis across various regions.

This comprehensive database includes information about the source location, identifying the precise geographic coordinates or regions where tsunamis begin. It documents the exact date and time of each event and measures the magnitude, which indicates the size or intensity of the tsunami. Additionally, it notes the maximum water height reached, reflecting the peak water level during the event. The database also provides data on human impacts, detailing casualties, injuries, and the extent of damage to property and infrastructure.

For researchers, policymakers, and disaster management professionals, the NOAA Tsunami Database is a crucial tool for analyzing historical tsunami events. It aids in assessing their impacts and supports the development of strategies to mitigate future risks. By enhancing preparedness and response efforts, this resource significantly contributes to a deeper understanding of tsunamis and their potential consequences.[49]

1.1.2.2. Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC)

The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) is an essential organization tasked with providing timely tsunami warnings and information to countries and territories across the Pacific Ocean and beyond. Since its establishment in 1949, the PTWC has been crucial in detecting and evaluating seismic activities that could potentially generate tsunamis, issuing rapid alerts to help minimize risks to life and property.

The PTWC operates a sophisticated network of seismic and sea-level monitoring systems, allowing for the real-time detection and analysis of earthquakes and oceanic disturbances. When a significant seismic event occurs, the center promptly assesses the tsunami potential and issues warnings and updates to the affected regions. These alerts contain crucial information about the expected arrival time, potential impact, and recommended actions for coastal communities.

The PTWC works closely with international partners, including other tsunami warning centers and national meteorological and geological agencies, to ensure a coordinated and effective response to tsunami threats. Through public education and outreach programs, the PTWC also strives to raise awareness about tsunami risks and promote preparedness measures among vulnerable populations.

As a leading authority in tsunami monitoring and warning, the PTWC plays a pivotal role in enhancing global safety and resilience against tsunamis. Its efforts are instrumental in reducing the impact of these natural disasters and safeguarding lives and communities in the Pacific and beyond.[50]

1.1.2.3. Global Historical Tsunami Database (GHTD)

The Global Historical Tsunami Database consists of two interconnected files that offer a comprehensive record of tsunami events spanning from 2000 BCE to the present day. This extensive database covers tsunami occurrences across major bodies of water, including the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, as well as the Mediterranean and Caribbean Seas. The database provides detailed information for each tsunami event, including the source location, which specifies the geographic coordinates or the specific area where the tsunami originated, and the exact date and time of the tsunami occurrence. It also includes data on the event’s magnitude, measuring the size or intensity of the tsunami, and the maximum water height, indicating the highest recorded water level reached. Additionally, the database records the total number of casualties and injuries caused by the tsunami and offers details on the extent of damage, including impacts on property and infrastructure. This global historical database is an invaluable resource for researchers, policymakers, and disaster management professionals, enabling them to analyze past tsunami events, assess their impacts, and develop strategies to mitigate future risks.[51]

1.1.2.4. International Tsunami Information Center (ITIC)

The International Tsunami Information Center (ITIC) plays a crucial role in enhancing global preparedness and response to tsunami threats. Founded in 1965 under the auspices of UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC), the ITIC serves as a central resource for tsunami monitoring, research, and education worldwide.

The primary mission of the ITIC is to support the development and coordination of tsunami warning systems across various regions, ensuring that at-risk countries receive reliable and timely information. To achieve this, the ITIC offers technical assistance and training to strengthen the capabilities of national and regional tsunami warning centers, enabling them to implement effective detection and alert systems.

In addition to its technical support, the ITIC actively promotes research and scientific understanding of tsunamis. By collaborating with scientists and researchers worldwide, the center advances the study of tsunami generation, propagation, and impact. This research is vital for improving the accuracy of tsunami forecasts and enhancing the effectiveness of warning systems.

Education and public awareness are also core components of ITIC’s mission. The center develops educational materials, conducts workshops, and organizes outreach programs to increase awareness about tsunami risks and preparedness strategies. By fostering a culture of awareness and readiness, the ITIC helps communities understand the importance of timely evacuation and protective measures in the event of a tsunami. Through its comprehensive approach to reducing tsunami risk, the ITIC significantly enhances the resilience of communities worldwide. By supporting international cooperation and knowledge sharing, the center contributes to global efforts to minimize the impact of tsunamis and protect lives and livelihoods.[52]

1.1.2.5. National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) Tsunami Database

The National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) Tsunami Database is an essential resource for understanding and analyzing tsunami events worldwide. Managed by the National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI), formerly known as the NGDC, this database provides comprehensive data on historical and contemporary tsunami events, contributing to research, preparedness, and risk reduction efforts.

The NGDC Tsunami Database includes detailed records of tsunami occurrences, encompassing information about the source location, magnitude, and impact of each event. It offers insights into the geographic origin of tsunamis, their travel paths, and the maximum wave heights recorded. Additionally, the database provides data on the human and economic impacts of tsunamis, such as casualties, injuries, and property damage.

Researchers, policymakers, and disaster management professionals rely on the NGDC Tsunami Database to analyze trends and patterns in tsunami activity, assess the risks to coastal communities, and develop effective mitigation strategies. The data supports scientific studies aimed at understanding the dynamics of tsunamis, improving early warning systems, and enhancing community preparedness.

The NGDC Tsunami Database is accessible to the public and serves as a valuable tool for education and awareness. By providing detailed and reliable information, it helps inform public understanding of tsunami risks and promotes proactive measures to reduce their impact.[53]

1.1.2.6. Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) Tsunami Database

The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) Tsunami Database is a vital resource for understanding tsunamis that impact Japan and nearby regions. As a leading authority in meteorological and seismic observations, the JMA is tasked with detecting, analyzing, and sharing information about tsunamis to help protect Japan’s coastal communities.

This database contains detailed records of past tsunamis, including when and where each event occurred, the magnitude, and the origin location. It also provides data on maximum wave heights, affected areas, and the extent of damage or casualties. Such information is essential for understanding tsunami patterns and risks in the region, enabling researchers and policymakers to develop effective risk reduction strategies.

Beyond maintaining this comprehensive database, the JMA operates a sophisticated tsunami warning system that utilizes real-time seismic and sea-level data. This system allows for the rapid identification of potential tsunami-generating earthquakes and ensures that the public receives timely alerts. The JMA’s efforts in tsunami monitoring and warning are supported by ongoing research and collaboration with international scientific organizations.

The JMA Tsunami Database serves as a crucial tool for researchers, disaster management professionals, and the general public. It supports scientific research aimed at better understanding tsunami behavior and enhances public awareness and preparedness. By providing accurate and reliable information, the JMA plays a significant role in reducing the impact of tsunamis and safeguarding lives and property in Japan and surrounding areas.[54]

1.1.2.7. Indonesian Tsunami Early Warning System (InaTEWS)

The Indonesian Tsunami Early Warning System (InaTEWS) is a vital initiative aimed at boosting Indonesia’s preparedness and response capabilities for tsunamis. Given Indonesia’s location on the Pacific Ring of Fire, the country is particularly vulnerable to seismic activity. Developed in collaboration with international partners, InaTEWS seeks to provide rapid and accurate tsunami warnings to reduce risks to lives and property.

InaTEWS is equipped with a vast network of seismic stations, sea-level gauges, and buoys that continuously monitor seismic events and ocean conditions in real-time. This advanced system allows for the swift identification of earthquakes that could lead to tsunamis, ensuring that timely warnings reach at-risk areas. InaTEWS collaborates closely with local governments and communities to ensure effective communication of alerts and the execution of evacuation plans.

Besides its technological infrastructure, InaTEWS places a strong emphasis on public education and community involvement. Through educational sessions, drills, and awareness programs, InaTEWS works to increase community understanding of tsunami risks and improve readiness to respond to warnings. This comprehensive strategy ensures that residents are familiar with evacuation routes and procedures, minimizing the potential impact of tsunamis on coastal communities.

InaTEWS signifies a significant advancement in Indonesia’s disaster management systems, providing a solid foundation for reducing tsunami threats and enhancing resilience. By integrating technology, scientific research, and community engagement, InaTEWS plays a crucial role in protecting lives and promoting a culture of preparedness throughout the nation.[55]

1.1.2.8. European Mediterranean Tsunami Warning System (NEAMTWS)

The European Mediterranean Tsunami Warning System (NEAMTWS) is a crucial initiative aimed at boosting tsunami preparedness and response in the European and Mediterranean areas. Developed with guidance from UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC), NEAMTWS strives to provide countries bordering the North East Atlantic, Mediterranean, and connected seas with timely and precise tsunami warnings.

NEAMTWS operates through a network of strategically positioned seismic and sea-level monitoring stations across the region. These stations enable real-time detection of seismic activities that might lead to tsunamis. Upon detecting a significant seismic event, NEAMTWS quickly assesses the potential tsunami threat and issues alerts to at-risk countries. The system collaborates closely with national tsunami warning centers to ensure effective communication and coordination of response efforts.

Public education and preparedness are central to NEAMTWS’s mission. The system supports training programs, simulations, and awareness campaigns to raise public awareness of tsunami risks and improve readiness to respond to warnings. By engaging with local communities and authorities, NEAMTWS helps ensure residents understand evacuation procedures and safety measures.

NEAMTWS represents a major step forward in regional disaster management capabilities, offering a solid framework for reducing tsunami risks and increasing resilience. By promoting international collaboration and integrating scientific research with practical preparedness strategies, NEAMTWS plays a vital role in protecting lives and property throughout the European and Mediterranean regions.[56]

1.1.2.9. Australian Tsunami Warning System (ATWS)

The Australian Tsunami Warning System (ATWS) is a vital program focused on protecting Australia from the threat of tsunamis. Developed through a collaboration between Geoscience Australia, the Australian Bureau of Meteorology, and Emergency Management Australia, ATWS aims to provide timely and accurate tsunami warnings to safeguard lives and property.

ATWS operates an extensive network of seismic stations, deep-ocean buoys, and tide gauges that continuously monitor seismic activity and sea-level changes. This sophisticated network enables the real-time detection of undersea earthquakes that might generate tsunamis, allowing for quick assessment and the dissemination of warnings to the Australian public and relevant authorities.

Beyond its monitoring capabilities, ATWS prioritizes community preparedness and education. The system conducts regular training exercises, public awareness campaigns, and educational programs to ensure that communities understand the risks associated with tsunamis and know how to respond effectively to warnings. By fostering a culture of preparedness, ATWS helps minimize the potential impact of tsunamis on coastal populations.

ATWS represents a major step forward in Australia’s ability to manage and mitigate tsunami risks. By combining advanced technology, scientific research, and community engagement, ATWS plays a crucial role in enhancing national resilience and promoting a proactive approach to disaster risk management.[57]

1.1.2.10. UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) Tsunami Program

The UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) Tsunami Program is a key initiative aimed at enhancing global preparedness and mitigation for tsunamis. Part of UNESCO’s broader mission to promote international cooperation in oceanographic research, this program focuses on developing and coordinating tsunami warning systems worldwide to reduce the risks posed by these catastrophic natural events.

The IOC Tsunami Program supports the creation and improvement of regional tsunami warning systems in areas such as the Pacific, Indian Ocean, Caribbean, and Mediterranean regions. It collaborates closely with member states to implement cutting-edge monitoring technologies, including seismic and sea-level observation networks, to detect potential tsunami-causing events in real-time. This cooperative approach ensures that countries receive timely and accurate information necessary for issuing effective tsunami warnings.

Beyond providing technical support, the IOC Tsunami Program places a strong emphasis on capacity building and education. It organizes workshops, training sessions, and awareness campaigns to help communities understand the risks associated with tsunamis and develop effective response strategies. By promoting public awareness and preparedness, the program strengthens the resilience of vulnerable populations against tsunami threats.

The IOC Tsunami Program plays a crucial role in facilitating international collaboration and information sharing, helping to create a global network of tsunami warning systems that protect lives and property. Through its comprehensive approach, the program significantly contributes to reducing the impact of tsunamis and fostering a culture of safety and preparedness worldwide.[58]

1.1.2.11. New Zealand GeoNet Tsunami Database

The New Zealand GeoNet Tsunami Database is an invaluable resource dedicated to providing detailed insights into tsunamis affecting New Zealand and its surrounding areas. This extensive repository contains information about the timing, strength, and effects of tsunamis, along with details about the specific regions impacted. It serves as an essential tool for researchers, emergency management teams, and policymakers, offering crucial data that sheds light on the frequency and nature of these natural events in a region known for its seismic activity.

This database compiles information from a wide array of sources, including historical accounts, scientific research, and cutting-edge real-time monitoring systems, all aimed at deepening our understanding of tsunami threats. It features key details like wave heights, travel times, and inundation extents, providing a solid basis for conducting analyses and developing research. By analyzing past tsunami patterns and behaviors, this database is instrumental in forecasting future events and crafting effective risk-reduction strategies.

To maintain its accuracy and comprehensiveness, the database is continually updated with new information. This involves collaborating with global tsunami monitoring agencies and local scientific bodies to integrate the latest findings and data. By delivering dependable and thorough information, the GeoNet Tsunami Database plays a pivotal role in mitigating tsunami risks in New Zealand. It supports the formulation of emergency response plans and community preparedness efforts, ultimately contributing to the safety and resilience of vulnerable communities.[59]

1.1.2.12. Caribbean Tsunami Warning Program (CTWP)

The Caribbean Tsunami Warning Program (CTWP) is dedicated to boosting the region’s ability to detect, monitor, and respond to tsunamis. Its primary goal is to improve preparedness and resilience by delivering timely and accurate warnings, which are vital for protecting lives and property. The CTWP partners with local, national, and international organizations to create a robust tsunami warning system tailored to the unique needs of the Caribbean.

The CTWP’s efforts focus on several key areas. First, it develops and maintains a network of seismic and sea-level monitoring stations to provide real-time data on potential tsunamis. This data is crucial for assessing the risk of tsunami generation and for issuing warnings to authorities and the public. Additionally, the program prioritizes education and outreach, aiming to boost public awareness and understanding of tsunami risks. Through workshops, training sessions, and information campaigns, the CTWP ensures communities are prepared to respond effectively in case of a tsunami.

Beyond monitoring and warnings, the CTWP conducts research to better understand the Caribbean’s seismic and geological features. This research enhances tsunami models and improves forecast accuracy, aiding in more effective risk management strategies. The CTWP’s comprehensive approach to preparedness and response is a key part of the region’s efforts to reduce disaster risks.[60]

1.1.2.13. Hawaii Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program

The Hawaii Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program is a thorough initiative designed to lessen the risks and impacts of tsunamis in the Hawaiian Islands. The program aims to enhance resilience by combining early warning systems, public education, and preparedness strategies. By using the latest scientific research and technological innovations, it seeks to improve the accuracy of tsunami predictions and the effectiveness of response measures.

A crucial part of the program is the development and maintenance of a network of seismic and oceanographic instruments that monitor tsunami activity. This network supplies real-time data essential for evaluating potential tsunami threats and issuing timely warnings. The program collaborates closely with local and federal agencies to ensure that warning systems are well-integrated and that communication channels function clearly and effectively.

Public education and outreach are at the heart of the program’s efforts. Raising awareness and understanding of tsunami risks is vital for community preparedness. The program conducts regular drills, workshops, and training sessions for residents, schools, and businesses, ensuring everyone knows how to react in case of a tsunami. These efforts aim to foster a culture of preparedness and resilience throughout the Hawaiian Islands.

The program also supports research initiatives to deepen understanding of tsunami generation and propagation, which helps improve models and risk assessments. By constantly updating its strategies and resources, the Hawaii Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program plays an essential role in safeguarding the lives and property of those living in one of the world’s most tsunami-prone areas.[61]

1.1.2.14. Chilean National Tsunami Warning Center (SHOA)

The Chilean National Tsunami Warning Center (SHOA) is an essential part of Chile’s strategy for managing disaster risks, focusing on monitoring, detecting, and issuing tsunami warnings along its vast coastline. Operated by the Chilean Navy, SHOA plays a vital role in keeping coastal communities safe by providing precise and timely alerts about tsunami threats.

SHOA runs a network of seismic and sea-level monitoring stations that constantly collect data on oceanographic and seismic activities. This data is analyzed to identify potential tsunami threats, enabling SHOA to send early warnings to government agencies, emergency responders, and the public. The center collaborates closely with international tsunami warning systems and scientific bodies to enhance its monitoring abilities and integrate global data into its evaluations.

Beyond monitoring and issuing alerts, SHOA is heavily involved in public education and outreach initiatives. These efforts are designed to increase awareness of tsunami risks and promote readiness among Chile’s coastal residents. Through workshops, educational campaigns, and community drills, SHOA empowers people with the knowledge and skills they need to react effectively when tsunami warnings are issued.

Additionally, SHOA conducts research and partners with scientific organizations to improve understanding of tsunami behavior and effects in the region. This research helps develop more precise predictive models and risk assessments, contributing to better tsunami risk management strategies. SHOA’s comprehensive approach is a key element in Chile’s mission to protect its coastal communities from the devastating impacts of tsunamis.[62]

1.1.2.15. Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) Tsunami Database

The Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) Tsunami Database is a key element of India’s strategy to monitor and respond to tsunami threats. Operating under the Ministry of Earth Sciences, INCOIS provides real-time ocean data and forecasts that are essential for keeping coastal communities in the Indian Ocean region safe and prepared. The Tsunami Database, managed by INCOIS, is a valuable resource for researchers, emergency managers, and policymakers, compiling extensive information on past and present tsunami events.

The database holds detailed records of tsunami occurrences, such as dates, locations, magnitudes, wave heights, and impact extents. This data is crucial for understanding historical tsunami patterns in the Indian Ocean and for refining predictive models that aid in risk assessment and preparedness planning. INCOIS uses data from a network of seismic stations, tide gauges, and DART buoys to provide comprehensive monitoring and early warning capabilities.

INCOIS is central to India’s Tsunami Early Warning System, delivering timely alerts to national and regional authorities. These warnings are distributed through multiple channels to ensure swift communication to communities at risk. Furthermore, INCOIS is actively involved in building capacity through training programs and awareness campaigns that boost community resilience and preparedness.

By maintaining and updating the Tsunami Database, INCOIS supports scientific research, enhances the understanding of tsunami dynamics, and helps develop effective mitigation strategies. The database is a crucial part of India’s broader efforts to reduce the impacts of tsunamis and protect vulnerable coastal populations.[63]

1.1.2.16. Russian Academy of Sciences Tsunami Laboratory

The Russian Academy of Sciences Tsunami Laboratory is a top research center dedicated to studying and monitoring tsunamis. Part of the Institute of Computational Mathematics and Mathematical Geophysics, this laboratory conducts advanced research to better understand how tsunamis are generated, how they move, and what impact they have. The lab is a key player in boosting Russia’s tsunami warning systems and contributes to global efforts to reduce tsunami risks.

Equipped with cutting-edge computational models and analytical tools, the Tsunami Laboratory simulates and analyzes tsunami events. These technologies help researchers explore the complex dynamics of tsunamis, including how they interact with coastlines and their potential effects on communities. The insights gained are vital for developing accurate predictive models and enhancing early warning systems.

Beyond research, the Tsunami Laboratory collaborates with government agencies, universities, and international bodies to exchange knowledge and expertise. This includes participating in global tsunami monitoring networks and helping to establish international standards for assessing and managing tsunami risks.

The lab also prioritizes public outreach and education to increase awareness of tsunami risks and encourage preparedness in coastal areas. Through workshops, seminars, and training sessions, the Tsunami Laboratory equips people and organizations with the knowledge and skills needed to respond effectively to tsunami threats.

By advancing scientific understanding of tsunamis and supporting the creation of reliable early warning systems, the Russian Academy of Sciences Tsunami Laboratory plays a crucial role in protecting communities from the devastating effects of tsunamis.[64]

1.1.2.17. Alaska Earthquake Center Tsunami Program

The Alaska Earthquake Center Tsunami Program is a crucial part of Alaska’s strategy to monitor and respond to tsunami threats. As a division of the Alaska Earthquake Center, the program aims to bolster the state’s preparedness and resilience through comprehensive monitoring, research, and outreach efforts. Due to Alaska’s location and susceptibility to seismic activity, the program is vital for protecting communities along its vast coastline.

The Tsunami Program operates a network of seismic and sea-level monitoring stations strategically positioned across the state. These stations provide real-time data essential for detecting and assessing potential tsunami threats. The program collaborates closely with the National Tsunami Warning Center to ensure that warnings are promptly communicated to local authorities, emergency responders, and the public, delivering accurate and actionable information when tsunamis occur.

Research is a key focus of the Tsunami Program’s efforts. The program studies the seismic and geological features of Alaska’s coastal areas to improve understanding of how tsunamis are generated and behave. This research aids in developing predictive models that enhance the accuracy of tsunami forecasts and risk assessments.

In addition to monitoring and research, the Tsunami Program engages in extensive outreach and education. It conducts community workshops, drills, and training sessions to increase awareness of tsunami risks and promote preparedness. These initiatives aim to equip residents with the knowledge and skills needed to respond effectively in a tsunami situation, ultimately strengthening community resilience.

By providing critical data, advancing scientific understanding, and promoting a culture of preparedness, the Alaska Earthquake Center Tsunami Program is a vital resource in reducing tsunami risks in Alaska.[65]

1.1.2.18. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) Tsunami Database

1.1.2.19. Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL) Tsunami Research Program

The Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL) Tsunami Research Program, operated by NOAA, is a leading initiative focused on understanding and reducing tsunami risks. PMEL is at the cutting edge of tsunami research and technology, enhancing our scientific knowledge of how tsunamis form, move, and impact coastal areas, which is crucial for global efforts to reduce tsunami risks.

The PMEL Tsunami Research Program uses advanced numerical models and simulations to study tsunami dynamics, refining prediction models and improving forecast accuracy. This work is vital for understanding how tsunamis interact with different coastal environments and for developing strategies to lessen their effects.

Beyond research, PMEL is a pioneer in developing and deploying innovative tsunami detection technologies. The program was instrumental in creating the Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) system, which provides real-time data on sea-level changes linked to tsunamis. This information is critical for early detection and warning, helping communities prepare and respond more effectively to threats.

The PMEL Tsunami Research Program also collaborates internationally, partnering with agencies and research institutions worldwide to share knowledge, data, and best practices. This global collaboration is key to improving tsunami monitoring and response capabilities and promoting a coordinated approach to managing tsunami risks.

Through its comprehensive research, technological innovations, and collaborative efforts, the PMEL Tsunami Research Program plays a vital role in boosting global resilience to tsunamis and protecting communities from their devastating effects.[66]

1.1.2.20. Tsunami Events Database (TED) by Tohoku University

The Tsunami Events Database (TED) by Tohoku University is an extensive resource that gathers detailed information on tsunami events worldwide. Managed by the International Research Institute of Disaster Science (IRIDeS) at Tohoku University in Japan, TED is a vital tool for researchers, emergency managers, and policymakers working on tsunami risk assessment and management. This database provides extensive data on both historical and recent tsunamis, offering insights into their causes, characteristics, and impacts.

TED includes detailed records of tsunami occurrences, such as dates, locations, magnitudes, wave heights, run-up distances, and affected regions. This information is crucial for analyzing tsunami activity patterns and developing predictive models that enhance disaster preparedness and response strategies. By continuously updating the database, Tohoku University supports ongoing research efforts and offers valuable insights for creating effective tsunami mitigation measures.

The Tsunami Events Database is part of Tohoku University’s broader mission to advance disaster science and foster resilience against natural hazards. The university uses its expertise in disaster research to support the development of innovative technologies and methodologies for tsunami monitoring, detection, and early warning.

Beyond its research and monitoring capabilities, Tohoku University is involved in public education and outreach to raise awareness of tsunami risks and promote preparedness in vulnerable communities. By providing access to reliable and comprehensive data, TED empowers individuals, communities, and decision-makers to make informed decisions and strengthen their resilience to tsunami threats.[67]

1.1.2.21. Korean Meteorological Administration (KMA) Tsunami Database

The Korean Meteorological Administration (KMA) Tsunami Database is a key resource for tracking and analyzing tsunami activity in and around the Korean Peninsula. Managed by the KMA, this database offers comprehensive data on tsunami events, assisting researchers, emergency managers, and policymakers in understanding and reducing tsunami risks. It compiles detailed information on both historical and recent tsunami occurrences, supporting effective disaster preparedness and response strategies.

The KMA Tsunami Database records various aspects of tsunami events, such as dates, origins, magnitudes, wave heights, and impacted areas. This information is essential for identifying patterns in tsunami activity and refining predictive models to improve risk assessments. By consistently updating and maintaining the database, the KMA ensures it remains a valuable tool for scientific research and disaster risk management. As part of its broader mission, the KMA operates a robust tsunami warning system, using real-time data from seismic networks and ocean observation stations. This system delivers timely alerts to national and regional authorities, ensuring rapid communication and response to minimize the impact of tsunamis on vulnerable communities.

In addition to its monitoring and warning capabilities, the KMA engages in public education and outreach to raise awareness about tsunami risks and promote preparedness. Through workshops, drills, and information campaigns, the KMA helps equip individuals and communities with the knowledge and skills needed to respond effectively to tsunami threats.

By providing access to reliable and detailed tsunami data, the KMA Tsunami Database plays a crucial role in enhancing the resilience of Korean communities and protecting lives and property from the devastating effects of tsunamis.[68]

1.1.2.22. Canadian National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program

The Canadian National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program is a comprehensive effort aimed at reducing tsunami risks and impacts along Canada’s vast coastline. This program is a collaborative initiative involving several agencies, including Natural Resources Canada, Environment and Climate Change Canada, and the Department of Fisheries and Oceans. Its main goal is to boost tsunami preparedness, response, and resilience in Canadian coastal communities.

A key part of the program is the development and maintenance of a network of seismic and sea-level monitoring stations. These stations provide real-time data crucial for detecting and evaluating tsunami threats. The program collaborates with international partners and uses data from global tsunami warning systems to ensure thorough monitoring capabilities.

The program also focuses on public education and outreach to raise awareness and preparedness among coastal residents. Through community workshops, educational campaigns, and drills, the program aims to give people the knowledge and skills they need to respond effectively in a tsunami situation.

Research and development are essential to the program, with ongoing studies to understand how tsunamis are generated, how they move, and their impacts within the Canadian context. These research efforts help refine predictive models and create effective risk management strategies.

By encouraging collaboration, advancing scientific understanding, and promoting community preparedness, the Canadian National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program plays a crucial role in protecting Canada’s coastal communities from the devastating effects of tsunamis.[69]

1.1.2.23. Thailand National Disaster Warning Center (NDWC) Tsunami Database

The Thailand National Disaster Warning Center (NDWC) Tsunami Database is a key resource for tracking and analyzing tsunami events in Thailand and its neighboring areas. Managed by the NDWC, this database offers comprehensive data on both historical and recent tsunamis, providing valuable insights for researchers, emergency managers, and policymakers working on tsunami risk reduction and management.

The NDWC Tsunami Database includes detailed records of tsunami events, such as dates, locations, magnitudes, wave heights, and affected areas. This information is crucial for understanding tsunami patterns and behaviors in the region and for enhancing predictive models used in risk assessments and disaster planning. By maintaining and regularly updating the database, the NDWC supports ongoing research efforts and improves tsunami preparedness strategies.

In addition to maintaining the database, the NDWC operates a robust tsunami warning system that uses data from a network of seismic stations, tide gauges, and ocean buoys. This system provides real-time monitoring and early warning capabilities, ensuring alerts and warnings are quickly communicated to national and regional authorities, as well as the public, to reduce the impact of tsunamis.

The NDWC also engages in extensive public education and outreach to raise awareness about tsunami risks and promote preparedness in Thailand’s coastal communities. Through training programs, community drills, and information campaigns, the NDWC helps empower individuals and communities with the knowledge and skills needed to respond effectively to tsunami threats.

By offering access to reliable and detailed tsunami data, the NDWC Tsunami Database plays a crucial role in enhancing the resilience of Thai communities and protecting lives and property from the devastating effects of tsunamis.[70]

1.1.2.24. Maldives Meteorological Service Tsunami Data

The Maldives Meteorological Service Tsunami Data is a crucial resource for monitoring and analyzing tsunami activity in the Indian Ocean, especially around the Maldives. As an island nation that is highly vulnerable to oceanic hazards, the Maldives relies on this service to provide comprehensive and timely data on tsunami events. This information helps researchers, emergency managers, and policymakers develop effective risk assessment and management strategies to protect the country’s coastal communities.

The tsunami data maintained by the Maldives Meteorological Service includes records of both historical and recent tsunami occurrences. It contains details such as dates, locations, magnitudes, wave heights, and affected areas. By compiling and updating this data regularly, the service provides essential insights into the patterns and characteristics of tsunamis in the region, enhancing the understanding needed for effective disaster preparedness and response.

In addition to maintaining tsunami data, the Maldives Meteorological Service operates a tsunami warning system in collaboration with regional and international partners. This system uses real-time data from seismic networks, tide gauges, and ocean buoys to detect and assess potential tsunami threats. Alerts and warnings are quickly communicated to national and regional authorities and the public, ensuring rapid responses to mitigate the impacts of tsunamis.

The service also engages in public education and outreach to raise awareness about tsunami risks and promote preparedness among island communities. Through workshops, drills, and information campaigns, the service helps equip residents with the knowledge and skills needed to respond effectively to tsunami threats, thereby enhancing community resilience.

By providing reliable and detailed tsunami data, the Maldives Meteorological Service plays a vital role in safeguarding the nation’s communities from the devastating effects of tsunamis.[71]

1.1.2.25. Fiji Meteorological Service Tsunami Warnings

The Fiji Meteorological Service Tsunami Warnings system is a key part of Fiji’s disaster risk management strategy, providing crucial alerts and information to protect communities from tsunami threats. Located in the Pacific Ocean, Fiji is prone to seismic activity, making the timely delivery of tsunami warnings essential for the nation’s safety and resilience.

The Fiji Meteorological Service works with regional and international partners to maintain a strong tsunami warning system. This system uses data from seismic stations, tide gauges, and ocean buoys to monitor and assess potential tsunami threats in real-time. When a tsunami is detected or expected, the service quickly issues warnings to national and regional authorities, emergency responders, and the public, allowing for timely evacuations and other protective measures to reduce the impact on vulnerable communities.

Beyond its monitoring and warning functions, the Fiji Meteorological Service is involved in public education and outreach to increase awareness of tsunami risks and encourage preparedness. Through workshops, drills, and information campaigns, the service helps communities understand the importance of tsunami warnings and how to respond effectively when faced with a threat.

The service also supports research and development efforts to improve understanding of tsunami dynamics and refine predictive models. By advancing scientific knowledge and technological capabilities in tsunami risk management, the service contributes to more effective mitigation strategies and resilience-building initiatives.

Through its comprehensive approach to tsunami monitoring, warning, and education, the Fiji Meteorological Service plays a vital role in safeguarding lives and property from the devastating effects of tsunamis.[72]

1.1.2.26. Solomon Islands Meteorological Service Tsunami Database

The Solomon Islands Meteorological Service Tsunami Database is an essential tool for understanding and managing tsunami risks in the Solomon Islands and the surrounding region. Positioned in the seismically active Pacific Ring of Fire, the Solomon Islands is particularly vulnerable to tsunami threats, making the collection and analysis of tsunami data crucial for protecting its communities.

The Tsunami Database managed by the Solomon Islands Meteorological Service contains detailed records of both historical and recent tsunami events, including dates, magnitudes, origins, wave heights, and affected areas. Regularly compiling and updating this information provides valuable insights into the patterns and characteristics of tsunamis in the region, supporting risk assessments and disaster preparedness efforts.

Beyond maintaining the database, the Solomon Islands Meteorological Service operates a tsunami warning system in collaboration with regional and international partners. This system uses real-time data from seismic networks, tide gauges, and ocean buoys to detect and evaluate potential tsunami threats. When a threat is identified, the service issues timely alerts and warnings to national and regional authorities and the public, ensuring rapid communication and response to minimize tsunami impacts.

The Solomon Islands Meteorological Service is also dedicated to public education and outreach to raise awareness about tsunami risks and encourage preparedness. Through community workshops, drills, and information campaigns, the service equips residents with the knowledge and skills needed to respond effectively to tsunami threats, thereby enhancing community resilience.

By offering access to reliable and detailed tsunami data, the Solomon Islands Meteorological Service plays a vital role in protecting the nation’s communities from the devastating effects of tsunamis.[73]

1.1.2.27. Papua New Guinea Geophysical Observatory Tsunami Information

The Papua New Guinea Geophysical Observatory Tsunami Information system is a vital tool for monitoring and managing tsunami risks in Papua New Guinea (PNG) and the surrounding Pacific region. Located on the Pacific Ring of Fire, PNG is highly vulnerable to seismic activity, so timely dissemination of tsunami information is crucial for protecting its communities.

The Geophysical Observatory collects comprehensive data on both historical and recent tsunami events, offering critical insights into the characteristics and impacts of tsunamis in the region. This information includes details like event dates, magnitudes, wave heights, and affected areas, which are essential for understanding tsunami behavior and improving predictive models used in risk assessments and disaster planning.

The observatory operates a tsunami warning system in collaboration with regional and international partners, using real-time data from seismic networks, tide gauges, and ocean buoys to detect and assess potential tsunami threats. When a tsunami is detected or expected, the observatory promptly issues alerts to national and regional authorities, emergency responders, and the public. These warnings are vital for enabling quick evacuations and other protective measures to minimize the impacts on vulnerable communities.

In addition to its monitoring and warning capabilities, the Papua New Guinea Geophysical Observatory engages in public education and outreach to raise awareness about tsunami risks and promote preparedness. Through workshops, community drills, and information campaigns, the observatory helps ensure residents understand the importance of tsunami warnings and know how to respond effectively when faced with a threat.

By providing access to reliable and detailed tsunami information, the Papua New Guinea Geophysical Observatory plays a crucial role in enhancing the resilience of PNG’s communities and protecting lives and property from the devastating effects of tsunamis.[74]

1.1.2.28. Vanuatu Meteorology and Geo-Hazards Department (VMGD) Tsunami Database

The Vanuatu Meteorology and Geo-Hazards Department (VMGD) Tsunami Database is an essential tool for understanding and managing tsunami risks in Vanuatu and the surrounding Pacific region. As a country located within the Pacific Ring of Fire, Vanuatu is highly prone to seismic activity and tsunamis, making it crucial to collect and analyze tsunami data to protect its communities.

The VMGD Tsunami Database compiles comprehensive records of both historical and recent tsunami events, including details like event dates, origins, magnitudes, wave heights, and affected areas. By regularly updating this database, VMGD offers valuable insights into the patterns and characteristics of tsunamis in the region, supporting risk assessments and enhancing disaster preparedness strategies.

In addition to maintaining the database, VMGD operates a tsunami warning system in collaboration with regional and international partners. This system uses real-time data from seismic networks, tide gauges, and ocean buoys to monitor and assess potential tsunami threats. When a threat is detected, VMGD issues timely alerts and warnings to national and regional authorities, as well as the public, ensuring quick communication and response to minimize the impacts of tsunami events.

The department also engages in extensive public education and outreach to raise awareness about tsunami risks and promote preparedness. Through workshops, community drills, and information campaigns, VMGD helps equip residents with the knowledge and skills necessary to respond effectively to tsunami threats, thereby enhancing community resilience.

By providing access to reliable and detailed tsunami data, the Vanuatu Meteorology and Geo-Hazards Department plays a vital role in safeguarding the nation’s communities from the devastating effects of tsunamis.[75]

1.1.2.29. Tonga Meteorological Service Tsunami Alerts

The Tonga Meteorological Service Tsunami Alerts system is a vital component of Tonga’s disaster risk management efforts, providing critical warnings and information to protect the country’s communities from tsunami threats. Located in the seismically active Pacific region, Tonga is vulnerable to tsunami events, making the timely dissemination of alerts a priority for ensuring public safety and resilience.

The Tonga Meteorological Service collaborates with regional and international partners to operate a robust tsunami alert system. This system utilizes data from a network of seismic stations, tide gauges, and ocean buoys to monitor and assess potential tsunami threats in real-time. When a tsunami is detected or anticipated, the service promptly issues alerts and warnings to national and regional authorities, emergency responders, and the public. These warnings are crucial for enabling timely evacuations and other protective measures to minimize the impacts of tsunamis on vulnerable communities.

In addition to its monitoring and alert functions, the Tonga Meteorological Service engages in public education and outreach efforts to raise awareness about tsunami risks and promote preparedness. Through workshops, community drills, and information campaigns, the service works to ensure that residents understand the significance of tsunami alerts and know how to respond effectively in the event of a threat.

The Tonga Meteorological Service also supports research initiatives aimed at improving the understanding of tsunami dynamics and refining predictive models. By enhancing scientific knowledge and technological capabilities related to tsunami risk management, the service contributes to more effective mitigation strategies and resilience-building efforts. Through its comprehensive approach to tsunami monitoring, alerting, and education, the Tonga Meteorological Service plays a vital role in protecting lives and property from the devastating effects of tsunamis.[76]

1.1.2.30. Samoa Meteorological Division Tsunami Warnings

The Samoa Meteorological Division plays a critical role in safeguarding Samoa from the risks posed by tsunamis. This division is tasked with the detection, monitoring, and issuance of tsunami warnings, which are essential for minimizing the impact of these natural disasters.

The division utilizes advanced technology and methodologies to monitor oceanic and seismic conditions that may indicate the potential for a tsunami. This includes the use of seismographs to detect underwater earthquakes and tide gauges to observe unusual oceanic behavior. By analyzing data from these tools, the division can assess the likelihood of a tsunami and determine the appropriate level of warning required. Early detection is crucial for initiating timely warnings and mitigating the potential damage caused by tsunamis.

Once a potential tsunami threat is identified, the Samoa Meteorological Division issues warnings through multiple communication channels. These channels include traditional media such as radio and television, as well as digital platforms like social media and SMS alerts. The division ensures that information reaches the public quickly and effectively, providing clear instructions on evacuation procedures and safety measures. The effectiveness of these warnings relies on their timely dissemination and the public’s preparedness to act on the information provided.

In addition to its internal efforts, the Samoa Meteorological Division coordinates with national and international organizations to enhance the overall tsunami warning system. This collaboration includes sharing data with regional and global tsunami warning centers, participating in joint exercises, and adopting best practices from international guidelines. Such coordination helps in refining warning protocols and improving the accuracy of predictions.

The division’s comprehensive approach to tsunami warnings significantly contributes to disaster preparedness and response in Samoa, helping to reduce the risks and protect the population from the devastating effects of tsunamis.[77]

1.1.3. Volcanism

1.1.3.1. Global Volcanism Program (GVP)

The Global Volcanism Program (GVP), operated by the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History, stands as a key reference point for anyone tracking and documenting volcanic activity worldwide. Renowned for its depth, the GVP is widely recognized as one of the most authoritative sources of information on active and historically significant volcanoes. Its comprehensive nature makes it indispensable not only for scientists and researchers but also for policymakers and the general public, offering crucial insights into volcanic behavior.

The GVP’s extensive database covers more than 1,500 currently active volcanoes, in addition to archiving data on thousands of eruptions dating back over 10,000 years. For each volcano, it offers detailed information, including exact coordinates, elevation, type, and a history of eruptions, covering their style and frequency. The database classifies eruptions by magnitude and type, such as explosive or effusive, and uses the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) to gauge the intensity of volcanic events.

Beyond raw data, the GVP enriches its entries with qualitative information like historical accounts of eruptions, photographs, and detailed maps. Many records link to scientific papers, adding even more value for in-depth research. The database is regularly updated, drawing on reports from global monitoring organizations such as the United States Geological Survey (USGS) and numerous other observatories around the world.

One of the standout features of the GVP is its chronological listing of eruptions, enabling users to track long-term trends and assess how current volcanic activity compares to historical events. This capability is especially valuable for identifying future eruption risks and understanding how volcanic hazards are distributed across the globe. Additionally, the GVP includes records on dormant and extinct volcanoes, offering a broader geological perspective on the evolution of volcanic systems over time.

The GVP doesn’t just focus on eruptions, though; it plays a crucial role in disaster preparedness by supplying vital data for hazard assessments. This information is essential for regions at high risk of volcanic activity, helping to shape evacuation plans, emergency responses, and long-term land-use strategies in areas near volcanoes.

While it serves professionals, the GVP also provides accessible educational materials for students and the general public. Its online platform is user-friendly, featuring interactive maps and real-time updates, making it easy for anyone to explore volcanic activity around the world.

Ultimately, the Global Volcanism Program is critical not just for the field of volcanology but also for understanding the broader impacts of volcanic eruptions on the environment, climate, and human society. Large eruptions, in particular, can significantly influence global atmospheric conditions and temperature patterns. By connecting volcanic activity with environmental changes, the GVP helps to illuminate these complex interactions.[78]

1.1.3.2. Smithsonian Institution Volcano Database

The Smithsonian Institution Volcano Database, part of the broader Global Volcanism Program (GVP), stands out as a highly authoritative and exhaustive repository of global volcanic activity. Managed by the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History, it remains one of the most far-reaching resources, delivering detailed insights on both currently active and historically significant volcanoes. This database plays a vital role for scientists, emergency response teams, policymakers, and anyone seeking a deeper understanding of volcanic hazards and activity patterns.

Covering more than 1,500 active volcanoes across the world, the Smithsonian Institution Volcano Database also provides eruption records going back over 10,000 years. Each volcano entry is packed with data, such as the volcano’s name and classification—whether it’s a stratovolcano, shield volcano, or caldera—along with geographic coordinates like latitude, longitude, elevation, and its location by country or region. Additionally, eruption history is meticulously recorded, presenting chronological details on eruption types (whether explosive or effusive), dates, durations, and other significant events. The database further categorizes volcanic events using the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI), which offers a scale for understanding the magnitude and associated risks of each eruption. Photographs, topographic data, maps, and other visuals provide additional context, helping users better grasp the scale and dynamics of these volcanoes.

What makes the database so versatile is its wide range of data categories. It features detailed eruption histories that outline volcanic ash plumes, lava flows, and pyroclastic flows, as well as other geological processes. The volcano profiles go even further, offering in-depth descriptions of each volcano’s structure, geological evolution, and surrounding environment. Where available, users can access geophysical and seismic data, providing critical insights into pre-eruption activity. Moreover, interactive maps allow users to visually explore the global distribution of volcanic activity, including real-time updates and historical trends that enhance understanding of current and past events.

This rich dataset is indispensable for assessing hazards and preparing for potential volcanic disasters, especially in high-risk areas. Government bodies, researchers, and emergency management teams rely on the database to formulate risk mitigation strategies, plan evacuations, and shape policies aimed at protecting populations living near active volcanoes. Additionally, the database serves as a valuable educational tool, raising awareness about the mechanics of volcanic processes and the dangers they can pose.

One standout feature of the Smithsonian Institution Volcano Database is its ability to track global volcanic trends over time. This allows researchers to observe cycles and patterns in volcanic activity over centuries, helping predict future eruptions and examining the wider effects volcanic activity can have on climate, ecosystems, and human societies. Notably, large eruptions have the potential to impact the Earth’s atmosphere by injecting ash and aerosols into the stratosphere, which can lower global temperatures.

The Smithsonian Institution Volcano Database is publicly accessible and regularly updated, drawing on contributions from monitoring agencies and volcanic observatories worldwide. The data is continuously reviewed and expanded to capture ongoing volcanic events, ensuring that it remains a vital resource for those studying and responding to volcanic activity in real time.[79]

1.1.3.3. Volcano Global Risk Identification and Analysis Project (VOGRIPA)

The Volcano Global Risk Identification and Analysis Project (VOGRIPA) is a prominent international initiative dedicated to compiling a comprehensive global database of volcanic hazards, historical eruptions, and the potential risks they pose to populations and infrastructure. This project represents a collaboration between several key institutions, including the University of Bristol, the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth’s Interior (IAVCEI), and other global partners. The primary aim of VOGRIPA is to advance the understanding and mitigation of volcanic risks through the systematic collection, analysis, and dissemination of vital volcanic data.

VOGRIPA’s database provides extensive documentation of volcanic hazards and their potential impacts, focusing on assessing the frequency and intensity of volcanic events. The database offers detailed information on volcanoes worldwide, covering their historical eruptions, various volcanic hazards—such as pyroclastic flows, ash falls, lava flows, and lahars—and identifying the geographical regions most at risk. This information is an invaluable resource for scientists, government agencies, disaster management organizations, and planners, all of whom rely on it to develop strategies that improve preparedness and response efforts to reduce the risks posed by volcanic activity.

A central feature of the VOGRIPA project is its Volcanic Hazard and Risk Database, which incorporates geospatial data about volcano locations, nearby populations, and critical infrastructure that may be vulnerable to volcanic hazards. Another crucial aspect of the project is risk analysis, which evaluates how populations and infrastructure might be affected by specific types of volcanic events. This analysis helps provide a clearer understanding of the socio-economic consequences of volcanic hazards. By offering a global view of volcanic risks, VOGRIPA enhances international efforts to develop more robust disaster risk reduction frameworks.

Additionally, VOGRIPA contributes to the development of Volcanic Hazard Assessments, which provide probabilistic estimates of future volcanic events and their potential impacts. These assessments are built on historical data and geological models and play a critical role in identifying high-risk areas. The insights they offer are crucial for shaping policies and strategies aimed at minimizing the loss of life, property, and economic assets due to volcanic eruptions.

The data collected and curated by VOGRIPA is made openly available to researchers, policymakers, and the general public, positioning it as an essential resource for enhancing the global understanding of volcanic hazards. Its collaborative nature ensures that the database is continually updated and expanded with contributions from volcanologists and disaster risk experts worldwide.[80]

1.1.3.4. United States Geological Survey (USGS) Volcano Hazards Program

The United States Geological Survey (USGS) Volcano Hazards Program is an essential initiative focused on monitoring, researching, and mitigating the effects of volcanic activity both in the United States and around the world. This program operates as part of the broader USGS mission, which is dedicated to understanding natural hazards and supporting public safety by delivering accurate, timely information on volcanic threats. The program maintains a network of five volcano observatories, strategically positioned in high-risk regions such as Alaska, Hawaii, and the Cascades Range to ensure effective surveillance of these areas.

The main goals of the USGS Volcano Hazards Program include:

Volcano Monitoring: Using an array of advanced technologies—including seismographs, GPS, satellite imagery, and gas sensors—the program detects and analyzes signs of volcanic unrest. These observatories provide real-time data, enabling early warnings for eruptions, which helps authorities make informed decisions quickly to reduce the impact on local communities.

Hazard Assessments: The USGS also conducts comprehensive evaluations of volcanoes to assess their potential risks. By studying historical eruption records, geological characteristics, and the potential consequences of future volcanic events, the program supports land-use planning, evacuation strategies, and public safety measures tailored to specific volcanic regions.

Public Communication: A critical aspect of the program is sharing information with the public, local governments, and disaster response teams. The USGS issues alerts via the Volcano Alert System, which communicates the current threat level of a volcano, ranging from “Normal” to “Warning” as an eruption approaches. Additionally, the program distributes educational resources and hazard maps to help communities prepare for volcanic dangers.

Research and Data Collection: The USGS plays a significant role in advancing scientific understanding of volcanoes. This includes studying magma movement, volcanic gas behavior, and the influence of volcanic activity on the Earth’s surface and atmosphere. The data collected is invaluable to volcanologists, geologists, and emergency response professionals alike.

The USGS also fosters international collaboration, sharing knowledge and expertise with global partners to enhance the worldwide understanding of volcanic hazards. Through this cooperative effort, the USGS aims to reduce the loss of life, infrastructure damage, and economic disruption that can result from volcanic eruptions.

By ensuring continuous monitoring, issuing timely warnings, and conducting in-depth research, the USGS Volcano Hazards Program plays a vital role in protecting communities near active and potentially dangerous volcanoes from the devastating impacts of volcanic activity.[81]

1.1.3.5. European Mediterranean Volcanological Network (EMVN)

The European Mediterranean Volcanological Network (EMVN) is a collaborative initiative designed to enhance volcanic monitoring, research, and risk mitigation throughout the European and Mediterranean regions. By connecting volcanological observatories, research institutions, and government agencies, the EMVN strengthens coordination and the sharing of critical information on volcanic hazards. The network’s primary mission is to improve preparedness, provide early warnings, and enhance the response to volcanic crises in areas with active or potentially active volcanoes.

The EMVN focuses on several key objectives:

Volcanic Monitoring: Through collaboration, the network facilitates the exchange of real-time data from various monitoring systems, such as seismic stations, satellite imagery, gas sensors, and geodetic tools, to track volcanic activity across Europe and the Mediterranean. This integrated approach enhances the ability to detect early signs of volcanic unrest and forecast potential eruptions.

Hazard Assessment and Mapping: The EMVN is dedicated to producing detailed hazard assessments and maps for volcanic regions. These resources provide essential insights into the risks posed by lava flows, pyroclastic flows, and ashfall, which are crucial for local authorities when developing land-use plans and emergency response strategies.

Risk Mitigation and Public Safety: By pooling resources and expertise, the EMVN contributes to the development of strategies aimed at reducing the risks posed by volcanic activity to people, infrastructure, and economic activities. This includes issuing timely volcanic warnings and hazard information to at-risk populations and promoting public education on volcanic hazards to improve overall preparedness.

Research and Data Sharing: The network encourages collaboration among scientists working on volcanic processes and hazards. By fostering joint studies and facilitating data sharing between countries, the EMVN supports a deeper understanding of volcanoes in the European-Mediterranean region, contributing to a global perspective on volcanic risks.

International Collaboration: The EMVN actively partners with international volcanological and geophysical organizations, ensuring that European and Mediterranean volcano data is incorporated into global monitoring and research efforts. This cooperation strengthens the global capacity for volcanic risk assessment and early warning systems.

The EMVN’s work is particularly critical in countries like Italy, Greece, and Iceland, where active volcanoes pose significant threats to local populations and infrastructure. By creating a unified network, the EMVN ensures that knowledge and resources are shared across borders, helping to increase resilience in the face of volcanic hazards.[82]

1.1.3.6. Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) Volcano Database

The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) Volcano Database is a crucial resource managed by the JMA, dedicated to the continuous monitoring and reporting of volcanic activity throughout Japan. With Japan being home to some of the world’s most active volcanoes, this database plays a vital role in tracking volcanic events and assessing potential hazards. The JMA is central in delivering early warnings and providing real-time data to safeguard public safety, supporting both local and national disaster management strategies.

The JMA Volcano Database offers comprehensive details on more than 100 active volcanoes across Japan, including:

Volcano Monitoring: The JMA utilizes a widespread network of observation stations equipped with advanced instruments such as seismometers, GPS sensors, webcams, and satellite data to monitor volcanic activity. The database compiles data from these stations to track key signs of volcanic unrest, like increased seismic activity, ground deformation, volcanic gas emissions, and temperature changes on the volcano’s surface.

Eruption Records: The database holds extensive historical records of volcanic eruptions, documenting the dates, magnitudes, and types of eruptions, whether explosive or effusive. Each volcano’s profile includes a history of past activity, which is crucial for predicting future behavior based on previously observed patterns.

Volcano Alert Levels: One of the most important features of the JMA Volcano Database is its Volcano Alert System, which categorizes volcanoes based on their current activity level. Ranging from “Normal” (no immediate danger) to “Eruption Warning” (indicating imminent or ongoing volcanic activity), this system allows local authorities to take necessary precautions, including evacuations or restricting access to potentially hazardous areas.

Hazard Assessments: The JMA provides hazard maps and risk assessments for each monitored volcano, outlining the potential impacts of various eruption types, such as ashfall, lava flows, pyroclastic flows, and lahars. These assessments are essential for planning emergency responses, particularly in densely populated areas near active volcanoes.

Public Communication and Warnings: Regular bulletins and updates are issued by the JMA to inform the public, local governments, and media about the current status of volcanoes. This communication system is key to raising awareness of potential threats and guiding the response to volcanic hazards.

Widely used by researchers, government agencies, and emergency managers, the JMA Volcano Database is instrumental in evaluating volcanic risks and implementing strategies to reduce those risks. It also serves as a valuable educational resource, helping to increase public awareness about volcanic hazards and encouraging preparedness in communities situated near active volcanoes.

In addition to its national responsibilities, the JMA actively collaborates with international organizations, contributing to global volcanic monitoring initiatives and sharing critical data with volcanological and geophysical agencies worldwide. This cooperation strengthens both regional and global efforts to manage volcanic risks more effectively.[83]

1.1.3.7. New Zealand GeoNet Volcano Monitoring

New Zealand’s GeoNet Volcano Monitoring system is a crucial part of the country’s natural hazard monitoring network, managed by GeoNet in collaboration with GNS Science and the New Zealand government. This system provides real-time monitoring and data collection on volcanic activity across New Zealand, which is home to several active volcanoes, particularly within the Taupō Volcanic Zone. GeoNet’s role is to protect communities by offering timely warnings and in-depth information about potential volcanic threats.

GeoNet’s volcano monitoring system includes several key components:

Volcano Observation Network: GeoNet operates a highly advanced network of monitoring equipment, including seismometers, GPS stations, webcams, gas sensors, and satellite technology, to track volcanic activity throughout New Zealand’s active volcanic regions. This real-time data allows scientists to detect changes in seismic activity, ground deformation, gas emissions, and thermal behavior, all of which can signal early signs of volcanic unrest.

Eruption and Activity Alerts: GeoNet issues Volcanic Alert Bulletins and operates a Volcanic Alert Level system that ranges from Level 0 (no volcanic unrest) to Level 5 (major volcanic eruption). These alerts are distributed to emergency services, local authorities, and the public, ensuring timely action, such as evacuations or other safety measures, in response to significant volcanic activity.

Volcano Hazard Assessments: GeoNet produces detailed hazard maps and risk assessments for New Zealand’s most active volcanoes, including Ruapehu, White Island/Whakaari, Tongariro, and Taupō. These assessments outline the potential impacts of eruptions—such as ashfall, lava flows, lahars, and pyroclastic flows—and are critical for guiding disaster preparedness and response strategies.

Real-Time Data Access: GeoNet’s website provides open access to real-time volcano monitoring data, including seismic activity, live webcam feeds, and gas emissions. This transparency ensures that both experts and the general public can stay updated on volcanic activity, fostering greater awareness and understanding of volcanic risks.

Scientific Research: Beyond monitoring, GeoNet plays a vital role in supporting scientific research on volcanic behavior. The data it collects is invaluable for volcanologists studying New Zealand’s volcanoes, helping improve eruption forecasting models and overall risk assessments.

Public Engagement and Education: GeoNet prioritizes public education and engagement by offering clear, accessible information about volcanic hazards, how to prepare for an eruption, and what actions to take during volcanic activity. This outreach is essential for boosting community resilience, especially in areas near active volcanoes.

GeoNet’s volcano monitoring system is a cornerstone of New Zealand’s disaster risk reduction efforts, playing a key role in safeguarding lives, infrastructure, and the environment from the hazards of volcanic eruptions. It is widely recognized as a model of effective volcano monitoring, combining cutting-edge technology with proactive communication to keep the public informed and prepared.[84]

1.1.3.8. Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO)

The Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) is a collaborative initiative between the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the University of Alaska Fairbanks Geophysical Institute, and the Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys. Since its establishment in 1988, AVO’s primary mission has been to monitor and study volcanic activity across Alaska—one of the most volcanically active regions in the world. The observatory plays a critical role in mitigating risks posed by volcanic eruptions to aviation, local communities, and vital infrastructure.

Alaska is home to over 50 historically active volcanoes, many located in remote, rugged areas such as the Aleutian Islands, the Alaska Peninsula, and other mainland regions. Due to Alaska’s proximity to key trans-Pacific air routes, AVO’s work is crucial for issuing early warnings that help prevent volcanic ash hazards, which can pose significant risks to aircraft.

AVO’s monitoring efforts involve several key components:

Real-Time Monitoring: AVO operates an extensive network of monitoring stations equipped with seismometers, GPS sensors, infrasound detectors, and webcams to track volcanic activity. In addition, satellite imagery is used to detect ash clouds and other volcanic phenomena. These tools enable AVO to monitor seismic activity, ground deformation, volcanic gas emissions, and surface temperatures at Alaska’s active volcanoes in real time.

Volcano Alert Levels: To communicate the current status of each volcano, AVO uses a Volcano Alert Level System that ranges from “Normal” (no eruptive activity) to “Warning” (eruption imminent or ongoing). This system is paired with a Color Code System for aviation, which uses levels from Green (normal) to Red (major ash emissions ongoing or expected). These alerts allow authorities and the aviation industry to take precautionary measures to avoid the dangers posed by volcanic ash plumes.

Eruption Forecasting and Hazard Assessments: AVO carries out detailed studies of volcanic activity, producing hazard assessments that outline potential risks from lava flows, pyroclastic flows, lahars, and ashfall. These assessments are critical for local authorities in preparing emergency response plans and ensuring public safety.

Public Information and Alerts: AVO regularly releases updates, reports, and warnings through its website and official channels. Both the public and emergency services can access real-time data on volcanic activity. During volcanic crises, AVO collaborates with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and other agencies to issue timely ash advisories for air traffic safety.

Research and Collaboration: Beyond its operational duties, AVO contributes to scientific research in volcanology. By studying past and current eruptions, the observatory helps to improve the understanding of volcanic processes, refine eruption forecasting techniques, and develop hazard mitigation strategies. AVO also collaborates with volcano observatories and research institutions globally, sharing data and expertise.

The Alaska Volcano Observatory plays a vital role in safeguarding Alaskan communities and international air traffic from the dangers posed by volcanic activity. With its advanced monitoring systems and early warning capabilities, AVO significantly reduces the impacts of eruptions in one of the most geologically active regions on Earth.[85]

1.1.3.9. Global Volcanism Network (GVN)

The Global Volcanism Network (GVN) is an international project managed by the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History, in collaboration with numerous global volcanological organizations and observatories. Established to monitor, document, and analyze volcanic activity worldwide, the GVN plays a pivotal role in delivering timely and accurate information on eruptions and volcanic hazards across the globe. It is widely regarded as one of the most authoritative sources for comprehensive data on volcanic activity.

The GVN’s primary mission is to maintain a global perspective on volcanic hazards by tracking both ongoing eruptions and dormant volcanoes that could pose future risks. The network gathers data from a variety of sources, including:

Local Volcanological Observatories: GVN partners with national and regional observatories to collect real-time data on volcanic activity. These local institutions contribute firsthand reports, satellite imagery, and monitoring information, all of which are compiled and analyzed by the GVN.

Satellite Observations: In collaboration with other organizations, the GVN uses satellite technology to monitor remote volcanoes, detect ash clouds, track thermal activity, and measure gas emissions. This capability is especially valuable for monitoring volcanic activity in regions lacking extensive ground-based monitoring infrastructure.

Volcano Reports: The GVN regularly produces bulletins and updates that detail volcanic activity around the world. The Bulletin of the Global Volcanism Network is a key publication, offering comprehensive accounts of volcanic events, eruption summaries, and hazard information. These reports are vital resources for scientists, researchers, disaster response agencies, and the public, keeping them informed about current volcanic hazards.

Volcanic Hazard Assessments: The GVN plays an essential role in volcanic hazard assessments by compiling historical data on eruptions, analyzing patterns of past activity, and evaluating the risks associated with specific volcanoes. This work improves eruption forecasting and helps inform risk mitigation strategies.

Eruption Databases: The GVN maintains a database of over 1,500 active volcanoes, along with detailed records of historical eruptions spanning thousands of years. The database includes information on eruption dates, magnitudes, types of eruptions (effusive, explosive), and geospatial data on the location and structure of volcanoes.

A widely recognized tool developed by the GVN is the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI), which classifies volcanic eruptions by size and impact. This index helps researchers assess the potential global effects of eruptions, particularly those that release large quantities of ash or gases into the atmosphere, which can significantly affect the climate and environment.

One of the most important aspects of the GVN is its emphasis on global collaboration. The network works with more than 100 countries and hundreds of scientists, ensuring that information about volcanic activity is collected, shared, and disseminated both quickly and accurately. This collaboration improves coordination during volcanic crises, mitigating impacts on human populations, aviation, and the environment.

Through its extensive network and comprehensive databases, the GVN provides critical resources for both the scientific community and disaster management agencies, helping to reduce the risks associated with volcanic activity. The data is publicly accessible and regularly updated to reflect ongoing volcanic events and trends.[86]

1.1.3.10. Indonesia Centre for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM)

The Indonesia Centre for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation (CVGHM), known locally as Pusat Vulkanologi dan Mitigasi Bencana Geologi (PVMBG), is the national agency tasked with monitoring volcanic activity and managing geological hazards throughout Indonesia. As Indonesia sits on the Pacific Ring of Fire, home to some of the most active and dangerous volcanoes in the world, the work of CVGHM is critical to ensuring public safety and preparing for natural disasters.

CVGHM’s primary mission is to monitor volcanic, seismic, and geological activity, providing early warnings to mitigate the impact of eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, and other geological hazards. The agency works in close collaboration with local governments, emergency management teams, and international organizations to reduce risks and protect communities.

Key components of CVGHM’s operations include:

Volcano Monitoring: CVGHM oversees the monitoring of more than 120 active volcanoes across Indonesia, using a network of seismic stations, gas sensors, GPS systems, and satellite data. This real-time monitoring helps detect early warning signs of volcanic unrest, such as increased seismic activity, ground deformation, and gas emission changes that could signal an imminent eruption. Key volcanoes under continuous observation include Mount Merapi, Mount Sinabung, Mount Agung, and Krakatoa.

Volcanic Alert Levels: To communicate volcanic risks, CVGHM uses a four-tiered Volcanic Alert Level System, ranging from Level I (Normal) to Level IV (Warning). This system provides clear guidance to local authorities and residents, helping them understand the necessary precautions and when evacuations may be needed in response to escalating volcanic activity.

Hazard Assessments and Mapping: CVGHM produces detailed hazard assessments and risk maps for volcanic regions, outlining potential dangers such as ashfall, lava flows, pyroclastic flows, and lahars (volcanic mudflows). These maps are essential tools for urban planners, emergency responders, and communities in high-risk areas, enabling them to better mitigate the threats posed by volcanic eruptions.

Eruption Forecasting and Research: The agency conducts in-depth scientific research on Indonesia’s volcanoes to enhance understanding of their behavior and improve eruption forecasting. This research includes studying the geology of volcanoes, analyzing historical eruption data, and monitoring magma movement, all of which help refine hazard assessments and improve early warning systems.

Public Communication and Education: CVGHM plays a crucial role in educating the public about volcanic hazards and safety measures. The agency regularly issues updates and warnings through media outlets, social platforms, and its official website, ensuring the public stays informed during volcanic crises. CVGHM also conducts outreach programs in high-risk communities to raise awareness about disaster preparedness and response.

Collaboration with International Partners: CVGHM works closely with international organizations, including the United Nations, the Global Volcanism Network (GVN), and various foreign volcanological institutes. These partnerships enhance data sharing, technical expertise, and capacity building, strengthening Indonesia’s ability to manage and mitigate volcanic and geological hazards.

Given Indonesia’s volatile geological environment, the work of CVGHM is vital for protecting lives and infrastructure. The agency’s continuous monitoring and early warning systems have been instrumental in reducing the impact of catastrophic eruptions, such as those from Mount Merapi in 2010 and Mount Sinabung, leading to large-scale evacuations and effective disaster response efforts.[87]

1.1.3.11. Hawaii Volcano Observatory (HVO)

The Hawaii Volcano Observatory (HVO) is a key research and monitoring center operated by the United States Geological Survey (USGS). Established in 1912 by Dr. Thomas Jaggar, HVO is responsible for monitoring volcanic activity and assessing geological hazards across the Hawaiian Islands, home to some of the most active volcanoes on the planet, including Kīlauea, Mauna Loa, and Mauna Kea. The observatory plays a vital role in understanding volcanic behavior, issuing early warnings, and supporting efforts to reduce the risks posed by volcanic hazards.

Key elements of HVO’s operations include:

Volcano Monitoring: HVO maintains a comprehensive network of monitoring instruments, including seismometers, GPS stations, gas sensors, and thermal cameras, to continuously track volcanic activity. This equipment allows HVO to detect early signs of volcanic unrest, such as increased seismic activity, ground deformation, and changes in gas emissions. Additionally, satellite observations help monitor lava flows and eruptions in real time, providing critical data for hazard assessment.

Eruption Forecasting and Alerts: To communicate the current activity status of Hawaii’s volcanoes, HVO uses a Volcano Alert Level System, which ranges from “Normal” (background activity) to “Warning” (major eruption imminent or occurring). HVO also employs the Aviation Color Code system to alert the aviation industry about potential risks from volcanic ash in the airspace—an essential function given Hawaii’s position on major trans-Pacific flight routes.

Hazard Assessments and Mapping: HVO conducts extensive studies on the hazards posed by Hawaii’s volcanoes, including lava flows, ashfall, volcanic gas emissions, and landslides. The observatory creates detailed hazard maps to inform residents, local authorities, and emergency services about areas at risk. These maps are essential tools for planning and responding to volcanic threats, particularly in more populated areas like Hilo and Pahoa.

Research and Public Education: In addition to monitoring, HVO is a center for scientific research on Hawaiian volcanism. Its scientists study the processes that drive volcanic activity, such as magma movement, eruption patterns, and the long-term geological evolution of the Hawaiian Islands. HVO also prioritizes public education by providing up-to-date information about volcanic activity on its website, through media outlets, and on social media. Additionally, the observatory works with schools and community groups to raise awareness of volcanic hazards and promote safety.

Collaboration with Local and Federal Agencies: During volcanic crises, HVO works closely with the Hawaiian Volcanoes National Park, Hawaii County Civil Defense, and other federal, state, and local agencies to ensure a coordinated response. This collaboration is vital for managing evacuations and other emergency measures during major eruptions. Continuous updates from HVO are essential for keeping the public safe and minimizing the damage caused by volcanic activity.

HVO has played a critical role in monitoring notable volcanic events, including Kīlauea’s prolonged eruption from 1983 to 2018 and the 2018 lower Puna eruption, which caused widespread destruction to homes and infrastructure. By providing real-time monitoring and timely alerts, HVO helped to reduce loss of life and improve the effectiveness of disaster response strategies during these eruptions.

As a key component of the USGS’s volcano observatory network, HVO not only focuses on monitoring Hawaiian volcanoes but also contributes to the broader understanding of volcanic processes globally, enhancing efforts to assess volcanic hazards worldwide.[88]

1.1.3.12. Icelandic Met Office (IMO) Volcano Monitoring

The Icelandic Met Office (IMO) is the primary agency responsible for monitoring volcanic activity and other geological hazards in Iceland. Given Iceland’s position on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and its many active volcanoes—such as Eyjafjallajökull, Katla, and Grímsvötn—the IMO plays a crucial role in protecting both the local population and the global community, particularly with regard to aviation safety. The agency operates a highly sophisticated monitoring network, providing real-time data and alerts to ensure timely responses to volcanic eruptions and related hazards.

Key components of the IMO’s volcano monitoring program include:

Volcano Monitoring Network: The IMO oversees an extensive network of seismometers, GPS stations, gas sensors, and webcams, strategically placed across Iceland’s active volcanic zones. This equipment continuously monitors volcanic activity, detecting early signs of unrest such as volcanic tremors, ground deformation, and changes in gas emissions—indicators that a potential eruption may be forthcoming.

Volcanic Ash Monitoring: Volcanic ash clouds, particularly after the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption, pose a significant threat to global air traffic. To mitigate these risks, the IMO closely monitors ash emissions using satellite data alongside ground-based instruments. This monitoring is crucial for tracking ash plumes and predicting their spread, ensuring that international aviation authorities can coordinate and prevent disruptions to air traffic.

Volcanic Alert System: The IMO uses a Volcanic Alert Level System to communicate the current status of volcanic activity. This system ranges from “Uncertainty” (indicating minor signs of unrest) to “Warning” (signaling an imminent or ongoing eruption). These alerts enable local authorities and emergency services to make informed decisions about necessary actions, such as evacuations or road closures. The IMO also utilizes an Aviation Color Code system, which ranges from Green (normal) to Red (major eruption with ash emissions), providing critical information to the aviation industry about the risks posed by volcanic ash.

Hazard Assessments and Eruption Forecasting: The IMO is continuously engaged in research and hazard assessments for Iceland’s volcanoes, producing detailed maps and forecasts. These assessments cover potential hazards such as lava flows, pyroclastic flows, glacial outburst floods (jökulhlaups), and ashfall. By combining real-time monitoring with eruption forecasting, the IMO helps authorities anticipate volcanic events and implement protective measures to minimize the impact on communities and infrastructure.

Public Communication and Education: The IMO is dedicated to keeping the public well-informed about volcanic activity. Through its website, social media, and public bulletins, the agency provides timely updates on current volcanic events and associated risks. In addition to updates, the IMO runs educational initiatives designed to raise awareness about volcanic hazards and teach the necessary safety precautions to be taken during volcanic crises.

Collaboration with International and Local Agencies: The IMO works closely with a range of international partners, such as the London Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC) and the European Space Agency (ESA), to monitor volcanic ash and protect global air traffic. Locally, the IMO coordinates disaster preparedness and response efforts with Iceland’s Civil Protection Department and other governmental bodies.

The IMO’s monitoring of volcanic systems is critical not only for local safety but also for the international community, especially the aviation sector. Events like the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption, which caused widespread air travel disruptions, highlight the global importance of Iceland’s volcano monitoring efforts. By providing real-time data, alerts, and forecasts, the IMO plays a vital role in mitigating the risks posed by Iceland’s dynamic volcanic landscape.[89]

1.1.3.13. Italian National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology (INGV)

The Italian National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology (INGV) is Italy’s leading authority responsible for monitoring and researching geological and volcanic activity. Given Italy’s position as home to some of the world’s most famous and active volcanoes—such as Mount Etna, Vesuvius, and Stromboli—the INGV plays a crucial role in protecting communities and infrastructure from volcanic hazards. Established in 1999, the INGV operates under the Ministry of Education, Universities, and Research, and has grown into a center for cutting-edge volcanological and geophysical research.

The INGV is tasked with several critical functions aimed at monitoring volcanoes and mitigating volcanic risks:

Volcano Monitoring: The INGV manages one of the world’s most advanced volcanic monitoring systems, utilizing seismic stations, ground deformation sensors (including GPS and InSAR), gas emission analyzers, and thermal cameras. These tools allow real-time monitoring of volcanic activity, enabling the INGV to detect early signs of unrest, such as increased seismic activity, changes in gas output, or ground deformation—any of which could signal an impending eruption.

Volcanic Alert System: To manage volcanic risks, the INGV employs a Volcanic Alert Level System that classifies the status of Italy’s volcanoes. This system helps local authorities safeguard residents and tourists in volcanic areas. Notably, Mount Vesuvius and the nearby Phlegraean Fields (Campi Flegrei) are under constant surveillance due to their proximity to densely populated regions like Naples. The alert levels, which range from normal to eruption warning, enable authorities to coordinate emergency responses, including evacuations when necessary.

Hazard Assessments and Mapping: The INGV produces detailed hazard assessments and risk maps for Italy’s active volcanoes. These maps outline the potential dangers posed by lava flows, pyroclastic flows, ashfall, and volcanic gas emissions, providing essential guidance for urban planning, disaster preparedness, and risk reduction strategies in high-risk areas. For example, the INGV continuously updates risk maps for Vesuvius, specifying evacuation routes and designated safe zones.

Eruption Forecasting and Research: Beyond monitoring, the INGV conducts extensive scientific research aimed at deepening the understanding of volcanic processes. This includes studying magma chambers beneath volcanoes, analyzing eruption histories, and investigating volcanic gas emissions. The insights gained from this research enhance the institute’s ability to forecast eruptions more accurately and contribute to the global scientific community’s knowledge of volcanism.

Public Communication and Education: A key role of the INGV is educating the public about volcanic hazards. The institute regularly issues reports, updates, and alerts through its website, social media, and direct communication with local authorities and civil protection agencies. Public outreach programs also help residents in high-risk areas to better understand volcanic threats and prepare for potential emergencies.

Collaboration with National and International Partners: The INGV actively collaborates with international organizations and research institutions, sharing data and expertise on volcanic and seismic activity. These collaborations include partnerships with the European Space Agency (ESA), the Global Volcanism Network (GVN), and other volcano observatories worldwide, allowing the INGV to contribute to global volcanic risk assessment and mitigation efforts.

The INGV’s close monitoring of Mount Etna, Europe’s most active volcano, exemplifies the importance of its work. Etna’s frequent eruptions require constant vigilance, and the INGV provides real-time data that helps safeguard residents and tourists in Sicily. Similarly, the INGV’s ongoing monitoring of Vesuvius—last erupting in 1944—remains critical due to the large population living near the volcano.

In conclusion, the INGV stands as a leading authority in volcanology and geophysics, combining real-time monitoring, scientific research, and public communication to minimize the risks posed by Italy’s dynamic geological landscape.[90]

1.1.3.14. Montserrat Volcano Observatory (MVO)

The Montserrat Volcano Observatory (MVO) is the leading institution responsible for monitoring the volcanic activity of the Soufrière Hills Volcano, located on the island of Montserrat in the Caribbean. Established in 1995 after the volcano reawakened from centuries of dormancy, the MVO has since played a critical role in protecting the island’s residents from volcanic hazards. The Soufrière Hills Volcano has been erupting intermittently since 1995, making the MVO’s ongoing work essential for understanding volcanic behavior and mitigating risks in this vulnerable region.

Key functions of the MVO include:

Real-Time Volcano Monitoring: The MVO operates an extensive monitoring network consisting of seismic stations, ground deformation instruments like GPS and tiltmeters, gas sensors, and webcams. This system allows the observatory to detect signs of increased volcanic activity, such as seismic events, gas emissions, and ground movement, which could indicate an impending eruption. The data collected is continuously analyzed to provide timely insights into the volcano’s behavior, ensuring that any changes are quickly identified.

Volcanic Alert Level System: To communicate the current state of the Soufrière Hills Volcano, the MVO uses a Volcanic Alert Level System, which ranges from “Green” (indicating quiet conditions) to “Red” (signifying an ongoing major eruption). This alert system helps local authorities make informed decisions about safety measures, such as issuing evacuation orders when necessary. In Montserrat, where infrastructure is limited and close to the volcano, this alert system is vital for managing volcanic risks effectively.

Hazard Mapping and Risk Assessments: The MVO regularly produces hazard maps and risk assessments, identifying areas that are most susceptible to pyroclastic flows, ashfall, lahars (volcanic mudflows), and other volcanic hazards. These maps are essential for disaster preparedness and urban planning, particularly in light of previous eruptions that have devastated areas like Plymouth, the island’s former capital. Hazard assessments guide decisions on establishing safe zones and limiting access to high-risk areas.

Public Information and Communication: A key part of the MVO’s mission is keeping the public well-informed about volcanic activity and safety measures. The observatory provides frequent updates via its website, social media platforms, radio broadcasts, and press releases, ensuring that residents, government authorities, and emergency services stay up to date on the volcano’s status. In addition, the MVO runs educational outreach programs to help the local population better understand volcanic hazards and how to prepare for potential eruptions.

Collaboration with International Partners: The MVO works closely with international volcanological institutions, including the United States Geological Survey (USGS) and the British Geological Survey (BGS), as well as academic organizations. This collaboration strengthens the MVO’s monitoring capabilities and contributes to global volcanic research efforts. The MVO also partners with the Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDEMA) to enhance regional preparedness for volcanic hazards.

Scientific Research and Eruption Forecasting: The MVO conducts ongoing research to improve understanding of the Soufrière Hills Volcano and refine eruption forecasting. This research includes studying the magma chamber, analyzing gas emissions, and monitoring lava dome growth. Insights gained from this research enhance local hazard assessments and contribute to the global knowledge of volcanic processes, helping scientists better predict future volcanic behavior.

The 1997 eruption of the Soufrière Hills Volcano, which led to the destruction of Montserrat’s capital, Plymouth, and displaced much of the population, underscores the importance of the MVO’s work. Since then, the observatory has been instrumental in monitoring volcanic activity and providing timely warnings, allowing the island’s residents to better manage the ongoing threat from the volcano.[91]

1.1.3.15. Papua New Guinea Rabaul Volcano Observatory (RVO)

The Papua New Guinea Rabaul Volcano Observatory (RVO) is the primary institution responsible for monitoring volcanic activity and mitigating volcanic hazards in Papua New Guinea (PNG), a country located within the Pacific Ring of Fire. Established in 1950, the RVO has been at the forefront of tracking the numerous active and potentially hazardous volcanoes in PNG, including Rabaul, Manam, Bagana, and Ulawun—some of the most active and dangerous in the region.

The RVO plays a crucial role in safeguarding public safety by issuing early warnings of volcanic activity and supporting disaster management efforts. Its monitoring work is particularly important given PNG’s densely populated areas near active volcanoes, as well as the observatory’s role in alerting both local communities and international aviation services to volcanic hazards.

Key components of the RVO’s operations include:

Volcano Monitoring Network: The RVO operates a network of ground-based monitoring stations equipped with seismometers, tiltmeters, gas analyzers, and visual observation systems such as webcams. These stations continuously gather data on seismic activity, ground deformation, and gas emissions. This real-time monitoring is essential for detecting early warning signs of volcanic unrest, such as increased seismicity or ground swelling, which can precede eruptions.

Hazard Assessments and Eruption Forecasting: The RVO regularly conducts hazard assessments for each of PNG’s active volcanoes. These assessments help local authorities and communities understand the potential impact of different volcanic hazards, including pyroclastic flows, ashfall, lava flows, and volcanic gas emissions. The RVO’s scientific research supports improved eruption forecasting and risk mitigation strategies, especially in areas where volcanic activity poses significant risks to large populations, such as Rabaul and Manam.

Volcanic Alert System: The RVO uses a Volcanic Alert Level System to communicate the current state of activity for each monitored volcano. This system ranges from “Normal” (indicating no significant volcanic activity) to “Stage 5” (denoting an eruption in progress). The alert levels guide evacuation orders, flight restrictions, and other critical safety measures. Given the frequent activity of volcanoes such as Rabaul and Ulawun, the RVO’s alerts are vital for managing risks to nearby towns and infrastructure.

Public Information and Communication: The RVO provides regular updates on the status of PNG’s active volcanoes, issuing warnings and advisories to the public and relevant authorities through radio, social media, and official bulletins. This communication is essential to ensure that communities living near volcanoes remain informed and prepared to take appropriate action in case of increased volcanic activity.

Research and Collaboration: Beyond monitoring, the RVO conducts research on PNG’s volcanic systems, investigating eruption patterns, volcanic gas emissions, and magma movement. These efforts contribute to a better understanding of PNG’s volcanic behavior and improve models for predicting eruptions. The RVO also collaborates with international organizations such as the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), and other global volcanological institutions to share data and expertise, further enhancing global volcanic monitoring efforts.

International Aviation Support: Due to the risks that volcanic ash clouds pose to aviation, the RVO works closely with the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC) to monitor and report volcanic ash emissions. These reports are critical for preventing aircraft from flying through hazardous ash clouds, which could cause engine failure and present serious safety risks.

One of the most significant volcanic events in the region was the 1994 eruption of the Rabaul Volcano, which devastated the town of Rabaul, covering it in ash and prompting large-scale evacuations. The RVO’s early warnings and monitoring efforts were instrumental in minimizing casualties and ensuring a coordinated response to the disaster.

The RVO remains an indispensable institution in Papua New Guinea, providing real-time monitoring, research, and public communication to help mitigate the risks posed by the country’s highly active volcanic landscape.[92]

1.1.3.16. Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS)

The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) is the national agency tasked with monitoring, researching, and mitigating volcanic, seismic, and tsunami-related hazards throughout the Philippines. Situated within the Pacific Ring of Fire, the country experiences frequent volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and tsunamis, making PHIVOLCS crucial for safeguarding lives and infrastructure. Established in 1982, PHIVOLCS operates under the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) and plays a key role in disaster risk reduction across the nation.

PHIVOLCS is responsible for monitoring numerous active volcanoes in the Philippines, including Mount Mayon, Taal Volcano, and Mount Pinatubo, all of which have experienced significant eruptions in the past. The institute’s work in early warning systems, hazard assessments, and public education helps minimize the impact of these natural hazards.

Key functions of PHIVOLCS include:

Volcano Monitoring: PHIVOLCS uses a combination of ground-based systems, including seismographs, GPS stations, gas analyzers, and satellite imagery, to monitor over 20 active volcanoes across the Philippines. These systems allow PHIVOLCS to detect signs of volcanic unrest, such as increased seismicity, ground deformation, or changes in volcanic gas emissions, which may indicate an impending eruption.

Volcanic Alert Levels: PHIVOLCS operates a Volcanic Alert Level System that provides updates on the status of the country’s active volcanoes. The alert levels range from 0 (No Alert) to 5 (Hazardous Eruption Ongoing). This system is essential for informing local governments, emergency responders, and the public about potential volcanic threats, helping them prepare and respond accordingly. For example, the alert level for Taal Volcano was raised to 4 during its sudden and violent eruption in 2020, prompting the evacuation of thousands of residents.

Hazard Mapping and Risk Assessments: PHIVOLCS produces detailed hazard maps and risk assessments for all monitored volcanoes, outlining potential dangers such as pyroclastic flows, ashfall, lava flows, and lahars (volcanic mudflows). These maps are critical tools for land-use planning, disaster preparedness, and evacuation planning, particularly in densely populated areas like Albay, where Mount Mayon is located. PHIVOLCS also contributes to hazard assessments for earthquakes and tsunamis.

Public Information and Education: PHIVOLCS plays a key role in educating the public about volcanic and seismic hazards. The agency provides regular updates via its website, social media channels, and news outlets, ensuring that communities understand the risks of living near active volcanoes or in earthquake-prone areas. PHIVOLCS also runs public awareness campaigns and provides real-time data through its Volcano Monitoring and Tsunami Early Warning Systems.

Research and Eruption Forecasting: PHIVOLCS is at the forefront of scientific research on volcanic activity in the Philippines. The institute studies the eruptive histories of volcanoes, the movement of magma beneath the surface, and volcanic gas emissions, improving its ability to forecast eruptions. For instance, after the devastating 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, PHIVOLCS’ research efforts contributed to a better understanding of volcanic behavior and helped reduce loss of life in future eruptions.

Collaboration with International Agencies: PHIVOLCS collaborates with international organizations like the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), and the International Volcanic Health Hazard Network (IVHHN) to enhance its capacity for monitoring hazards and responding to volcanic crises. The institute also works closely with regional organizations such as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) to contribute to broader disaster risk reduction efforts in the region.

The work of PHIVOLCS has been critical in mitigating the impacts of major volcanic events, such as the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, one of the largest eruptions of the 20th century, and the 2020 eruption of Taal Volcano, which led to mass evacuations. Through its continuous monitoring, research, and public engagement, PHIVOLCS remains a cornerstone of the Philippines’ disaster preparedness and response systems.[93]

1.1.3.17. British Geological Survey (BGS) Volcano Database

The British Geological Survey (BGS) Volcano Database is a comprehensive repository of information on volcanic activity, with a particular focus on the United Kingdom’s overseas territories and regions of British geological interest. As the UK’s national geoscience agency, the BGS plays a crucial role in monitoring and researching volcanic hazards in territories like Montserrat, even though the UK itself does not have active volcanoes. The BGS also provides valuable scientific expertise for global volcanic events and hazard management.

The BGS Volcano Database contributes to the global understanding of volcanic hazards, supports international research efforts, and offers essential data for risk assessment and disaster mitigation. It serves as a vital resource for volcanologists, geologists, policymakers, and disaster response agencies, providing detailed information on both historical and current volcanic activity.

Key components of the BGS Volcano Database and its functions include:

Monitoring and Data Collection: BGS collaborates with international volcano observatories to monitor volcanic activity in regions of British interest, particularly through its work with the Montserrat Volcano Observatory (MVO). The Soufrière Hills Volcano, which has been erupting intermittently since 1995, is a primary focus. BGS assists in the collection and analysis of seismic, gas, and geodetic data to detect volcanic unrest and help forecast potential eruptions.

Hazard Assessments and Mapping: The BGS Volcano Database offers access to detailed hazard maps and risk assessments for volcanic regions under its jurisdiction. These assessments highlight the potential impacts of volcanic hazards such as pyroclastic flows, ashfall, and lahars. BGS hazard assessments are crucial tools for decision-makers and local authorities, helping them prepare for and mitigate volcanic risks effectively.

International Collaboration: The BGS works closely with global institutions like the Global Volcanism Program (GVP), the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth’s Interior (IAVCEI), and other national geological agencies. These collaborations enable the sharing of data and expertise, contributing to a broader global understanding of volcanic hazards and supporting efforts to reduce risks associated with volcanic activity worldwide.

Volcano Monitoring in UK Overseas Territories: A key aspect of the BGS’s work is its involvement in monitoring and studying the Soufrière Hills Volcano on Montserrat. Since the volcano’s reactivation in 1995, the BGS has played a critical role in managing volcanic risks and protecting lives and infrastructure on the island. Through the MVO, BGS scientists conduct continuous monitoring of seismic activity, gas emissions, and volcanic deformation, using advanced tools such as GPS, satellite imaging, and drones to ensure accurate data collection.

Public Information and Education: BGS also provides valuable educational resources and public information through its website and various publications. These resources include updates on volcanic activity, risk assessments, and guidelines for mitigating the impacts of volcanic eruptions. The BGS’s outreach efforts aim to raise public awareness about the importance of volcanic monitoring and disaster preparedness, particularly in UK territories vulnerable to volcanic hazards.

Volcanic Research and Expertise: The BGS conducts significant research into volcanic processes, contributing to the global understanding of eruption dynamics, magma behavior, and volcanic risk. This research supports local and international efforts to improve eruption forecasting and mitigate the impacts of volcanic hazards. Additionally, BGS researchers study the potential global effects of major eruptions, including impacts on climate and aviation safety.

Overall, the BGS Volcano Database is a critical resource that supports the UK’s involvement in global volcanology, with a focus on monitoring volcanic hazards in British territories and contributing to international volcanic research. The data and expertise provided by the BGS help mitigate risks associated with volcanic activity, ensuring the safety and preparedness of communities in high-risk areas.[94]

1.1.3.18. Australian Volcano Monitoring System

The Australian Volcano Monitoring System focuses on monitoring and understanding volcanic hazards in Australia’s territories and nearby regions, especially within the Pacific Ring of Fire and the Indo-Australian Plate. While mainland Australia is geologically stable and does not have active volcanoes, the country is responsible for monitoring volcanic activity in its external territories, such as Heard Island and McDonald Islands in the Southern Ocean. These islands host active volcanic systems, making monitoring essential for disaster preparedness. Additionally, Australia’s proximity to highly active volcanic regions like Indonesia and Vanuatu underscores the importance of volcano monitoring for mitigating regional risks.

Geoscience Australia, the nation’s leading geoscience research and monitoring agency, is primarily responsible for volcanic monitoring efforts. Through partnerships with regional and international volcano observatories, Geoscience Australia helps track volcanic activity that could impact the region, particularly volcanic hazards that pose threats to aviation, shipping, and Australian territories.

Key components of the Australian Volcano Monitoring System include:

Monitoring Active Volcanoes in Australian Territories: Heard Island and McDonald Islands are the only Australian territories with active volcanic systems. The main volcano on Heard Island, Big Ben, has shown intermittent activity. Due to the remoteness of these islands, volcanic monitoring relies heavily on satellite data and remote sensing technologies. Geoscience Australia monitors thermal anomalies, gas emissions, and seismic activity on these islands to detect signs of potential eruptions, ensuring the safety of researchers and vessels in the area.

Regional Collaboration: Australia collaborates with nearby countries, such as Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and Vanuatu, all of which have highly active volcanoes. Geoscience Australia works closely with these countries’ volcano observatories and regional organizations like the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) and the Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC). This collaboration is crucial for monitoring volcanic ash clouds, which are a significant hazard to aviation, especially along busy flight routes.

Volcanic Ash Monitoring: The Darwin Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), located in Darwin, Northern Territory, is one of nine global VAACs responsible for monitoring volcanic ash clouds that pose risks to aviation. Covering a vast region, including parts of Southeast Asia and the southern Pacific, the Darwin VAAC tracks ash clouds that could drift into Australian airspace. It provides critical ash cloud forecasts to airlines, issuing advisories and updates to ensure flight safety during volcanic eruptions.

Risk Assessment and Research: While mainland Australia does not have active volcanoes, Geoscience Australia conducts volcanic hazard assessments for its territories and participates in global volcanic research efforts. This includes studying the potential impacts of distant volcanic eruptions, such as ashfall on Australian territories or tsunamis caused by undersea volcanic eruptions. Geoscience Australia’s research improves the understanding of regional volcanic activity and contributes to global efforts in volcanic hazard mitigation.

Public Communication and Alerts: Geoscience Australia plays an important role in communicating volcanic hazards to the public, particularly in the event of eruptions in Australian territories or nearby regions. The agency provides updates through its website and social media, working with the Australian Bureau of Meteorology and other agencies to disseminate important information. The Darwin VAAC issues real-time volcanic ash advisories to aviation authorities and the public, ensuring timely warnings and responses.

International Partnerships: Australia is an active participant in global volcanic monitoring networks, including the International Volcanic Health Hazard Network (IVHHN) and the Global Volcanism Program (GVP). These partnerships allow Australia to contribute valuable data and expertise while benefiting from shared knowledge about international volcanic activity and hazard assessment.

The Australian Volcano Monitoring System is a vital component of the country’s broader efforts to monitor geological hazards, especially in its territories and surrounding regions. While volcanic risk remains relatively low for mainland Australia, the monitoring of active volcanoes in the Southern Ocean and nearby regions ensures that Australia is prepared for potential volcanic threats.[95]

1.1.3.19. Chilean National Volcanic Surveillance Network (SERNAGEOMIN)

The Chilean National Volcanic Surveillance Network (SERNAGEOMIN), or Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería, is Chile’s leading authority responsible for monitoring volcanic activity and assessing geological hazards throughout the country. With over 90 active volcanoes, Chile ranks as one of the most volcanically active nations in the world. SERNAGEOMIN’s primary mission is to provide early warnings of volcanic eruptions, support disaster risk management, and protect lives and infrastructure from the dangers posed by volcanic hazards.

Chile’s location along the Pacific Ring of Fire, a region known for frequent volcanic and seismic activity due to tectonic plate movements, makes SERNAGEOMIN’s role essential not only for domestic safety but also for international research and risk mitigation efforts.

Key components of SERNAGEOMIN’s operations include:

Volcano Monitoring Network: SERNAGEOMIN manages the Chilean National Volcanic Surveillance Network (Red Nacional de Vigilancia Volcánica, or RNVV), which includes monitoring stations strategically placed across Chile’s volcanic regions. These stations use a combination of seismic sensors, GPS instruments, gas analyzers, and webcams to track volcanic unrest, ground deformation, and gas emissions. This network covers many of Chile’s most active volcanoes, such as Villarrica, Llaima, and Chaitén.

Volcanic Alert Level System: To keep the public and local authorities informed, SERNAGEOMIN operates a Volcanic Alert Level System that communicates the current activity status of Chile’s volcanoes. This system ranges from “Green” (normal conditions) to “Red” (major eruption in progress), ensuring timely evacuations and safety measures, especially in areas near major volcanoes. SERNAGEOMIN closely coordinates this alert system with Chile’s National Office of Emergency of the Interior Ministry (ONEMI), enabling a swift response during volcanic crises.

Hazard Assessments and Mapping: SERNAGEOMIN produces detailed volcanic hazard maps and risk assessments to identify potential dangers from eruptions, such as pyroclastic flows, ashfall, lahars (volcanic mudflows), and lava flows. These assessments are vital for informing local governments and planners on land use, infrastructure development, and emergency preparedness, particularly in high-risk areas like the Araucanía and Los Lagos regions, which are home to many active volcanoes.

Eruption Forecasting and Research: Beyond monitoring, SERNAGEOMIN conducts extensive research to understand Chile’s volcanoes and improve eruption forecasting. The organization studies the volcanic history of the country, analyzing past eruptions, magma composition, and volcanic gas emissions to better predict future activity. Events like the 2008 Chaitén eruption have emphasized the importance of continuous monitoring and scientific research in anticipating and managing volcanic hazards.

Public Communication and Education: SERNAGEOMIN is committed to keeping the public well-informed about volcanic activity. Through its website, social media, and public bulletins, the agency provides regular updates to ensure that authorities and the public are aware of any changes in volcanic behavior. Additionally, SERNAGEOMIN’s educational outreach helps communities understand the risks of living near active volcanoes and how to prepare for potential eruptions.

Collaboration with International Organizations: SERNAGEOMIN works closely with various international institutions, including the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the Global Volcanism Program (GVP), and other global volcanological research centers. These collaborations enhance SERNAGEOMIN’s monitoring capabilities, allowing it to use cutting-edge technology and contribute to the global understanding of volcanic processes and risk reduction strategies.

Real-Time Data and Alerts: Based in Temuco, the Observatorio Volcanológico de los Andes del Sur (OVDAS) provides real-time monitoring of southern Chile’s most active volcanoes. As the primary hub for processing seismic and satellite data, OVDAS generates alerts and warnings that are distributed to government agencies, local authorities, and the public, ensuring a coordinated response to any potential volcanic threats.

Chile’s volcanic activity presents significant risks not only for residents but also for aviation, agriculture, and infrastructure. Major eruptions, such as Villarrica in 2015 and Calbuco in 2015, highlight the importance of SERNAGEOMIN’s ongoing monitoring and preparedness efforts. The work of SERNAGEOMIN continues to play a critical role in protecting the country from the hazards posed by its active volcanic landscape.[96]

1.1.3.20. Canadian Hazards Information Service (CHIS) – Volcano Monitoring

The Canadian Hazards Information Service (CHIS), a division of Natural Resources Canada (NRCan), is responsible for monitoring and providing information on various geological hazards, including earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic activity. While mainland Canada does not have active volcanoes, CHIS plays a critical role in monitoring volcanic hazards in regions like the Canadian Cordillera, particularly in British Columbia and the Yukon. The agency also works closely with international partners to assess volcanic risks that could affect air traffic, communities, or infrastructure.

Due to Canada’s proximity to highly active volcanic regions like Alaska and the Pacific Northwest in the United States, CHIS plays an essential role in volcanic risk mitigation, ensuring that any potential threats to Canadian airspace and environments are identified early.

Key aspects of CHIS’s work in volcanic hazard monitoring include:

Monitoring Volcanic Hazards in Canadian Territories: While Canada’s volcanoes, such as Mount Meager, Mount Garibaldi, and Tseax Cone in British Columbia and the Yukon, are considered dormant, they are still closely monitored for any signs of reactivation. CHIS collaborates with other federal agencies and academic institutions to track seismic activity and potential volcanic unrest in these areas, using seismic stations and satellite data to detect early warning signs.

Collaborations with International Monitoring Networks: Although volcanic eruptions within Canadian borders are rare, CHIS works closely with neighboring volcanic monitoring centers, such as the Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) and the United States Geological Survey (USGS), to monitor volcanic activity that could potentially impact Canada. This collaboration is particularly crucial for monitoring volcanic ash clouds that could drift into Canadian airspace, posing a significant risk to aviation.

Volcanic Ash Monitoring and Aviation Safety: Volcanic ash can be a serious threat to air travel, as it can damage aircraft engines. CHIS works in conjunction with the Montreal Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC), one of nine global VAACs responsible for tracking and forecasting the movement of volcanic ash clouds. The VAAC monitors ash clouds from eruptions in places like Alaska, the Pacific Northwest, and other nearby regions, ensuring that Canadian air traffic authorities and airlines receive timely warnings to prevent aircraft from flying into hazardous ash clouds.

Volcanic Hazard Assessments and Research: Although volcanic activity is uncommon in Canada, CHIS conducts hazard assessments for Canadian volcanoes to understand the potential risks they may pose. This includes researching the eruptive histories of volcanoes, evaluating the potential for future activity, and assessing the risks of secondary hazards such as landslides, lahars (volcanic mudflows), and floods that could be triggered by volcanic events.

Public Education and Outreach: While volcanic eruptions are not a major concern for most Canadians, CHIS helps raise awareness of the potential risks in regions near dormant volcanoes, particularly in British Columbia and the Yukon. Through its website, social media, and educational materials, CHIS provides the public with information on the risks associated with volcanic hazards and how to stay informed.

Tsunami Risk Management: Volcanic activity in regions such as Alaska and the Pacific Northwest could trigger tsunamis that might affect Canada’s west coast. CHIS collaborates with other agencies to monitor and provide early warnings for tsunami risks linked to volcanic eruptions, helping to protect coastal communities from potential impacts.

While volcanic hazards are not a frequent concern for Canada, the Canadian Hazards Information Service (CHIS) plays a crucial role in monitoring dormant volcanoes, collaborating with international partners, and ensuring aviation safety through volcanic ash monitoring. CHIS’s contributions help protect Canada’s western territories and airspace from the potential impacts of volcanic activity.[97]

1.1.3.21. Ecuador Instituto Geofísico Volcano Monitoring

The Instituto Geofísico (IG) of the Escuela Politécnica Nacional in Ecuador is the primary institution responsible for monitoring volcanic and seismic activity across the country. Given Ecuador’s location along the Pacific Ring of Fire, the country is home to several active and potentially dangerous volcanoes, including Cotopaxi, Tungurahua, Reventador, and Chimborazo. This makes the work of the Instituto Geofísico critical for ensuring public safety and enhancing disaster preparedness.

The Instituto Geofísico plays a pivotal role in Ecuador’s efforts to mitigate volcanic hazards by continuously monitoring the country’s active volcanoes, issuing early warnings, and providing valuable data to guide disaster response strategies.

Key functions of the Instituto Geofísico in volcano monitoring include:

Real-Time Volcano Monitoring Network: The IG operates a sophisticated network of monitoring stations equipped with seismometers, gas analyzers, infrasound detectors, webcams, and GPS sensors to provide continuous monitoring of volcanic activity across Ecuador. These instruments are crucial for detecting early signs of volcanic unrest, such as increased seismic activity, ground deformation, changes in gas emissions, and thermal anomalies. This real-time monitoring system plays a vital role in anticipating eruptions and issuing timely alerts.

Volcanic Alert Levels: The IG employs a Volcanic Alert Level System to communicate the current activity status of Ecuador’s volcanoes. This system ranges from “Green” (normal conditions) to “Red” (eruption in progress). These alert levels help local governments, emergency responders, and communities prepare for potential volcanic events and take appropriate precautions, such as evacuations. The system has proven crucial during eruptions of Tungurahua and Cotopaxi, two of Ecuador’s most active and hazardous volcanoes.

Hazard Mapping and Risk Assessments: The Instituto Geofísico provides hazard maps and risk assessments for Ecuador’s active volcanoes. These assessments detail the potential impacts of pyroclastic flows, lava flows, ashfall, and lahars (volcanic mudflows). The maps are essential for urban planning, emergency preparedness, and risk mitigation, especially in populated areas near volcanoes, such as Quito, located near Pichincha Volcano, and Ambato, close to Tungurahua.

Public Communication and Education: The IG plays a key role in educating the public about volcanic hazards. The institute regularly updates the public through its website, social media, and news outlets, providing real-time information on volcanic activity and safety measures. Public outreach programs are also important, raising awareness in communities near active volcanoes to ensure residents understand the risks and are prepared for potential evacuations.

Research and Eruption Forecasting: The Instituto Geofísico conducts scientific research to better understand Ecuador’s volcanoes and improve eruption forecasting. The institute studies volcanic gases, magma movement, and the geology of Ecuador’s volcanic systems. This research contributes to the global understanding of volcanic activity while enhancing local hazard prediction capabilities.

Collaboration with National and International Organizations: The Instituto Geofísico collaborates with international agencies such as the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the Global Volcanism Program (GVP), and other volcano observatories worldwide. These partnerships allow for the exchange of data and knowledge, improving monitoring and forecasting efforts. The IG also works closely with Ecuador’s national disaster management agency, Secretaría de Gestión de Riesgos, to coordinate responses to volcanic threats.

The IG has monitored notable volcanic events, such as the ongoing eruptions of Tungurahua, which began in 1999 and have affected surrounding communities, leading to large-scale evacuations. The 2015 Cotopaxi eruption also underscored the importance of IG’s real-time monitoring and early warnings, as these efforts helped authorities manage risks and protect lives.

The Instituto Geofísico remains a critical institution in Ecuador, ensuring that volcanic hazards are closely monitored, risks are communicated effectively, and the population is prepared for volcanic events.[98]

1.1.3.22. French Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris (IPGP) Volcano Monitoring

The Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris (IPGP) is one of France’s leading institutions for studying Earth’s physical processes, including the monitoring of volcanic activity. IPGP is highly regarded for its research in geophysics, seismology, and volcanology, with a particular focus on France’s volcanic territories, especially in Overseas Departments such as La Réunion, Guadeloupe, and Martinique. The institute’s primary mission is to advance the understanding of volcanic systems and mitigate volcanic risks through real-time monitoring and scientific research.

Key components of IPGP’s work in volcanic monitoring include:

Volcano Monitoring in Overseas Territories: IPGP plays a critical role in overseeing active volcanoes in French overseas territories, including:

Piton de la Fournaise on La Réunion Island, one of the most active volcanoes in the world. The Observatoire Volcanologique du Piton de la Fournaise (OVPF), operated by IPGP, monitors seismic activity, gas emissions, ground deformation, and other volcanic indicators to track the volcano’s behavior and issue early warnings of eruptions.
Mount Pelée on Martinique, infamous for its catastrophic 1902 eruption that destroyed the city of Saint-Pierre. IPGP’s Observatoire Volcanologique et Sismologique de Martinique (OVSM) monitors Mount Pelée for any signs of volcanic unrest.
La Soufrière on Guadeloupe, another high-risk volcano, is closely monitored by the Observatoire Volcanologique et Sismologique de Guadeloupe (OVSG), which uses seismic, thermal, and gas measurements to provide real-time data for eruption forecasting.

Real-Time Monitoring Networks: IPGP operates advanced monitoring networks on these volcanoes, which include seismic stations, GPS sensors, gas analyzers, and thermal cameras. These systems detect early warning signs such as increased seismicity, volcanic tremors, ground deformation, and changes in gas emissions. Real-time data from these instruments is critical for anticipating volcanic eruptions and issuing timely alerts to authorities and the public.

Volcanic Hazard Assessments: IPGP conducts comprehensive hazard assessments for the volcanoes it monitors. These assessments evaluate the potential risks of eruptions, including lava flows, pyroclastic flows, ashfall, and volcanic gas emissions. Hazard maps and risk models generated from this information are vital for local governments in planning evacuations and implementing emergency measures. For instance, the frequent eruptions of Piton de la Fournaise require ongoing risk assessments to protect nearby populations.

Public Alerts and Communication: IPGP works closely with local authorities in the regions it monitors to issue volcanic alerts when activity levels increase. The institute uses a Volcanic Alert Level System, ranging from “Green” (normal activity) to “Red” (eruption in progress). This system ensures that local governments and emergency services are promptly informed so that safety measures, such as evacuations, can be implemented if needed. Additionally, IPGP engages in public education campaigns to help communities understand volcanic hazards and prepare for potential eruptions.

Scientific Research and Eruption Forecasting: Beyond monitoring, IPGP conducts extensive scientific research on volcanic dynamics. By studying magma movement, gas emissions, and the geophysics of volcanic systems, the institute improves the ability to forecast eruptions. This research contributes significantly to the global knowledge of how volcanic eruptions are triggered, ultimately enhancing the accuracy and lead time of eruption forecasts. IPGP’s findings are regularly published in international scientific journals, adding to the global volcanology knowledge base.

International Collaboration: IPGP actively collaborates with international volcano observatories and research institutions. It is a part of global initiatives such as the Global Volcanism Program (GVP) and the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth’s Interior (IAVCEI). Through these collaborations, IPGP shares data and expertise, contributing to worldwide efforts to mitigate volcanic risks.

Notable volcanic events monitored by IPGP include the frequent eruptions of Piton de la Fournaise and the heightened activity of Mount Pelée, which remains under close observation due to its history of catastrophic eruptions. IPGP’s state-of-the-art monitoring systems and cutting-edge research efforts ensure that France’s most active volcanoes are closely watched, significantly reducing the risks associated with volcanic hazards.[99]

1.1.3.23. Colombian Geological Service (SGC) Volcano Database

The Colombian Geological Service (SGC) is the primary organization responsible for monitoring volcanic activity and conducting geological research throughout Colombia. Situated along the Pacific Ring of Fire, Colombia is home to several active and potentially dangerous volcanoes, including Nevado del Ruiz, Galeras, Nevado del Huila, and Cumbal. The SGC plays a vital role in ensuring public safety by providing early warnings of volcanic eruptions, conducting detailed risk assessments, and advancing scientific research on Colombia’s volcanic systems.

The SGC Volcano Database is a comprehensive repository of information on volcanic activity in Colombia, providing valuable data to government authorities, researchers, and the public about volcanic hazards and the status of the country’s volcanoes.

Key components of the SGC’s Volcano Monitoring Program include:

Real-Time Monitoring Networks: The SGC operates several Volcano Monitoring Observatories, such as the Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Manizales (which monitors Nevado del Ruiz) and the Observatorio Vulcanológico y Sismológico de Pasto (which monitors Galeras and other southern volcanoes). These observatories are equipped with seismic stations, GPS devices, gas analyzers, webcams, and satellite imaging systems to monitor volcanic activity in real time. This network allows the SGC to detect early warning signs, such as increased seismic activity, ground deformation, changes in gas emissions, and temperature anomalies.

Volcanic Alert Level System: The SGC uses a Volcanic Alert Level System to communicate the current activity level of Colombia’s volcanoes. This system ranges from “Green” (normal activity) to “Red” (imminent or ongoing eruption). The alert system ensures that local authorities and residents are informed of volcanic risks and can take appropriate safety measures, such as evacuations, when volcanic activity intensifies.

Hazard Assessments and Mapping: The SGC produces detailed hazard maps and risk assessments for each of Colombia’s active volcanoes. These maps identify the areas most at risk from pyroclastic flows, lava flows, ashfall, lahars (volcanic mudflows), and volcanic gases. These assessments are crucial for local governments and emergency response teams in preparing evacuation routes, safety zones, and contingency plans. For instance, the risk posed by Nevado del Ruiz, which caused the devastating 1985 Armero tragedy, continues to be a major focus of the SGC’s hazard assessments.

Public Communication and Education: The SGC prioritizes public education and awareness campaigns to ensure that communities living near active volcanoes understand the risks and know how to respond in case of an eruption. The SGC regularly provides updates via its website, social media platforms, and official bulletins, offering real-time information on volcanic activity. Outreach programs also help educate local populations about volcanic hazards and safety measures, ensuring that residents are prepared.

Scientific Research and Eruption Forecasting: The SGC conducts extensive research on Colombia’s volcanic systems to improve eruption forecasting. By studying the geological history, magma movement, and gas emissions of these volcanoes, the SGC enhances its ability to forecast eruptions more accurately. This research is critical for identifying potential future risks and for informing long-term disaster preparedness efforts.

Collaboration with National and International Organizations: The SGC collaborates with national agencies such as UNGRD (Unidad Nacional para la Gestión del Riesgo de Desastres), and with international organizations like the Global Volcanism Program (GVP) and other volcano monitoring centers worldwide. These collaborations facilitate the exchange of data, knowledge, and technologies, enhancing the monitoring and understanding of volcanic hazards in Colombia and globally.

Notable volcanic events monitored by the SGC include the 1985 eruption of Nevado del Ruiz, one of the deadliest volcanic disasters in modern history, and the ongoing activity at Galeras Volcano, which has frequently erupted in recent decades. The SGC’s continuous monitoring and early warning systems are essential for minimizing the risks posed by these and other volcanoes across Colombia.

The Colombian Geological Service (SGC) Volcano Database serves as a vital tool for disaster risk reduction, scientific research, and public safety, helping to mitigate the impact of volcanic activity in Colombia.[100]

1.1.3.24. Peru Instituto Geofísico del Perú (IGP) Volcano Monitoring

The Instituto Geofísico del Perú (IGP) is the primary organization responsible for monitoring volcanic activity and conducting geological and geophysical research throughout Peru. Situated within the Andean Volcanic Belt, Peru is home to several active and potentially hazardous volcanoes, such as Sabancaya, Ubinas, Misti, and Ticsani. The IGP plays a crucial role in ensuring public safety by providing real-time monitoring of volcanic activity, issuing early warnings of potential eruptions, and conducting scientific research to deepen the understanding of volcanic processes.

The IGP’s Volcano Monitoring program is essential for identifying volcanic hazards and supplying critical information to government authorities, researchers, and the public.

Key components of the Instituto Geofísico del Perú (IGP) Volcano Monitoring program include:

Volcano Monitoring Network: The IGP operates a network of monitoring stations across Peru’s volcanic regions, particularly in southern Peru, where the most active volcanoes are located. These stations are equipped with advanced instruments, including seismometers, GPS sensors, gas analyzers, infrasound detectors, and webcams, which are used to detect early signs of volcanic unrest. The real-time data collected on seismic activity, ground deformation, gas emissions, and thermal anomalies allow IGP to predict possible eruptions with greater accuracy.

Volcanic Alert Level System: The IGP uses a Volcanic Alert Level System to communicate the current status of Peru’s active volcanoes. This system ranges from Green (normal conditions) to Red (eruption in progress). The alert system informs local authorities and the public about the level of risk and provides guidance for safety precautions, such as evacuations and emergency responses. For instance, this system has been crucial during heightened activity at Ubinas and Sabancaya, two of Peru’s most active volcanoes.

Hazard Assessments and Risk Mapping: The IGP conducts thorough volcanic hazard assessments and creates detailed hazard maps for Peru’s active volcanoes. These maps outline potential impact zones for pyroclastic flows, lava flows, ashfall, and lahars (volcanic mudflows). These assessments are essential tools for local governments, urban planners, and disaster management agencies to design effective evacuation routes, establish safety protocols, and plan infrastructure near high-risk areas. This is especially important for cities like Arequipa, located near Misti Volcano, and Moquegua, near Ubinas.

Public Communication and Education: The IGP plays an important role in educating the public about volcanic hazards and preparedness. The institute regularly provides updates, volcanic activity reports, and bulletins through its website, social media platforms, and traditional news outlets. Public outreach efforts are designed to inform communities living near active volcanoes about the risks and necessary safety steps during periods of increased volcanic activity. This proactive communication is vital for reducing the risk to human life in high-risk areas.

Scientific Research and Eruption Forecasting: In addition to monitoring, the IGP conducts extensive scientific research aimed at understanding Peru’s volcanic systems. The institute studies magma movement, gas emissions, and the geological structures of volcanoes to improve eruption forecasting models. By researching the historical behavior of Peru’s volcanoes, the IGP is able to enhance long-term forecasting and improve risk mitigation strategies, which can help communities prepare for future volcanic events.

Collaboration with National and International Partners: The IGP collaborates with both national and international organizations to enhance its volcano monitoring capabilities. Domestically, it works closely with CENEPRED (Centro Nacional de Estimación, Prevención y Reducción del Riesgo de Desastres) and other Peruvian agencies to manage volcanic risks. On the international stage, IGP partners with institutions such as the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the Global Volcanism Program (GVP), and neighboring countries’ volcano observatories. These partnerships allow for the exchange of data, expertise, and technological innovations, strengthening volcanic hazard monitoring efforts in Peru and beyond.

Notable volcanic events monitored by the IGP include the frequent eruptions of Sabancaya and Ubinas, which have caused ashfall and affected nearby communities in recent years. The IGP’s real-time monitoring and early warning systems have been crucial in mitigating the impacts of these eruptions and ensuring the safety of populations living in the surrounding regions.

The Instituto Geofísico del Perú (IGP) plays a vital role in protecting Peru from volcanic hazards through continuous monitoring, research, and public outreach. Its work ensures that communities are better prepared for volcanic events, reducing the potential risks to lives and infrastructure.[101]

1.1.3.25. Caribbean Institute for Meteorology and Hydrology (CIMH) Volcano Data

The Caribbean Institute for Meteorology and Hydrology (CIMH) plays a crucial role in providing meteorological, hydrological, and climate data services to the Caribbean region. Although its primary focus is not volcano monitoring, CIMH collaborates with regional and international partners to track volcanic activity and address the hazards it presents, such as ashfall and its effects on weather patterns, air quality, and water resources. In the Eastern Caribbean, which is home to several active volcanoes like Soufrière Hills in Montserrat, La Soufrière in St. Vincent, and Mount Pelée in Martinique, CIMH’s volcanic data is particularly valuable.

Key components of CIMH’s role in volcanic hazard data and monitoring include:

Volcanic Ash Monitoring: CIMH works in collaboration with regional partners, such as the Seismic Research Centre (SRC) at the University of the West Indies (UWI) and the Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers (VAAC), to monitor and forecast volcanic ash clouds. Ashfall can have serious impacts on air quality, aviation safety, and water supplies. By providing data on ash dispersal patterns, CIMH helps reduce the risks posed to populations, infrastructure, and essential services across the Caribbean.

Climate and Volcanic Interaction Data: Volcanic eruptions, particularly ash clouds, can influence local and regional climate patterns, altering rainfall distribution, air quality, and hydrological systems. CIMH collects and analyzes data to study these interactions, providing valuable insights into how volcanic activity might affect weather and climate in the Caribbean. This information is crucial for disaster preparedness and helps island nations better manage the potential disruptions caused by volcanic events.

Hydrological Impact Assessments: Volcanic eruptions can trigger significant changes in water systems, such as lahars (volcanic mudflows) or water contamination from ashfall. CIMH integrates volcanic data with its hydrological monitoring systems to assess these risks. This integration is essential for managing water resources and protecting public health during and after volcanic eruptions, ensuring that communities have access to safe drinking water and that flood risks from lahars are minimized.

Collaboration with Regional Disaster Response: CIMH works closely with regional disaster management agencies like the Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDEMA) to provide timely information on volcanic hazards and their effects on weather and hydrology. This collaboration is critical for preparing the region for volcanic emergencies, supporting efforts such as evacuation planning, maintaining aviation safety, and managing the impact of ashfall on water supplies and agriculture.

Public Information and Education: Although CIMH’s main focus is on meteorological and hydrological data, the institute also plays an important role in disseminating information about volcanic hazards. Through its website and social media channels, CIMH provides updates on the potential impacts of volcanic activity on weather and water resources, raising public awareness and helping communities prepare for the effects of volcanic eruptions.

In addition to its work on volcanic ash and hydrological impacts, CIMH supports regional volcano monitoring efforts by facilitating data sharing between meteorological agencies, hydrological services, and volcano observatories across the Caribbean. This integrated approach ensures that the region is well-equipped to manage volcanic risks and the far-reaching consequences of volcanic activity.[102]

1.1.3.26. South American Volcanological Network (SAVNET)

The South American Volcanological Network (SAVNET) is a collaborative initiative designed to improve volcanic monitoring, research, and risk mitigation efforts across South America. Positioned along the Pacific Ring of Fire and the Andean Volcanic Belt, South America is home to numerous active volcanoes, making SAVNET’s work essential for coordinating among nations and safeguarding populations at risk from volcanic hazards.

SAVNET brings together scientists, research institutions, and governmental agencies from countries like Chile, Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, Argentina, and Bolivia to foster collaboration, share data, and deepen the understanding of volcanic activity throughout the region.

Key components of SAVNET include:

Regional Collaboration and Data Sharing: SAVNET facilitates the exchange of real-time data between member countries regarding volcanic activity, seismic events, and associated hazards. This data includes information from seismic networks, satellite observations, ground deformation measurements (such as GPS and InSAR), and volcanic gas emissions. By sharing this data, SAVNET enhances each country’s ability to monitor its volcanoes while benefiting from regional expertise and insights.

Volcano Monitoring and Early Warning Systems: One of SAVNET’s main objectives is to strengthen volcanic monitoring across South America by promoting the use of advanced technologies and harmonizing early warning systems. Countries like Chile, Ecuador, and Colombia have developed strong national monitoring networks, and through SAVNET, these capabilities are extended to other nations where monitoring infrastructure may be more limited. This collaboration ensures that volcanic hazards are detected early, enabling timely warnings and coordinated responses across borders.

Risk Assessments and Hazard Mapping: SAVNET supports the creation of volcanic hazard assessments and maps for the region’s most active volcanoes. These maps highlight potential risks from lava flows, pyroclastic flows, ashfall, and lahars (volcanic mudflows). The assessments are essential for disaster preparedness and risk mitigation in densely populated areas near active volcanoes, such as Cotopaxi in Ecuador, Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia, and Villarrica in Chile.

Capacity Building and Training: SAVNET provides training opportunities for volcanologists, seismologists, and disaster management professionals across South America. Workshops, technical exchanges, and educational programs are organized to improve volcanic hazard monitoring, data analysis, and eruption forecasting. This capacity building helps member countries develop the necessary skills to manage volcanic risks more effectively.

International Cooperation: SAVNET collaborates with international organizations such as the Global Volcanism Program (GVP) and the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth’s Interior (IAVCEI). By engaging with global networks, SAVNET ensures that South America is well-connected to international research on volcanic activity, enabling the region to respond to large-scale volcanic events and contribute to the global knowledge of volcanology.

Public Communication and Preparedness: SAVNET works with local governments and disaster management agencies to raise public awareness of volcanic hazards. The network promotes the dissemination of volcanic hazard information to at-risk communities, ensuring that people living near active volcanoes understand evacuation procedures and safety measures. Public education campaigns are a crucial part of SAVNET’s strategy to reduce the loss of life and damage to property during volcanic emergencies.

SAVNET’s integrated approach to volcanic monitoring and risk mitigation is vital for a continent where volcanic activity poses significant risks to both urban and rural populations. By fostering cross-border collaboration and leveraging regional expertise, SAVNET strengthens South America’s ability to manage volcanic risks and enhances resilience to future eruptions.[103]

1.1.3.27. Russian Academy of Sciences Kamchatka Volcanic Eruption Response Team (KVERT)

The Kamchatka Volcanic Eruption Response Team (KVERT), operated by the Russian Academy of Sciences, is the primary organization responsible for monitoring and responding to volcanic activity across the Kamchatka Peninsula and the Kuril Islands in Russia. Located along the Pacific Ring of Fire, this region is one of the most volcanically active areas in the world, home to over 30 active volcanoes, including Klyuchevskoy, Shiveluch, and Bezymianny. KVERT’s work is crucial for protecting local populations and mitigating the risks that volcanic ash clouds pose to international aviation.

KVERT’s mission includes monitoring volcanic activity, providing early warnings of eruptions, and conducting research to enhance the understanding of this volcanically dynamic region. Kamchatka’s frequent and intense volcanic activity also holds significant importance for the global scientific community.

Key components of KVERT’s operations include:

Volcano Monitoring: KVERT operates a comprehensive network of monitoring stations throughout the Kamchatka Peninsula and the Kuril Islands. This network includes seismic stations, satellite remote sensing, gas sensors, and visual observation systems such as webcams. The seismic network detects earthquakes and volcanic tremors, while satellite data helps track ash plumes, thermal anomalies, and surface deformation. These systems provide critical information for early warnings of volcanic eruptions.

Volcanic Alert System: KVERT uses a Volcanic Alert Level System to categorize the activity levels of the region’s volcanoes. The alert levels range from “Green” (normal, no activity) to “Red” (eruption imminent or in progress). This system provides timely information to local authorities, aviation agencies, and international partners, ensuring that populations near active volcanoes can be evacuated if necessary, and that air traffic can be rerouted to avoid hazardous ash clouds.

Ash Cloud Monitoring for Aviation Safety: A critical aspect of KVERT’s work is monitoring volcanic ash clouds, which pose severe risks to aviation. The Kamchatka Peninsula lies along major international flight routes, and ash clouds from eruptions can drift into these air corridors, endangering aircraft. KVERT collaborates closely with the Tokyo Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC) and the Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) to monitor and track ash plumes, issuing real-time advisories to airlines and aviation authorities to ensure flight safety.

Hazard Assessments and Research: KVERT performs detailed volcanic hazard assessments for the Kamchatka and Kuril Island regions. These assessments evaluate the risks posed by various types of volcanic activity, including pyroclastic flows, lava flows, ashfall, and lahars (volcanic mudflows). Additionally, KVERT conducts scientific research into the geophysics of Kamchatka’s volcanoes, their eruption histories, and magma dynamics. This research helps improve eruption forecasting and enhances the global understanding of the region’s volcanic systems.

Public Communication and Preparedness: KVERT regularly communicates with local communities, government agencies, and international partners to provide updates on the status of active volcanoes. The team issues reports and warnings through media platforms and official channels, ensuring that people living near volcanoes are informed of potential hazards. KVERT also collaborates with local authorities to improve disaster preparedness measures, including evacuation plans for areas vulnerable to volcanic activity.

Collaboration with International Organizations: KVERT works closely with international volcanic monitoring and research organizations, such as the United States Geological Survey (USGS), the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth’s Interior (IAVCEI), and other global partners. These collaborations allow KVERT to share data and research findings, contributing to the global effort to understand and mitigate volcanic hazards.

KVERT’s work is particularly significant given the frequent and sometimes large-scale eruptions in Kamchatka. Notable recent eruptions include those of Klyuchevskoy and Shiveluch, which have produced substantial ash clouds, affecting both local populations and international aviation. KVERT’s monitoring efforts and real-time data are essential for preventing disruptions to air travel and protecting the safety of people living in the region.[104]

1.1.3.28. Norwegian Geological Survey (NGU) Volcano Monitoring

The Norwegian Geological Survey (NGU) is the national authority responsible for geoscientific research and monitoring in Norway. While Norway itself does not have active volcanoes on its mainland, NGU plays a vital role in assessing and monitoring geological hazards, including volcanic activity, in its territories and through international collaborations. In particular, NGU is responsible for monitoring volcanic hazards in Norway’s Arctic territories, such as Jan Mayen Island and Bouvet Island, both of which are located in volcanically active regions.

Jan Mayen, a remote Norwegian island in the North Atlantic Ocean, is home to Beerenberg, the northernmost active volcano in the world. Monitoring Beerenberg and other potential volcanic hazards in Norwegian territories is a critical part of NGU’s mission to ensure public safety and contribute to global geophysical research.

Key components of NGU’s work in volcanic monitoring include:

Monitoring Volcanic Activity in Jan Mayen and Bouvet Island: NGU collaborates with other Norwegian agencies, including the Norwegian Meteorological Institute and the Norwegian Seismic Array (NORSAR), to monitor seismic activity around Beerenberg and signs of volcanic unrest on Bouvet Island, located in the South Atlantic. Monitoring systems like seismometers, satellite remote sensing, and other geophysical instruments are used to detect early warning signs of volcanic activity, such as tremors, ground deformation, and thermal anomalies.

International Collaboration for Volcanic Hazard Assessment: NGU works with international partners, including the Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO) and organizations like the Global Volcanism Program (GVP) and the European-Mediterranean Seismological Centre (EMSC). These collaborations are essential for monitoring volcanic activity in neighboring regions like Iceland, where eruptions could affect Norwegian airspace and the wider North Atlantic region.

Seismic Monitoring: Although Norway’s mainland is geologically stable, NGU uses seismic monitoring systems to detect volcanic or tectonic activity in offshore areas. The Norwegian Seismic Network (NNSN) is a key tool used to detect seismic events that may indicate volcanic activity, particularly around Jan Mayen. This data is crucial for understanding potential volcanic hazards and providing early warnings when necessary.

Volcanic Hazard Research: NGU conducts in-depth research into geological hazards, including volcanic activity, in collaboration with universities and research institutions. Studies of Beerenberg Volcano and other potentially active volcanic systems in Norwegian territories focus on understanding their eruption histories, magma dynamics, and future risks. This research contributes to the global understanding of volcanic processes in the Arctic and South Atlantic regions.

Aviation Safety and Volcanic Ash Monitoring: While mainland Norway does not experience volcanic activity, NGU is involved in regional efforts to monitor volcanic ash clouds, which pose significant threats to aviation, particularly in North Atlantic flight corridors. NGU collaborates with the London Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC) and other international partners to track ash clouds and provide advisories that ensure the safety of air travel. Volcanic eruptions from Iceland or Jan Mayen could result in ash clouds drifting into Norwegian airspace, making this monitoring a crucial part of NGU’s responsibilities.

Public Communication and Safety: NGU regularly provides public information about geological hazards, including volcanic activity, through its website, social media, and scientific publications. Although the direct risk of volcanic hazards to Norway’s mainland is low, NGU ensures that authorities, researchers, and the public remain informed about any developments related to volcanic activity in Norwegian territories.

While volcanic eruptions in Norway are rare, the Norwegian Geological Survey (NGU) plays an important role in monitoring potential volcanic hazards in its territories and contributing to global volcanic research efforts. Through continuous monitoring, international collaboration, and public outreach, NGU helps ensure the safety of populations and supports broader geophysical studies.[105]

1.1.3.29. GeoHazards International Volcano Database

The GeoHazards International (GHI) Volcano Database is part of a larger initiative by GeoHazards International, a non-profit organization committed to reducing the risks posed by natural hazards, including volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and tsunamis. GHI’s mission is to help vulnerable communities in hazard-prone regions, especially in developing countries, build resilience to geological risks. The Volcano Database serves as a critical resource in this effort, providing essential information on volcanic hazards with a focus on risk assessment, capacity building, and disaster preparedness in regions where resources for volcanic monitoring are limited.

The GHI Volcano Database collects and shares data on active volcanoes worldwide, especially in high-risk areas where populations are less prepared for volcanic disasters. The database supports strategies for risk mitigation, enhances local monitoring capabilities, and promotes public awareness of volcanic hazards.

Key components of the GeoHazards International Volcano Database include:

Volcanic Risk Assessments: GHI concentrates on assessing volcanic risks in areas where communities are most vulnerable to volcanic activity, particularly in developing regions. The Volcano Database provides data on the frequency and magnitude of eruptions, population exposure, and infrastructure vulnerability. These assessments help identify the regions most at risk, enabling governments and organizations to prioritize interventions and enhance preparedness efforts.

Capacity Building and Training: A significant aspect of GHI’s mission involves helping local governments and communities develop their own volcanic monitoring and disaster response capabilities. Using data from the database, GHI identifies areas that lack sufficient volcano monitoring infrastructure and provides training programs, equipment, and resources to strengthen local capacity. This is especially critical in regions where volcanic hazards are under-monitored due to limited resources.

Hazard Mapping and Disaster Preparedness: The GHI Volcano Database supports the creation of hazard maps that outline areas most at risk from volcanic activity, including lava flows, pyroclastic flows, ashfall, and lahars (volcanic mudflows). These maps are essential for planning evacuation routes, land-use policies, and emergency response strategies. GHI collaborates with local authorities to integrate these hazard maps into broader disaster preparedness plans, improving the overall safety of at-risk communities.

Community Engagement and Education: GHI places strong emphasis on community engagement, helping local populations understand the risks of living near active volcanoes. Using data from the Volcano Database, GHI develops educational programs that teach communities how to respond to volcanic hazards, improve evacuation procedures, and strengthen resilience to volcanic events. This outreach is vital for building awareness and ensuring community preparedness.

Collaborative Research and Partnerships: The GeoHazards International Volcano Database is the result of collaborative research with local institutions, international volcano monitoring agencies, and other non-profit organizations. GHI works closely with global organizations such as the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth’s Interior (IAVCEI) and the Global Volcanism Program (GVP) to share data and improve the global understanding of volcanic hazards. These partnerships ensure that the GHI database reflects the latest scientific insights and supports worldwide efforts to reduce volcanic risks.

Early Warning Systems: In regions with active volcanoes, GHI promotes the development and implementation of early warning systems based on data from its Volcano Database. These systems are designed to provide advance notice of potential eruptions, allowing communities and governments to take preventive action before disasters occur. GHI also advocates for integrating these systems into local and national disaster management frameworks.

The GeoHazards International Volcano Database is a vital tool for advancing volcanic risk reduction strategies in high-risk areas around the world. By focusing on under-monitored and vulnerable regions, GHI plays an essential role in strengthening the resilience of communities to volcanic hazards, particularly in areas where monitoring and disaster response capabilities are limited.[106]

1.1.3.30. United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) Volcano Data

The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR), now known as the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), plays a central role in coordinating global efforts to reduce disaster risk, including volcanic hazards. While UNDRR does not directly monitor volcanoes, it collaborates closely with global and regional organizations to support the sharing of volcanic hazard data, disaster preparedness initiatives, and risk reduction strategies. UNDRR’s efforts focus on enhancing resilience to natural disasters, such as volcanic eruptions, through data dissemination, capacity building, and policy advocacy.

The UNDRR Volcano Data initiative is designed to improve the understanding of volcanic hazards and integrate volcanic risk into disaster risk reduction (DRR) frameworks at the global, regional, and local levels. This data helps countries, particularly those with limited resources for volcanic monitoring, build resilience to volcanic hazards.

Key components of UNDRR’s Volcano Data and its role in disaster risk reduction include:

Global Risk Assessment and Data Sharing: UNDRR promotes the collection and sharing of volcanic hazard data among countries, regions, and international organizations. Through collaboration with agencies like the Global Volcanism Program (GVP) and Volcanic Ash Advisory Centers (VAACs), UNDRR facilitates the dissemination of real-time volcanic data and risk assessments. This data is essential for decision-making in disaster management and for improving early warning systems for volcanic eruptions.

Capacity Building and Support for Vulnerable Countries: UNDRR emphasizes the importance of building capacity in nations, particularly developing countries, to better manage volcanic risks. This includes encouraging the use of volcanic hazard data to enhance local monitoring capabilities, improve early warning systems, and implement evacuation strategies. UNDRR works with local governments, scientific institutions, and disaster management agencies to ensure volcanic risk data is included in national DRR strategies.

Integration of Volcanic Risk into Global DRR Frameworks: UNDRR integrates volcanic hazards into broader disaster risk reduction frameworks, such as the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030). The Sendai Framework, adopted by UN member states, highlights the need for understanding disaster risk in all its forms, including volcanic hazards. UNDRR encourages countries to assess their exposure to volcanic hazards and integrate volcanic risk into their national and regional DRR plans.

Volcanic Hazard Mapping and Risk Assessments: In collaboration with scientific organizations, UNDRR promotes the use of volcanic hazard maps and risk assessments to identify populations at risk from volcanic eruptions, ashfall, pyroclastic flows, lahars, and other hazards. These assessments are critical for informing land-use planning, emergency preparedness, and the development of evacuation plans in areas near active volcanoes. UNDRR advocates for using these tools to build more resilient communities.

Disaster Preparedness and Public Awareness: UNDRR supports public education and awareness initiatives aimed at increasing understanding of volcanic risks. By promoting the use of volcanic data in public outreach campaigns, UNDRR helps communities in volcanic regions prepare for potential eruptions. This includes training programs for local governments and community leaders on how to respond to volcanic hazards, along with creating educational materials for the general public on volcanic safety.

International Collaboration for Risk Reduction: UNDRR collaborates with numerous international agencies, including the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), and other UN bodies, to monitor and reduce the risks associated with volcanic hazards. These partnerships ensure that volcanic risk data is shared widely and that disaster risk reduction strategies are aligned with international standards and best practices.

Through its work on volcanic hazards, UNDRR plays a vital role in fostering global cooperation, building capacity, and promoting the use of volcanic data to enhance resilience. By incorporating volcanic risk into broader disaster risk reduction frameworks, UNDRR ensures that countries, especially those with limited resources, are better prepared to manage the dangers posed by volcanic activity.[107]

1.1.4. Landslides

1.2.3.1. United States Geological Survey (USGS) Landslide Inventory

The United States Geological Survey (USGS) Landslide Inventory is a crucial tool for documenting landslide events throughout the country. It offers extensive data on various aspects of landslides, such as their locations, types, and sizes, along with the conditions that trigger them. This comprehensive information helps deepen our understanding of the geological and environmental factors that cause landslides.

A key purpose of the USGS Landslide Inventory is to aid in hazard assessment and risk reduction. By maintaining an up-to-date record of landslides, the inventory enables researchers and policymakers to identify patterns and trends over time. This insight is vital for pinpointing high-risk areas and developing effective strategies to minimize the impact of future landslides. The data from the inventory is also instrumental in creating accurate landslide susceptibility maps, which are essential for informed land-use planning and disaster preparedness.

Moreover, the inventory is a valuable asset for emergency management professionals and the general public. It provides critical information for real-time monitoring and early warning systems, which can significantly reduce the potential loss of life and property during landslide events. By making this information widely available, the USGS enhances community resilience and increases awareness of landslide hazards.[108]

1.2.3.2. NASA Global Landslide Catalog

The NASA Global Landslide Catalog is an extensive repository documenting landslide events worldwide. It aggregates information on landslides reported globally, detailing aspects like their location, timing, triggers, and impacts. The catalog draws from various sources, including media reports, scientific literature, and other open data, making it a comprehensive resource for studying global landslide patterns and trends.

For researchers and disaster management professionals, this catalog is invaluable in analyzing the spatial and temporal distribution of landslides. By identifying where and when landslides are most likely to occur, the catalog aids in developing predictive models and early warning systems. This capability is essential for assessing landslide risks in different regions and enhancing disaster preparedness and mitigation strategies.

Moreover, the NASA Global Landslide Catalog is crucial for informing policy decisions and land-use planning. By offering a global perspective on landslide activity, it enables governments and organizations to adopt more effective risk reduction measures. The data from the catalog also contributes to understanding the impact of climate change on landslide occurrences, as it monitors how changing weather patterns, such as increased rainfall, affect landslide frequency and distribution.[109]

1.2.3.3. European Landslide Susceptibility Map

The European Landslide Susceptibility Map offers a detailed overview of areas in Europe that are susceptible to landslides. Developed through extensive research and data analysis, it incorporates geological, topographical, and climatic factors to pinpoint regions with a higher probability of landslide events. By utilizing advanced modeling techniques and historical landslide data, this map serves as a crucial tool for understanding and predicting landslide susceptibility across Europe.

The map has a wide range of applications, including urban planning, infrastructure development, and disaster risk management. It enables policymakers, engineers, and emergency management professionals to identify high-risk zones, allowing them to take proactive steps to reduce the potential impact of landslides. Additionally, it plays a key role in raising awareness among the public and local authorities, enhancing preparedness and response strategies for those living in vulnerable areas.

Beyond its practical uses, the European Landslide Susceptibility Map is a valuable resource for scientific research. It helps deepen the understanding of the factors influencing landslide activity, such as soil composition, slope gradient, and rainfall patterns. By offering a comprehensive view of landslide susceptibility, it contributes to ongoing research on the impacts of climate change and human activities on landslide dynamics, supporting the development of more effective mitigation and adaptation strategies.[110]

1.2.3.4. British Geological Survey (BGS) National Landslide Database

The British Geological Survey (BGS) National Landslide Database is the most comprehensive resource for landslide data in the United Kingdom. It compiles extensive information on landslides, including their locations, types, sizes, and the specific conditions that triggered them. This database is crucial for understanding landslide patterns and assessing the factors that contribute to landslide risks within the region.

This database serves several key functions, particularly in hazard assessment and land-use planning. By providing detailed records of past landslide events, it enables researchers and policymakers to pinpoint areas that are more susceptible to future landslides. This insight is essential for developing effective mitigation strategies and enhancing early warning systems, helping to reduce the risks to people, property, and the environment.

Beyond supporting research and planning, the BGS National Landslide Database is a valuable educational tool. It offers accessible information to local communities about landslide risks, promoting safer practices and improving disaster preparedness. Furthermore, the database significantly contributes to scientific research by providing a detailed dataset for studying landslide dynamics and how they interact with environmental and human factors.[111]

1.2.3.5. Canadian Landslide Inventory

The Canadian Landslide Inventory is a detailed database that records landslide events across Canada. It gathers comprehensive information on each landslide, including details about their locations, types, sizes, and triggers, as well as the effects on infrastructure, communities, and the environment. This inventory is essential for understanding the distribution and frequency of landslides in the country, offering valuable insights into the geological and climatic factors that influence landslide occurrence in various regions.

This inventory is an invaluable tool for researchers, policymakers, and emergency management professionals. It facilitates hazard assessment and risk reduction by providing extensive data that can help identify areas more prone to landslides. By examining patterns and trends within the inventory, experts can develop predictive models and early warning systems, improving the capacity to respond to and mitigate landslide impacts. Additionally, this information is crucial for informed land-use planning, ensuring that development projects take into account the potential risks of landslides.

Beyond its role in hazard assessment and mitigation, the Canadian Landslide Inventory is key for public education and awareness. It offers accessible information that helps communities understand the risks of landslides and promotes the adoption of safer practices. The inventory also supports scientific research, enabling in-depth studies of landslide dynamics and their interactions with natural and human-induced factors.[112]

1.2.3.6. Australian Geoscience Landslide Database

The Australian Geoscience Landslide Database is a comprehensive resource that documents landslide events across Australia. It gathers detailed information on various aspects of landslides, including their locations, types, sizes, and the conditions that caused them. By compiling data from geological surveys, research studies, and field reports, this database offers a thorough overview of landslide activity in Australia, aiding in the understanding of landslide hazards in the region.

This database is vital for hazard assessment and disaster risk management. It enables researchers, urban planners, and policymakers to analyze the spatial and temporal patterns of landslides, helping to identify areas more vulnerable to these events. This information is essential for crafting effective mitigation strategies and making informed land-use planning decisions, thereby reducing the impact of landslides on communities, infrastructure, and the environment. Additionally, the data assists in developing early warning systems and public awareness initiatives, which are crucial for enhancing community resilience to landslide hazards.

Furthermore, the Australian Geoscience Landslide Database is an important tool for scientific research. It allows for the study of landslide processes and the factors that influence their occurrence, such as soil composition, rainfall, and seismic activity. By providing detailed records of past landslides, the database contributes to ongoing efforts to understand and predict landslide behavior, ultimately helping to improve safety and preparedness in areas prone to landslides.[113]

1.2.3.7. Japan Landslide Society Database

The Japan Landslide Society Database is a comprehensive resource that documents landslide occurrences across Japan. It includes detailed records on landslides, such as their locations, causes, types, and the impacts on surrounding areas. Drawing from field surveys, scientific research, and government reports, the database provides a deep understanding of landslide activity across Japan’s diverse and often hazardous geological landscapes.

This database is crucial for disaster risk management and mitigation in Japan, where landslides are common due to the country’s mountainous terrain, heavy rainfall, and frequent seismic activity. By analyzing this data, researchers and policymakers can pinpoint landslide-prone areas and develop strategies to mitigate the associated risks. The database aids in creating early warning systems and informs land-use planning, which is essential for safeguarding communities and infrastructure from potential landslide damage.

In addition to its role in risk management, the Japan Landslide Society Database is a valuable tool for public education and awareness. It provides accessible information to help the public understand landslide risks and encourages safer practices in vulnerable regions. The database also supports scientific research by offering a rich dataset for studying landslide mechanisms and their interactions with environmental and human factors. This research is key to advancing the understanding of landslide dynamics and enhancing disaster preparedness and response strategies.[114]

1.2.3.8. New Zealand Landslide Database

The New Zealand Landslide Database is a comprehensive collection of information on landslide events throughout the country. It includes detailed records on various aspects of landslides, such as their locations, types, sizes, and triggers, as well as the geological and environmental conditions present at the time of each event. The database is compiled using data from geological surveys, research studies, and reports from local authorities, offering a thorough overview of landslide activity in New Zealand.

This database is crucial for hazard assessment and disaster risk management in New Zealand. By examining the spatial and temporal distribution of landslides, researchers and policymakers can pinpoint areas that are more susceptible to these events. This information is key to developing effective mitigation strategies and ensuring that land-use planning and infrastructure development take potential landslide risks into account. Additionally, the database supports the creation of early warning systems, enhancing the ability to prepare for and respond to landslide events.

Beyond its role in hazard management, the New Zealand Landslide Database serves as an invaluable resource for scientific research. It provides a rich dataset for studying the processes and factors that lead to landslides, including rainfall patterns, seismic activity, and geological conditions. This research helps improve the understanding of landslide dynamics, contributing to the development of more accurate predictive models and strengthening community resilience to landslide hazards.[115]

1.2.3.9. Italian National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology (INGV) Landslide Inventory

The Italian National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology (INGV) Landslide Inventory is a detailed database documenting landslide events throughout Italy. It provides comprehensive information on each landslide, including its occurrence, location, type, and size, along with the conditions that triggered it, such as heavy rainfall, seismic activity, or human interventions. Compiled from field surveys, remote sensing, and scientific research, this inventory offers an in-depth view of landslide distribution and frequency across the Italian peninsula.

This inventory is crucial for hazard assessment and disaster risk management in Italy. The country’s varied terrain and vulnerability to natural hazards make identifying high-risk areas essential. The INGV Landslide Inventory supports this by helping to develop effective mitigation strategies. The data is used to create detailed landslide susceptibility maps, which are vital for land-use planning, infrastructure development, and the implementation of early warning systems. By proactively addressing landslide risks, these efforts help reduce the impact on communities, infrastructure, and the environment.

Additionally, the INGV Landslide Inventory is a key resource for scientific research and public education. By maintaining a thorough record of past landslide events, it supports the study of the processes and factors that contribute to landslides, such as geological formations, soil types, and climatic conditions. This research advances the understanding of landslide dynamics, aiding in disaster preparedness and response strategies. The inventory also raises awareness among the public and local authorities about landslide risks, promoting safety and resilience in regions prone to these hazards.[116]

1.2.3.10. Indian National Landslide Inventory

The Indian National Landslide Inventory is a comprehensive repository documenting landslide occurrences across India. It includes detailed records on the location, type, size, and triggers of landslides, offering a thorough overview of landslide activity in India’s diverse terrains. This data is gathered through field surveys, remote sensing technologies, and reports from local authorities, making it an essential resource for understanding landslide distribution and frequency across the country.

This inventory is crucial for hazard assessment and disaster risk management in India. The country’s varied geographical features and climatic conditions make it especially susceptible to landslides. By analyzing this data, researchers and policymakers can pinpoint landslide-prone areas and devise effective mitigation strategies. The inventory aids in the creation of landslide susceptibility maps and informs land-use planning, helping to reduce the potential impact on communities, infrastructure, and the environment. It also plays a key role in developing early warning systems, enhancing the ability to prepare for and respond to landslide events.

Beyond its role in risk reduction, the Indian National Landslide Inventory is a valuable resource for scientific research. It provides an extensive dataset for studying landslide processes and the factors influencing their occurrence, such as monsoon rainfall, seismic activity, and human activities like deforestation and construction. This research advances the understanding of landslide dynamics, contributing to more effective disaster preparedness and resilience efforts. Additionally, the inventory serves to raise public awareness about landslide risks, promoting safety and preparedness in vulnerable regions.[117]

1.2.3.11. Chinese Geological Survey Landslide Database

The Chinese Geological Survey Landslide Database is a comprehensive repository that documents landslide events across China. It includes detailed information on each landslide’s location, type, size, and the conditions that triggered it, such as heavy rainfall, earthquakes, or human activities like mining and deforestation. Compiling data from field surveys, remote sensing technologies, and scientific research, this database provides a thorough overview of landslide distribution and characteristics across China’s varied landscapes.

This database is vital for hazard assessment and disaster risk management in China, a country with complex geological and climatic conditions that make it prone to frequent landslides. By analyzing this data, researchers and policymakers can identify high-risk areas and develop targeted mitigation strategies. The information is crucial for creating landslide susceptibility maps, guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and the implementation of early warning systems. These efforts help protect communities and reduce potential damage from landslides.

In addition to its role in risk mitigation, the Chinese Geological Survey Landslide Database is a key resource for scientific research and public education. It provides an extensive dataset for investigating the processes and factors contributing to landslides, such as geological formations, soil types, and weather patterns. This research enhances the understanding of landslide dynamics and supports the development of more effective preparedness and response strategies. The database also plays a critical role in raising public awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in regions at risk.[118]

1.2.3.12. Norwegian Geological Survey (NGU) Landslide Database

The Norwegian Geological Survey (NGU) Landslide Database is an extensive repository documenting landslide events across Norway. It offers detailed records on landslides, including information on their locations, types, sizes, and triggering factors, such as rockfalls, avalanches, and debris flows. Compiled from field surveys, remote sensing, historical records, and scientific research, this database provides a thorough understanding of landslide occurrences across Norway’s varied landscapes.

This database is crucial for hazard assessment and disaster risk management in Norway. The country’s diverse terrain, characterized by mountains, fjords, and valleys, makes it particularly prone to different types of landslides. By analyzing the data in the NGU Landslide Database, researchers and policymakers can identify areas at high risk and develop strategies to mitigate landslide impacts. The database is instrumental in creating detailed susceptibility maps, guiding land-use planning and infrastructure development. It also plays a vital role in implementing early warning systems, helping to protect communities and minimize damage from landslides.

Beyond its practical applications, the NGU Landslide Database is an important resource for scientific research. It provides a rich dataset for studying the factors that contribute to landslide occurrences, such as geological formations, weather patterns, and human activities like construction and land-use changes. This research advances the understanding of landslide dynamics and informs the creation of more effective disaster preparedness and response strategies. Additionally, the database raises public awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in regions vulnerable to these natural events.[119]

1.2.3.13. Swedish Geotechnical Institute (SGI) Landslide Database

The Swedish Geotechnical Institute (SGI) Landslide Database is a comprehensive repository documenting landslide events throughout Sweden. It includes detailed information on landslides, such as their locations, types, sizes, and triggering conditions like rainfall, snowmelt, or human activities like construction and land-use changes. The database is compiled using data from field surveys, remote sensing, historical records, and scientific research, providing an in-depth overview of landslide activity across Sweden’s diverse landscapes.

This database is vital for hazard assessment and disaster risk management in Sweden, where landslides pose significant risks to infrastructure, communities, and the environment. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify areas that are particularly susceptible to landslides and develop effective mitigation strategies. The database supports the creation of landslide susceptibility maps, essential for guiding land-use planning and infrastructure development. These maps also help implement early warning systems, reducing the potential impact of landslides.

Beyond its role in risk mitigation, the SGI Landslide Database is a valuable resource for scientific research. It offers a rich dataset for studying the processes and factors contributing to landslide occurrences, such as soil composition, slope stability, and climatic conditions. This research enhances the understanding of landslide dynamics, informing the development of more effective disaster preparedness and response strategies. Additionally, the database plays a crucial role in public education, raising awareness about landslide risks and promoting safety in vulnerable regions.[120]

1.2.3.14. South American Landslide Inventory

The South American Landslide Inventory is an extensive database documenting landslide events across the continent’s varied landscapes. It includes detailed records of landslides, covering aspects such as locations, types, sizes, and triggering factors like heavy rainfall, earthquakes, volcanic activity, and human interventions like deforestation and mining. The inventory gathers data from diverse sources, including field surveys, satellite imagery, scientific research, and reports from local authorities, offering a comprehensive view of landslide activity across South America.

This inventory is crucial for hazard assessment and disaster risk management in South America. The region’s complex topography, including the Andes mountains, and diverse climatic conditions make it particularly susceptible to landslides. By analyzing the data in the South American Landslide Inventory, researchers and policymakers can identify high-risk areas and develop targeted mitigation strategies. The information aids in creating landslide susceptibility maps, which are essential for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and implementing early warning systems to protect communities and reduce potential damages.

Beyond its role in risk mitigation, the inventory is a valuable resource for scientific research. It provides a rich dataset for studying landslide processes and the factors influencing their occurrence, such as geological formations, rainfall patterns, and seismic activity. This research enhances understanding of landslide dynamics, contributing to the development of predictive models and improving disaster preparedness and response strategies. Additionally, the inventory helps raise public awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in regions vulnerable to these events.[121]

1.2.3.15. Taiwan Central Geological Survey Landslide Database

The Taiwan Central Geological Survey Landslide Database is an essential repository that compiles detailed information on landslide occurrences across Taiwan. Given the country’s mountainous terrain and frequent heavy rainfall, landslides are a significant natural hazard in Taiwan. This database includes comprehensive records on landslides, documenting their locations, types, sizes, and the specific conditions that triggered these events. It is an invaluable resource for understanding the distribution and frequency of landslides throughout Taiwan’s diverse geological landscapes.

One of the primary uses of the Taiwan Central Geological Survey Landslide Database is to support hazard assessment and disaster risk management. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify areas with higher susceptibility to landslides and develop targeted mitigation strategies. The database aids in creating landslide susceptibility maps, which are crucial for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and implementing early warning systems. This proactive approach is vital for reducing the impact of landslides on communities, infrastructure, and the environment.

In addition to its applications in hazard mitigation, the database is a valuable tool for scientific research and public awareness. It provides a rich dataset for studying the processes and factors contributing to landslides, such as geological formations, weather patterns, and seismic activity. The insights gained from this research help enhance the understanding of landslide dynamics and inform strategies for disaster preparedness and response. By making this information accessible, the database also raises awareness about landslide risks, promoting safety and resilience in vulnerable regions.[122]

1.2.3.16. Brazilian Geological Survey (CPRM) Landslide Database

The Brazilian Geological Survey (CPRM) Landslide Database is a comprehensive resource that documents landslide events across Brazil, a country with diverse terrain and climatic conditions that contribute to landslide risks. This database includes detailed records of landslides, covering aspects such as their locations, types, sizes, and triggers, including rainfall, deforestation, and human activities like mining. It serves as a crucial tool for understanding the distribution and frequency of landslides in Brazil.

The primary purpose of this database is to support hazard assessment and disaster risk management efforts. By maintaining an updated record of landslides, the Brazilian Geological Survey provides valuable information for identifying high-risk areas and developing strategies to mitigate the impact of future landslides. The database is also instrumental in creating susceptibility maps that guide land-use planning and infrastructure development, ensuring that potential landslide risks are considered in these processes. Additionally, it helps in establishing early warning systems to protect communities and reduce damage from landslides.

Beyond its applications in risk reduction, the Brazilian Geological Survey Landslide Database is an important resource for scientific research and public education. It offers a comprehensive dataset for studying landslide dynamics and the factors that contribute to their occurrence, such as soil composition, slope gradient, and weather patterns. This research enhances the understanding of landslide behavior and informs the development of effective disaster preparedness and response strategies. The database also plays a key role in raising public awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in regions vulnerable to such events.[123]

1.2.3.17. Russian Academy of Sciences Landslide Database

The Russian Academy of Sciences Landslide Database is an extensive collection of landslide records throughout Russia, a country with diverse geological features and climates that make it prone to various types of landslides. This database compiles detailed information on landslides, including their locations, types, sizes, and the specific triggers such as rainfall, snowmelt, and seismic activity. The database serves as a crucial resource for understanding the distribution, frequency, and characteristics of landslides across Russia.

The database is vital for hazard assessment and disaster risk management in Russia. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify regions with higher susceptibility to landslides and develop appropriate mitigation strategies. The information aids in creating detailed landslide susceptibility maps, which are essential tools for guiding land-use planning and infrastructure development. These maps help to minimize the risk to people, property, and the environment by informing decisions about where to build and how to implement early warning systems.

Additionally, the Russian Academy of Sciences Landslide Database is an important tool for scientific research and public awareness. It provides a comprehensive dataset for studying the factors that contribute to landslide occurrence, such as geological formations, soil properties, and climatic conditions. This research enhances the understanding of landslide dynamics and informs the development of effective disaster preparedness and response strategies. Furthermore, the database helps raise awareness about landslide risks, promoting safety and resilience in areas prone to such hazards.[124]

1.2.3.18. French Geological Survey (BRGM) Landslide Database

The French Geological Survey (BRGM) Landslide Database is a comprehensive repository that provides detailed information on landslide events across France. This database includes records on the location, type, size, and triggers of landslides, such as heavy rainfall, soil erosion, and seismic activity. The BRGM Landslide Database is an essential tool for understanding the distribution and frequency of landslides within the diverse terrains of France, ranging from mountainous regions to coastal areas.

One of the primary functions of the BRGM Landslide Database is to support hazard assessment and disaster risk management. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify high-risk zones and develop strategies to mitigate the impact of future landslides. The database assists in creating landslide susceptibility maps, which are crucial for informing land-use planning and infrastructure development. These maps guide decision-makers in designing and implementing effective measures to protect communities and reduce potential damages from landslides.

In addition to its application in risk management, the BRGM Landslide Database is an invaluable resource for scientific research and public education. It provides a rich dataset for studying the geological and environmental factors that contribute to landslides, such as soil properties, slope gradients, and climatic conditions. The insights gained from this research help enhance the understanding of landslide processes and improve disaster preparedness and response strategies. By making this information accessible, the database also raises public awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in vulnerable regions.[125]

1.2.3.19. Swiss Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN) Landslide Database

The Swiss Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN) Landslide Database is a detailed inventory that compiles information on landslide occurrences throughout Switzerland. Given the country’s mountainous terrain and varying climatic conditions, landslides are a significant natural hazard in Switzerland. The database includes comprehensive records on landslides, documenting their locations, types, sizes, and the specific conditions that led to these events. It serves as a crucial resource for understanding landslide patterns and risk distribution across Switzerland.

The FOEN Landslide Database plays an essential role in hazard assessment and disaster risk management. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify areas with higher susceptibility to landslides and develop targeted strategies to mitigate their impact. The database aids in creating landslide susceptibility maps, which are vital for land-use planning, infrastructure development, and the implementation of early warning systems. This proactive approach helps reduce the potential impact of landslides on communities, infrastructure, and the environment.

Furthermore, the FOEN Landslide Database is a valuable tool for scientific research and public education. It provides a rich dataset for studying the factors contributing to landslides, such as geological formations, soil properties, and weather patterns. This research enhances the understanding of landslide dynamics and informs strategies for disaster preparedness and response. Additionally, the database raises public awareness about landslide risks, promoting safety and resilience in regions vulnerable to such events.[126]

1.2.3.20. Nepal Department of Mines and Geology Landslide Database

The Nepal Department of Mines and Geology Landslide Database is a vital resource that documents landslide occurrences across Nepal, a country characterized by its rugged terrain and susceptibility to landslides due to monsoon rains and seismic activity. This database includes detailed records on landslides, encompassing their locations, types, sizes, and the conditions that triggered them. It serves as an essential tool for understanding the distribution and frequency of landslides in Nepal’s diverse geographical regions.

This database plays a crucial role in hazard assessment and disaster risk management in Nepal. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify high-risk areas and develop targeted mitigation strategies to reduce the impact of landslides on communities and infrastructure. The information from the database aids in creating landslide susceptibility maps, which are key tools for land-use planning and developing early warning systems. These maps guide decision-makers in implementing measures to enhance safety and reduce potential damage from landslides.

In addition to its application in risk reduction, the Nepal Department of Mines and Geology Landslide Database is a valuable tool for scientific research and public education. It provides a rich dataset for studying the geological and environmental factors that contribute to landslide occurrences, such as soil composition, slope stability, and weather patterns. This research helps improve the understanding of landslide dynamics and informs strategies for disaster preparedness and response. The database also plays a significant role in raising awareness about landslide risks, promoting safety and resilience in vulnerable communities.[127]

1.2.3.21. Indonesian Geological Agency Landslide Inventory

The Indonesian Geological Agency Landslide Inventory is a comprehensive resource that documents landslide events throughout Indonesia, a country with a complex geography and frequent seismic activity that makes it prone to landslides. This inventory includes detailed information on landslides, such as their locations, types, sizes, and triggering factors like rainfall, earthquakes, and volcanic activity. It serves as a critical tool for understanding the distribution and characteristics of landslides across Indonesia’s diverse landscapes.

This inventory is essential for hazard assessment and disaster risk management in Indonesia. By maintaining an updated record of landslides, the Indonesian Geological Agency provides valuable data for identifying high-risk areas and developing strategies to mitigate the impact of future landslides. The inventory supports the creation of landslide susceptibility maps, which are crucial for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and the implementation of early warning systems. This proactive approach is vital for protecting communities and reducing potential damage from landslides.

In addition to its role in risk reduction, the Indonesian Geological Agency Landslide Inventory is a valuable resource for scientific research and public education. It offers a comprehensive dataset for studying the geological and environmental factors that contribute to landslide occurrence, such as soil properties, slope gradients, and weather patterns. This research enhances the understanding of landslide dynamics and informs the development of effective disaster preparedness and response strategies. By making this information accessible, the inventory also raises public awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in regions vulnerable to such events.

1.2.3.22. Austrian Geological Survey Landslide Database

The Austrian Geological Survey Landslide Database is a detailed collection that compiles information on landslide events across Austria. This database includes records of landslides, documenting their locations, types, sizes, and the conditions that triggered them, such as heavy rainfall, snowmelt, and human activities. It is a crucial resource for understanding landslide patterns and risks within Austria’s varied topography, which ranges from alpine regions to river valleys.

The primary use of the Austrian Geological Survey Landslide Database is to support hazard assessment and disaster risk management. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify areas with higher susceptibility to landslides and develop strategies to mitigate their impact. The database aids in creating detailed landslide susceptibility maps, which are essential for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and implementing early warning systems. These maps help minimize the risk to people, property, and the environment by informing decisions on where to build and how to respond to potential landslide threats.

Additionally, the Austrian Geological Survey Landslide Database is a valuable tool for scientific research and public awareness. It provides a comprehensive dataset for studying the factors that contribute to landslide occurrence, such as geological formations, soil composition, and climatic conditions. This research helps enhance the understanding of landslide dynamics and informs the development of effective disaster preparedness and response strategies. Furthermore, the database raises public awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in regions vulnerable to such events.[128]

1.2.3.23. German Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR) Landslide Database

The German Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR) Landslide Database is a comprehensive repository that provides detailed information on landslide occurrences throughout Germany. It includes records on the location, type, size, and triggers of landslides, such as heavy rainfall, snowmelt, and human activities like construction and deforestation. This database serves as a crucial resource for understanding the distribution and characteristics of landslides in Germany’s diverse geological landscapes.

This database is vital for hazard assessment and disaster risk management in Germany. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify high-risk zones and develop strategies to mitigate the impact of future landslides. The information supports the creation of landslide susceptibility maps, which are essential for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and implementing early warning systems. These maps help protect communities and reduce the potential damage from landslides by informing decisions on where to build and how to prepare for potential hazards.

In addition to its application in risk mitigation, the BGR Landslide Database is a valuable tool for scientific research and public education. It offers a rich dataset for studying the geological and environmental factors that contribute to landslide occurrence, such as soil properties, slope gradients, and weather patterns. This research helps enhance the understanding of landslide dynamics and informs the development of effective disaster preparedness and response strategies. By making this information accessible, the database also raises public awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in regions vulnerable to such events.[129]

1.2.3.24. Colombian Geological Survey Landslide Database

The Colombian Geological Survey Landslide Database is an extensive collection that compiles information on landslide events across Colombia, a country with a diverse landscape ranging from the Andes mountains to coastal plains, making it prone to various types of landslides. This database includes detailed records on landslides, including their locations, types, sizes, and triggers such as heavy rainfall, seismic activity, and volcanic eruptions. It serves as an essential resource for understanding the distribution and frequency of landslides throughout Colombia.

This database is crucial for hazard assessment and disaster risk management in Colombia. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify areas with higher susceptibility to landslides and develop targeted mitigation strategies to reduce the impact on communities and infrastructure. The information aids in creating landslide susceptibility maps, which are vital tools for guiding land-use planning and infrastructure development. These maps help to minimize the risk to people and property by informing decisions about where to build and how to implement early warning systems.

Beyond its application in risk reduction, the Colombian Geological Survey Landslide Database is a valuable tool for scientific research and public education. It provides a rich dataset for studying the processes and factors contributing to landslide occurrences, such as geological formations, soil properties, and climatic conditions. This research enhances the understanding of landslide dynamics and informs strategies for disaster preparedness and response. Furthermore, the database plays a significant role in raising awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in regions prone to such events.[130]

1.2.3.25. Ecuador National Institute of Geological, Mining and Metallurgical Research (INIGEMM) Landslide Database

The Ecuador National Institute of Geological, Mining and Metallurgical Research (INIGEMM) Landslide Database is a comprehensive repository that documents landslide occurrences throughout Ecuador. The country’s diverse terrain, including the Andes mountains and Amazon rainforest, makes it susceptible to various types of landslides. This database includes detailed information on landslides, including their locations, types, sizes, and triggering factors such as rainfall, volcanic activity, and seismic events.

The primary use of the INIGEMM Landslide Database is to support hazard assessment and disaster risk management in Ecuador. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify high-risk areas and develop targeted strategies to mitigate the impact of landslides. The database aids in creating landslide susceptibility maps, which are crucial for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and implementing early warning systems. This approach helps reduce the potential impact of landslides on communities, infrastructure, and the environment.

In addition to its role in risk management, the INIGEMM Landslide Database is a valuable tool for scientific research and public education. It provides a rich dataset for studying the geological and environmental factors that contribute to landslide occurrences, such as soil composition, slope gradients, and weather patterns. This research enhances the understanding of landslide dynamics and informs the development of effective disaster preparedness and response strategies. By making this information accessible, the database also raises public awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in regions vulnerable to such events.[131]

1.2.3.26. Chilean National Geology and Mining Service (SERNAGEOMIN) Landslide Database

The Chilean National Geology and Mining Service (SERNAGEOMIN) Landslide Database is an extensive repository that compiles information on landslide events across Chile. The country’s long and narrow geography, with the Andes mountains and numerous coastal ranges, makes it highly susceptible to landslides. The database includes detailed records of landslides, covering aspects such as their locations, types, sizes, and triggers, including earthquakes, heavy rainfall, and volcanic activity.

This database plays a crucial role in hazard assessment and disaster risk management in Chile. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify areas with higher susceptibility to landslides and develop effective mitigation strategies to reduce their impact. The information aids in creating landslide susceptibility maps, which are essential for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and implementing early warning systems. These maps help protect communities and reduce the potential damage from landslides by informing decisions on where to build and how to prepare for potential hazards.

In addition to its application in risk mitigation, the SERNAGEOMIN Landslide Database is a valuable tool for scientific research and public education. It provides a comprehensive dataset for studying the geological and environmental factors that contribute to landslide occurrences, such as soil properties, slope gradients, and climatic conditions. This research enhances the understanding of landslide dynamics and informs the development of effective disaster preparedness and response strategies. Furthermore, the database plays a significant role in raising awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in regions prone to such events.[132]

1.2.3.27. Philippines Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB) Landslide Database

The Philippines Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB) Landslide Database is a comprehensive resource that documents landslide occurrences throughout the Philippines, an archipelago with a diverse landscape that includes mountainous regions and coastal areas prone to landslides. This database includes detailed records on landslides, including their locations, types, sizes, and the conditions that triggered them, such as typhoons, heavy rainfall, and seismic activity. It is an essential tool for understanding landslide distribution and frequency across the country.

The primary use of the MGB Landslide Database is to support hazard assessment and disaster risk management in the Philippines. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify areas with higher susceptibility to landslides and develop targeted strategies to mitigate their impact. The database aids in creating landslide susceptibility maps, which are vital for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and the implementation of early warning systems. This proactive approach helps reduce the potential impact of landslides on communities, infrastructure, and the environment.

In addition to its application in risk reduction, the MGB Landslide Database is a valuable tool for scientific research and public education. It provides a rich dataset for studying the geological and environmental factors that contribute to landslide occurrences, such as soil properties, slope stability, and weather patterns. This research enhances the understanding of landslide dynamics and informs the development of effective disaster preparedness and response strategies. Furthermore, the database raises public awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in regions vulnerable to such events.[133]

1.2.3.28. Vietnamese Institute of Geosciences and Mineral Resources (VIGMR) Landslide Database

The Vietnamese Institute of Geosciences and Mineral Resources (VIGMR) Landslide Database is an essential resource that compiles detailed information on landslide occurrences across Vietnam. Given the country’s varied topography, including mountainous regions and river valleys, landslides are a significant natural hazard in Vietnam. The database includes comprehensive records on landslides, documenting their locations, types, sizes, and the conditions that triggered these events, such as heavy rainfall, flooding, and human activities like deforestation.

One of the primary uses of the VIGMR Landslide Database is to support hazard assessment and disaster risk management. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify areas with higher susceptibility to landslides and develop targeted mitigation strategies. The database aids in creating landslide susceptibility maps, which are crucial for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and implementing early warning systems. This proactive approach is vital for reducing the impact of landslides on communities, infrastructure, and the environment.

In addition to its applications in hazard mitigation, the VIGMR Landslide Database is a valuable tool for scientific research and public education. It provides a rich dataset for studying the processes and factors contributing to landslides, such as geological formations, weather patterns, and human interventions. The insights gained from this research help enhance the understanding of landslide dynamics and inform strategies for disaster preparedness and response. By making this information accessible, the database also raises public awareness about landslide risks, promoting safety and resilience in vulnerable regions.[134]

1.2.3.29. Turkish Disaster and Emergency Management Authority (AFAD) Landslide Database

The Turkish Disaster and Emergency Management Authority (AFAD) Landslide Database is a comprehensive resource that documents landslide events across Turkey, a country with diverse geological and climatic conditions that contribute to landslide risks. This database includes detailed records of landslides, covering aspects such as their locations, types, sizes, and triggers, including earthquakes, heavy rainfall, and volcanic activity. It serves as a crucial tool for understanding the distribution and characteristics of landslides in Turkey’s varied terrain.

The primary purpose of the AFAD Landslide Database is to support hazard assessment and disaster risk management. By maintaining an updated record of landslides, the Turkish Disaster and Emergency Management Authority provides valuable information for identifying high-risk areas and developing strategies to mitigate the impact of future landslides. The database is also instrumental in creating landslide susceptibility maps that guide land-use planning and infrastructure development, ensuring that potential landslide risks are considered in these processes. Additionally, it helps in establishing early warning systems to protect communities and reduce damage from landslides.

Beyond its applications in risk reduction, the AFAD Landslide Database is an important resource for scientific research and public education. It offers a comprehensive dataset for studying landslide dynamics and the factors that contribute to their occurrence, such as soil composition, slope gradient, and weather patterns. This research enhances the understanding of landslide behavior and informs the development of effective disaster preparedness and response strategies. The database also plays a key role in raising public awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in regions vulnerable to such events.[135]

1.2.3.30. Iranian Geological Survey Landslide Database

The Iranian Geological Survey Landslide Database is an extensive collection that compiles information on landslide events throughout Iran, a country with diverse terrain including mountains, deserts, and coastal regions. This database provides detailed records of landslides, documenting their locations, types, sizes, and the conditions that triggered them, such as seismic activity, heavy rainfall, and human interventions. It serves as a critical resource for understanding landslide distribution and frequency across Iran’s varied geological landscapes.

This database is crucial for hazard assessment and disaster risk management in Iran. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify high-risk areas and develop targeted strategies to mitigate the impact of landslides on communities and infrastructure. The information from the database aids in creating landslide susceptibility maps, which are vital tools for guiding land-use planning and infrastructure development. These maps help to minimize the risk to people and property by informing decisions about where to build and how to implement early warning systems.

In addition to its application in risk reduction, the Iranian Geological Survey Landslide Database is a valuable tool for scientific research and public education. It provides a rich dataset for studying the geological and environmental factors that contribute to landslide occurrences, such as soil properties, slope gradients, and weather patterns. This research enhances the understanding of landslide dynamics and informs strategies for disaster preparedness and response. Furthermore, the database plays a significant role in raising awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in regions prone to such events.[136]

1.2.3.31. Korean Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources (KIGAM) Landslide Database

The Korean Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources (KIGAM) Landslide Database is a comprehensive resource that provides detailed information on landslide occurrences throughout South Korea. The country’s mountainous terrain and frequent heavy rainfall make it susceptible to landslides. This database includes records of landslides, documenting their locations, types, sizes, and triggers, such as typhoons, monsoon rains, and human activities. It serves as an essential tool for understanding landslide patterns and risks in South Korea’s diverse landscapes.

The KIGAM Landslide Database plays a crucial role in hazard assessment and disaster risk management in South Korea. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify areas with higher susceptibility to landslides and develop targeted mitigation strategies. The database aids in creating landslide susceptibility maps, which are essential for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and implementing early warning systems. This proactive approach helps reduce the potential impact of landslides on communities, infrastructure, and the environment.

In addition to its applications in hazard mitigation, the KIGAM Landslide Database is a valuable tool for scientific research and public education. It provides a rich dataset for studying the geological and environmental factors that contribute to landslide occurrences, such as soil composition, slope gradients, and climatic conditions. This research enhances the understanding of landslide dynamics and informs strategies for disaster preparedness and response. Furthermore, the database raises public awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in regions vulnerable to such events.[137]

1.2.3.32. Thailand Department of Mineral Resources Landslide Database

The Thailand Department of Mineral Resources Landslide Database is a comprehensive collection of information on landslide events across Thailand. The country’s diverse topography, which includes mountainous regions and river valleys, makes it prone to landslides. This database includes detailed records on landslides, covering aspects such as their locations, types, sizes, and the conditions that triggered them, such as heavy rainfall, flooding, and human activities. It serves as a crucial resource for understanding the distribution and frequency of landslides throughout Thailand.

One of the primary functions of this database is to support hazard assessment and disaster risk management in Thailand. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify high-risk zones and develop strategies to mitigate the impact of future landslides. The database assists in creating landslide susceptibility maps, which are essential for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and implementing early warning systems. This proactive approach is vital for protecting communities and reducing potential damage from landslides.

In addition to its application in risk management, the Thailand Department of Mineral Resources Landslide Database is a valuable tool for scientific research and public education. It provides a rich dataset for studying the geological and environmental factors that contribute to landslide occurrences, such as soil properties, slope gradients, and climatic conditions. The insights gained from this research help enhance the understanding of landslide dynamics and improve disaster preparedness and response strategies. By making this information accessible, the database also raises public awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in vulnerable regions.[138]

1.2.3.33. Malaysian Minerals and Geoscience Department Landslide Database

The Malaysian Minerals and Geoscience Department Landslide Database is a comprehensive resource that documents landslide events across Malaysia, a country with a complex topography that includes mountainous regions and tropical rainforests. This database provides detailed records of landslides, covering aspects such as their locations, types, sizes, and the conditions that triggered them, including heavy rainfall, deforestation, and urban development. It serves as a crucial tool for understanding the distribution and characteristics of landslides in Malaysia’s varied landscapes.

The primary purpose of this database is to support hazard assessment and disaster risk management in Malaysia. By maintaining an updated record of landslides, the Minerals and Geoscience Department provides valuable data for identifying high-risk areas and developing strategies to mitigate the impact of future landslides. The database is instrumental in creating landslide susceptibility maps that guide land-use planning and infrastructure development, ensuring that potential landslide risks are considered in these processes. Additionally, it helps in establishing early warning systems to protect communities and reduce damage from landslides.

Beyond its applications in risk reduction, the Malaysian Minerals and Geoscience Department Landslide Database is an important resource for scientific research and public education. It offers a comprehensive dataset for studying landslide dynamics and the factors that contribute to their occurrence, such as soil composition, slope gradient, and weather patterns. This research enhances the understanding of landslide behavior and informs the development of effective disaster preparedness and response strategies. The database also plays a key role in raising public awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in regions vulnerable to such events.[139]

1.2.3.34. Sri Lanka National Building Research Organization (NBRO) Landslide Database

The Sri Lanka National Building Research Organization (NBRO) Landslide Database is an extensive repository that compiles information on landslide events across Sri Lanka, a country with a diverse landscape that includes mountainous regions and monsoon-influenced climates. This database provides detailed records of landslides, documenting their locations, types, sizes, and the conditions that triggered them, such as heavy rainfall, deforestation, and construction activities. It serves as a critical resource for understanding landslide distribution and frequency throughout Sri Lanka.

This database plays a crucial role in hazard assessment and disaster risk management in Sri Lanka. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify high-risk areas and develop targeted strategies to mitigate the impact of landslides on communities and infrastructure. The information from the database aids in creating landslide susceptibility maps, which are vital tools for guiding land-use planning and infrastructure development. These maps help to minimize the risk to people and property by informing decisions about where to build and how to implement early warning systems.

In addition to its application in risk reduction, the NBRO Landslide Database is a valuable tool for scientific research and public education. It provides a rich dataset for studying the geological and environmental factors that contribute to landslide occurrences, such as soil properties, slope stability, and climatic conditions. This research enhances the understanding of landslide dynamics and informs strategies for disaster preparedness and response. Furthermore, the database plays a significant role in raising awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in regions prone to such events.[140]

1.2.3.35. Pakistan Geological Survey Landslide Database

The Pakistan Geological Survey Landslide Database is a comprehensive resource that provides detailed information on landslide occurrences throughout Pakistan, a country with diverse terrain that includes mountainous regions like the Himalayas and Karakoram. This database includes records of landslides, documenting their locations, types, sizes, and the conditions that triggered them, such as heavy rainfall, seismic activity, and human interventions. It serves as an essential tool for understanding landslide patterns and risks in Pakistan’s varied geological landscapes.

The primary use of the Pakistan Geological Survey Landslide Database is to support hazard assessment and disaster risk management. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify areas with higher susceptibility to landslides and develop strategies to mitigate their impact. The database aids in creating landslide susceptibility maps, which are essential for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and implementing early warning systems. This proactive approach helps reduce the potential impact of landslides on communities, infrastructure, and the environment.

In addition to its applications in hazard mitigation, the Pakistan Geological Survey Landslide Database is a valuable tool for scientific research and public education. It provides a rich dataset for studying the geological and environmental factors that contribute to landslide occurrences, such as soil composition, slope gradients, and climatic conditions. This research enhances the understanding of landslide dynamics and informs strategies for disaster preparedness and response. Furthermore, the database raises public awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in regions vulnerable to such events.[141]

1.2.3.36. Bangladesh Geological Survey Landslide Database

The Bangladesh Geological Survey Landslide Database is an essential resource that compiles detailed information on landslide occurrences across Bangladesh, a country with varied topography, including hilly regions and river valleys, making it susceptible to landslides. This database includes comprehensive records on landslides, documenting their locations, types, sizes, and the conditions that triggered these events, such as heavy rainfall, flooding, and human activities like deforestation. It is an invaluable tool for understanding the distribution and frequency of landslides throughout Bangladesh.

One of the primary uses of the Bangladesh Geological Survey Landslide Database is to support hazard assessment and disaster risk management. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify areas with higher susceptibility to landslides and develop targeted mitigation strategies. The database aids in creating landslide susceptibility maps, which are crucial for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and implementing early warning systems. This proactive approach is vital for reducing the impact of landslides on communities, infrastructure, and the environment.

In addition to its applications in hazard mitigation, the Bangladesh Geological Survey Landslide Database is a valuable tool for scientific research and public education. It provides a rich dataset for studying the processes and factors contributing to landslides, such as geological formations, weather patterns, and human interventions. The insights gained from this research help enhance the understanding of landslide dynamics and inform strategies for disaster preparedness and response. By making this information accessible, the database also raises public awareness about landslide risks, promoting safety and resilience in vulnerable regions.[142]

1.2.3.37. Greece Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration (IGME) Landslide Database

The Greece Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration (IGME) Landslide Database is a comprehensive resource that documents landslide occurrences across Greece, a country with diverse geological features and a varied climate that contributes to landslide risks. This database includes detailed records on landslides, encompassing their locations, types, sizes, and triggers, such as heavy rainfall, seismic activity, and human interventions like deforestation and construction. It serves as a crucial tool for understanding the distribution and characteristics of landslides in Greece.

The primary purpose of the IGME Landslide Database is to support hazard assessment and disaster risk management. By maintaining an updated record of landslides, the Greece Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration provides valuable information for identifying high-risk areas and developing strategies to mitigate the impact of future landslides. The database is also instrumental in creating landslide susceptibility maps that guide land-use planning and infrastructure development, ensuring that potential landslide risks are considered in these processes. Additionally, it helps in establishing early warning systems to protect communities and reduce damage from landslides.

Beyond its applications in risk reduction, the IGME Landslide Database is an important resource for scientific research and public education. It offers a comprehensive dataset for studying landslide dynamics and the factors that contribute to their occurrence, such as soil composition, slope gradient, and weather patterns. This research enhances the understanding of landslide behavior and informs the development of effective disaster preparedness and response strategies. The database also plays a key role in raising public awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in regions vulnerable to such events.[143]

1.2.3.38. Spanish Geological and Mining Institute (IGME) Landslide Database

The Spanish Geological and Mining Institute (IGME) Landslide Database is an extensive repository that compiles information on landslide events across Spain. The country’s diverse topography, which includes mountainous regions, coastal cliffs, and river valleys, makes it prone to various types of landslides. This database includes detailed records of landslides, covering aspects such as their locations, types, sizes, and the conditions that triggered them, such as heavy rainfall, soil erosion, and human activities like construction and land-use changes.

This database plays a crucial role in hazard assessment and disaster risk management in Spain. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify areas with higher susceptibility to landslides and develop targeted mitigation strategies to reduce their impact. The information aids in creating landslide susceptibility maps, which are essential for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and implementing early warning systems. These maps help protect communities and reduce the potential damage from landslides by informing decisions on where to build and how to prepare for potential hazards.

In addition to its application in risk mitigation, the IGME Landslide Database is a valuable tool for scientific research and public education. It provides a comprehensive dataset for studying the geological and environmental factors that contribute to landslide occurrences, such as soil properties, slope gradients, and climatic conditions. This research enhances the understanding of landslide dynamics and informs the development of effective disaster preparedness and response strategies. Furthermore, the database plays a significant role in raising awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in regions prone to such events.[144]

1.2.3.39. Portugal National Laboratory for Civil Engineering (LNEC) Landslide Database

The Portugal National Laboratory for Civil Engineering (LNEC) Landslide Database is a comprehensive resource that documents landslide events across Portugal. The country’s diverse geological landscape, which includes mountainous regions and coastal areas, makes it susceptible to landslides. This database includes detailed records on landslides, documenting their locations, types, sizes, and the conditions that triggered them, such as heavy rainfall, soil erosion, and human activities like deforestation and construction. It serves as an essential tool for understanding landslide patterns and risks within Portugal.

The LNEC Landslide Database plays a crucial role in hazard assessment and disaster risk management in Portugal. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify high-risk areas and develop targeted strategies to mitigate the impact of landslides on communities and infrastructure. The information from the database aids in creating landslide susceptibility maps, which are vital tools for guiding land-use planning and infrastructure development. These maps help to minimize the risk to people and property by informing decisions about where to build and how to implement early warning systems.

In addition to its application in risk reduction, the LNEC Landslide Database is a valuable tool for scientific research and public education. It provides a rich dataset for studying the geological and environmental factors that contribute to landslide occurrences, such as soil properties, slope stability, and climatic conditions. This research enhances the understanding of landslide dynamics and informs strategies for disaster preparedness and response. Furthermore, the database plays a significant role in raising awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in regions prone to such events.[145]

1.2.3.40. Mexican Geological Survey (SGM) Landslide Database

The Mexican Geological Survey (SGM) Landslide Database is an extensive collection that compiles information on landslide events throughout Mexico, a country with diverse terrain including mountains, coastal areas, and volcanic regions. This database provides detailed records of landslides, documenting their locations, types, sizes, and the conditions that triggered them, such as heavy rainfall, earthquakes, and volcanic activity. It serves as a critical resource for understanding landslide distribution and frequency across Mexico’s varied geological landscapes.

This database is crucial for hazard assessment and disaster risk management in Mexico. By analyzing the data, researchers and policymakers can identify high-risk areas and develop targeted strategies to mitigate the impact of landslides on communities and infrastructure. The information from the database aids in creating landslide susceptibility maps, which are vital tools for guiding land-use planning and infrastructure development. These maps help to minimize the risk to people and property by informing decisions about where to build and how to implement early warning systems.

In addition to its application in risk reduction, the SGM Landslide Database is a valuable tool for scientific research and public education. It provides a rich dataset for studying the geological and environmental factors that contribute to landslide occurrences, such as soil properties, slope gradients, and climatic conditions. This research enhances the understanding of landslide dynamics and informs strategies for disaster preparedness and response. Furthermore, the database plays a significant role in raising awareness about landslide hazards, promoting safety and resilience in regions prone to such events.[146]

1.2. Hydrological Hazards and Disasters

Hydrological disasters happen as a result of natural processes involving water, both on land and in the atmosphere [53-74]. Als, these events include floods, tsunamis, storm surges, and droughts, all of which can severely impact ecosystems, human activities, and infrastructure, often causing widespread damage. At the heart of these disasters is the interaction between water systems and weather patterns, making the study of the water cycle and ocean-atmosphere dynamics key to understanding them [75-79]. By studying how water moves through these systems, we can explain things like the formation of hurricanes, rising river levels, and sea-level changes. Whether happening slowly or suddenly, hydrological processes are crucial in shaping both our landscapes and societies [53, 62, 63].

The hydrological cycle, also known as the water cycle, describes how water moves through different parts of the Earth—evaporating from oceans and land, forming clouds, and falling back as precipitation [74, 80-85]. This cycle plays a fundamental role in creating the conditions that lead to hydrospheric disasters. For instance, floods often occur when heavy rainfall overwhelms rivers or when storm surges push seawater into coastal areas. In contrast, droughts result from extended periods of little to no rain, causing water shortages and serious economic and agricultural issues.

Interactions between the oceans and the atmosphere are also major contributors to many hydrospheric disasters. Take storm surges and tsunamis, for example [53-56, 73]. Storm surges happen when powerful winds, usually during hurricanes or tropical storms, push ocean water onto land, leading to coastal flooding. Tsunamis, on the other hand, are massive waves usually triggered by underwater earthquakes or volcanic activity. These waves can travel across vast ocean distances at incredible speeds, causing major destruction when they hit shorelines [9-11, 86, 87].

Rising global temperatures due to climate change are making hydrospheric disasters more frequent and intense. As polar ice caps and glaciers melt, sea levels rise, which increases the risk of coastal flooding and worsens storm surges. Meanwhile, shifting precipitation patterns result in more extreme weather, including more severe droughts and sudden heavy rainfall that can overwhelm drainage systems and cause flash floods [88, 89]. Floods are one of the most common types of hydrospheric disasters and can be triggered by a variety of factors [90-92]. Heavy rainfall, snowmelt, or even the failure of dams or levees can cause water levels in rivers and lakes to rise dangerously. Urban areas are particularly vulnerable because hard surfaces like concrete prevent water from being absorbed, and drainage systems are often inadequate. On the flip side, droughts occur when there’s a lack of rainfall over a long time, depleting water sources and putting strain on agriculture, ecosystems, and human populations [93-100].

Hydrospheric disasters, such as floods, flash floods, and avalanches, often result in significant material losses, human casualties, and long-term economic impacts. Therefore, it is important to develop resilience and preparedness measures to reduce the risk of these disasters and mitigate their effects [1]. Floods are one of the most common hydrospheric disasters and often cause severe consequences.To lessen the damage caused by hydrospheric disasters, various strategies can be put in place [82, 101-105]. These include building flood defenses, improving weather forecasting, managing water resources more efficiently, and educating the public about disaster preparedness. Structures like levees, dams, and sea walls can help prevent flooding, while innovations like drought-resistant crops and better irrigation systems can mitigate the effects of droughts. Early warning systems for floods and tsunamis, combined with effective evacuation plans, are essential in saving lives and minimizing damage to infrastructure [82, 87, 104, 106-114].

1.2.1. Floods

1.2.1.1. National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) Database

The National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) Database, overseen by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), plays a vital role in helping the United States assess and manage flood risks. Established with the goal of offering affordable flood insurance and encouraging responsible floodplain management, this database is an invaluable tool for policymakers, urban planners, emergency responders, and property owners who are working to lessen the impact of flooding.

The database holds a vast collection of data on flood insurance policies, claims, and payments, as well as detailed information on properties that lie in flood-prone regions. One of its standout features is the inclusion of Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs), which provide a detailed look at flood zones, elevation data, and floodplain boundaries. These maps are crucial for determining whether flood insurance is required, guiding building efforts in flood-risk areas, and helping with disaster preparedness.

Beyond insurance-related information, the NFIP database also contains flood hazard assessments, which categorize regions based on their flood risk—from high-risk zones where insurance is mandatory to lower-risk areas. Users can explore historical data on past flood events, a resource that helps track patterns and better prepare for future floods. This information is also essential for shaping policies related to land use, construction standards, and infrastructure development.

Regular updates to the NFIP database ensure it includes the latest data on flood events, insurance claims, and any revisions to flood maps. It serves a wide range of stakeholders, helping them reduce flood risks, improve readiness for disasters, and enhance resilience in communities vulnerable to flooding.[147]

1.2.1.2. Dartmouth Flood Observatory (DFO)

The Dartmouth Flood Observatory (DFO), a global database hosted by the University of Colorado Boulder, is dedicated to tracking, mapping, and analyzing significant flood events worldwide. By utilizing satellite-based remote sensing technologies, the observatory plays a critical role in monitoring riverine and surface water floods. Its data provides essential insights to scientists, disaster response teams, humanitarian organizations, and governments, all of whom rely on real-time information to manage flood events effectively.

The DFO database offers extensive records of both active and historical floods, capturing crucial details such as the extent, duration, and severity of each event. Additionally, it provides real-time flood detection data and floodplain maps, which are key to identifying regions most at risk. One of the standout features of the DFO is its satellite-based flood detection system, which supplies near real-time updates on ongoing floods. This capability is vital for evaluating flood impacts, coordinating evacuations, and directing relief efforts in affected areas.

Beyond its real-time tracking, the database maintains comprehensive flood archives that include data on water discharge, river flow, and floodplain dynamics. These historical records are invaluable for analyzing flood patterns, conducting risk assessments, and crafting strategies to mitigate future floods. The observatory also features interactive maps and visual tools that make global flood activity easier to visualize and understand.

The DFO supports a broad spectrum of users, from local governments to international agencies and researchers, by offering them the critical data needed for disaster preparedness, response, and recovery efforts.[148]

1.2.1.3. European Flood Awareness System (EFAS)

The European Flood Awareness System (EFAS) aims to support preparatory measures before major floods occur, particularly in large transnational river basins and across Europe as a whole. EFAS represents the first operational European system dedicated to monitoring and forecasting floods throughout the continent. It provides valuable supplementary information to national and regional authorities, including flood probabilities, medium-term flood forecasts, flash flood indicators, and impact projections.

In addition, EFAS plays a crucial role in informing the Emergency Response Coordination Centre (ERCC) about ongoing and potential future flood events across Europe. Since 2012, EFAS has been fully operational as part of the Copernicus Emergency Management Service (Copernicus EMS). The operational EFAS is comprised of four specialized centers, each managed by different consortiums:

CEMS Hydrological Forecasting Center – Modeling: Responsible for developing and running hydrological models to predict flood events.
CEMS Hydrological Forecasting Center – Analytics and Dissemination: Focuses on analyzing forecast data and disseminating relevant information to stakeholders.
CEMS Hydrological Data Collection Center: Gathers and manages hydrological data necessary for accurate flood forecasting.
CEMS Meteorological Data Collection Center: Collects and processes meteorological data that supports flood predictions and assessments.

Through these centers, EFAS provides comprehensive and integrated flood forecasting services, contributing to improved flood preparedness and response strategies across Europe. This system not only enhances the capacity of national and regional authorities to anticipate and manage flood risks but also supports broader European and international efforts in disaster risk reduction and emergency management.

1.2.1.4. Global Flood Monitoring System (GFMS)

The Global Flood Monitoring System (GFMS), developed by the University of Maryland, is a real-time satellite-based tool designed to monitor floods on a global scale. It offers critical insights into rainfall, river discharge, and flood events, providing near real-time updates. This system is particularly valuable in regions where ground observation networks are sparse, making it an indispensable tool for disaster management, emergency response, and policy development.

GFMS gathers data from NASA’s satellite missions, which monitor precipitation and river flow to estimate flood conditions worldwide. The system updates every three hours, delivering flood maps, river discharge estimates, and rainfall accumulation data. These data are presented on interactive maps, allowing users to visualize current flood conditions and anticipate future impacts. Alongside real-time monitoring, GFMS also provides historical flood data, which is crucial for researchers looking to identify patterns in flood frequency and severity.

The system is widely relied upon for flood risk assessments, disaster preparedness, and mitigation planning. It equips governments, humanitarian agencies, and researchers with the information they need to make informed decisions, plan evacuations, and develop effective flood response strategies. By enabling global flood monitoring and forecasting, GFMS plays a critical role in protecting vulnerable communities and reducing the impact of flood-related disasters.[149]

1.2.1.5. Copernicus Emergency Management Service (EMS) – Floods

Copernicus is an EU program aimed at developing European information services based on Earth observation from satellites. As a user-driven initiative, Copernicus ensures that its information services are freely and openly accessible to its users, primarily public authorities.

One of the key components of Copernicus is the Emergency Management Service (EMS), which includes On-Demand Mapping. This service provides detailed, request-based information for selected emergency situations arising from natural disasters or human-induced crises anywhere in the world. Copernicus EMS On-Demand Mapping delivers tailored, high-resolution imagery and data to support immediate response and decision-making during emergencies.

Another critical aspect of the Copernicus EMS is the Exposure Mapping component, which offers highly accurate and regularly updated information on human settlements and population distribution through the Global Human Settlement Layer (GHSL). This layer helps in assessing the impact of disasters on human populations and infrastructure.

Additionally, Copernicus EMS provides Early Warning and Monitoring services, which deliver crucial geospatial information at both European and global scales. This component includes continuous monitoring and forecasting for various hazards such as floods, droughts, and forest fires. By offering ongoing observations and predictive insights, Copernicus EMS plays a vital role in enhancing preparedness and response efforts, thereby contributing to improved disaster management and resilience.

1.2.1.6. United States Geological Survey (USGS) Flood Data

The United States Geological Survey (USGS) Flood Data platform offers critical real-time and historical information on floods across the United States. Managed by the USGS, this resource is essential for scientists, emergency responders, water resource managers, and policymakers who require in-depth flood-related data. The platform provides a wealth of information, from streamflow measurements to flood stage data, allowing users to better understand flood dynamics and impacts.

With thousands of streamgages monitored nationwide, USGS collects real-time data on river and stream levels, flow rates, and discharge. This information is invaluable for evaluating current flood conditions and forecasting potential flooding. The platform also includes flood inundation maps that show the possible extent of flooding at specific water levels, helping communities plan for and respond to flood risks.

The historical data offered by USGS enables researchers and decision-makers to analyze trends in flood frequency, magnitude, and duration. This long-term data is key for developing flood risk management strategies, designing resilient infrastructure, and guiding urban development in flood-prone areas. Additionally, USGS collaborates with federal, state, and local agencies to enhance flood forecasting and emergency response efforts.

Regularly updated and publicly accessible, the USGS Flood Data platform is a trusted resource for understanding and mitigating flood risks.[150]

1.2.1.7. International Flood Network (IFNet)

The International Flood Network (IFNet) is a global initiative aimed at improving collaboration and sharing flood-related data, technology, and expertise among countries, organizations, and stakeholders involved in flood risk management. Created to address the increasing need for coordinated flood mitigation strategies, IFNet’s goal is to reduce flood risks, advance early warning systems, and strengthen preparedness and resilience on an international scale. By linking national and regional flood monitoring systems, IFNet provides a platform for sharing comprehensive data and best practices, ensuring that countries with similar challenges can learn from each other’s experiences.

Through its international platform, IFNet offers real-time data on rainfall, river levels, flood extents, and other crucial indicators by aggregating information from monitoring agencies worldwide. This real-time data exchange is vital for predicting potential flood events, enhancing early warning capabilities, and coordinating disaster response efforts, particularly in transboundary river systems where flooding can affect multiple nations.

In addition to real-time monitoring, IFNet fosters the development of advanced flood forecasting models and early warning systems tailored to different geographic and climate conditions. It also serves as a global center for flood-related research, innovation, and policy advocacy, encouraging collaboration between scientists, governments, and international organizations. The network provides technical support, workshops, training, and educational materials aimed at empowering local communities and governments to implement sustainable flood management practices.

IFNet’s efforts extend beyond data sharing. It promotes integrated water resource management (IWRM), advocates for policy reforms that focus on disaster risk reduction, and supports countries in implementing flood resilience strategies, particularly in vulnerable areas. By fostering global cooperation and promoting proactive measures, IFNet plays a crucial role in minimizing the loss of life, property, and economic damage caused by floods worldwide.[151]

1.2.1.8. NASA Flood Observatory

The NASA Flood Observatory is a vital global resource for detecting, monitoring, and mapping flood events using satellite technology. By leveraging data from NASA’s Earth observation satellites, the observatory provides both real-time and historical information on floods worldwide, offering crucial insights for disaster response, flood risk management, and climate research. It serves as an indispensable tool for governments, emergency agencies, scientists, and policymakers who are working to understand the dynamics of flooding and reduce its devastating impacts.

The observatory tracks flood events by analyzing satellite imagery, which captures changes in water surfaces and river overflow in near real-time. It produces detailed flood inundation maps that highlight the extent of flooding and the potential effects on infrastructure, agriculture, and populated areas. These maps are especially valuable for evaluating flood risks, developing evacuation plans, and organizing relief efforts. The satellite-based monitoring system is also particularly beneficial in regions where ground-based flood monitoring is limited or nonexistent.

Beyond real-time monitoring, the NASA Flood Observatory maintains an archive of historical flood data, offering key insights into flood frequency, severity, and trends over time. This information is essential for climate studies, urban development planning, and creating long-term flood mitigation strategies. By comparing current flood events with historical patterns, scientists and planners can make more accurate predictions about future flood risks and implement measures to strengthen resilience.

The observatory also collaborates with other global flood monitoring systems, contributing to a wider understanding of flood hazards and supporting international efforts to mitigate the effects of flooding on vulnerable populations. With continuous updates and publicly accessible data, the NASA Flood Observatory remains a trusted and essential resource for flood-related research and disaster management efforts worldwide.[152]

1.2.1.9. Flood Disaster Risk Reduction (FDRR) Database

The Flood Disaster Risk Reduction (FDRR) Database is a comprehensive platform designed to support global efforts in mitigating flood-related risks through informed, data-driven decisions and strategic planning. This database provides detailed information on flood risk factors, historical flood events, mitigation strategies, and best practices for disaster preparedness and response. Developed with the needs of policymakers, urban planners, researchers, and emergency teams in mind, the FDRR database plays a crucial role in shaping flood risk management strategies and strengthening resilience in flood-prone areas.

The database offers a broad range of data, including flood hazard maps, vulnerability assessments, and information on regions most at risk for flooding. These resources help users gain a clear understanding of where flood risks are concentrated and pinpoint areas that need targeted interventions. It also tracks ongoing mitigation projects, from structural solutions like levees and floodwalls to non-structural approaches such as early warning systems and community preparedness programs.

A key feature of the FDRR database is its focus on building resilience through a mix of structural and non-structural flood mitigation strategies. The platform offers case studies and best practices from across the globe, showcasing successful flood risk reduction projects that can be adapted and implemented in other regions. This helps governments and local authorities design more effective flood management policies and prioritize investments that will have the most significant impact on reducing flood risks.

In addition to resources for assessing and mitigating risks, the FDRR database provides real-time flood monitoring and post-disaster impact assessments. These tools enable decision-makers to respond swiftly to ongoing flood emergencies and evaluate the effectiveness of existing flood defenses. By integrating data from global flood monitoring networks and local agencies, the FDRR database facilitates international cooperation to minimize the social, economic, and environmental damages caused by floods.[153]

1.2.1.10. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Flood Data

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Flood Data provides a comprehensive and reliable source of information on flood events, forecasts, and historical data across the United States. Managed by NOAA’s National Weather Service (NWS), this database is a vital resource for monitoring and predicting floods, supporting preparedness efforts, and guiding disaster response. The data is widely used by government agencies, emergency responders, researchers, and the general public to better understand and manage flood risks.

NOAA Flood Data features real-time monitoring of rivers and streams, offering timely updates on water levels, flood stages, and river flow rates. With data from over 4,000 river gauges throughout the U.S., the platform provides a detailed view of current and potential flood conditions. One of the platform’s standout features is the Advanced Hydrologic Prediction Service (AHPS), which delivers real-time flood forecasts and early warning systems to help communities prepare for upcoming flood events.

In addition to real-time monitoring, the NOAA Flood Data platform offers long-term flood statistics and historical records, enabling researchers to study trends in flood frequency and magnitude. This historical data is essential for conducting flood risk assessments, planning urban infrastructure, designing resilient buildings, and studying climate impacts. NOAA’s flood mapping services also identify flood-prone areas and potential flood zones, aiding local governments in creating zoning laws and emergency evacuation plans.

NOAA works closely with national and international partners to provide comprehensive flood data and enhance flood management strategies. By delivering both real-time and historical information, NOAA plays a crucial role in reducing flood damage and safeguarding lives and property in vulnerable regions.[154]

1.2.1.11. Global Flood Database (GFD)

The Global Flood Database integrates over 15 years of flood data to create the first comprehensive satellite resource for global flood risk management and impact mitigation. This extensive database provides a critical tool for understanding and addressing flood hazards on a global scale.

The flood maps within this database have been generated using NASA’s MODIS satellites, specifically the Aqua (MID09GA/GK) and Terra (MOD09GA/GK) missions. MODIS provides high-resolution imagery with a spatial resolution of 250 meters, capturing two images per day. These maps represent significant flood events, as documented by the Flood Observatory (DFO) since the beginning of satellite records.

For each flood event mapped in the database, the flood area is selected based on a polygon from the DFO’s flood database, which is then intersected with global watershed data from HydroSHEDS. Watersheds that overlap with the flood polygons are chosen as the units for mapping. Additionally, exposure estimates for populations are derived by overlaying flood maps with population data from the Global Human Settlement Layer (GHSL).

This approach allows for detailed analysis and visualization of flood impacts, providing essential information for managing flood risks and planning disaster response strategies worldwide. The combination of satellite imagery, hydrological data, and population exposure assessments ensures a robust and dynamic resource for global flood risk management.

1.2.1.12. European Space Agency (ESA) Flood Monitoring

The European Space Agency (ESA) Flood Monitoring system uses satellite technology to deliver real-time data and imagery on flood events across Europe and globally. This satellite-based monitoring is crucial for tracking, analyzing, and mitigating the impacts of floods by providing precise, up-to-date information on flood extent, water levels, and affected regions. Such data is invaluable for emergency management agencies, policymakers, and researchers focused on reducing flood risks and improving disaster preparedness.

ESA’s flood monitoring system leverages satellites like Sentinel-1, part of the Copernicus program, to capture radar imagery of Earth’s surface. Sentinel-1 is especially valuable for flood monitoring because it can detect water level changes and flood extents regardless of weather or time of day, ensuring continuous coverage during storms or at night. The radar data enables the creation of detailed flood maps, which disaster response teams rely on to evaluate the severity of flooding, plan evacuations, and coordinate relief efforts.

Beyond real-time monitoring, ESA’s system includes a historical archive of satellite images, allowing for the long-term analysis of flood trends and patterns. This information is key to understanding the effects of climate change on flood frequency and severity and helps in developing more effective flood mitigation strategies. The system also promotes collaboration between European and international agencies, offering critical data to support large-scale flood management and humanitarian relief efforts.

ESA’s flood monitoring services are publicly available, giving governments, NGOs, and local authorities the information they need to respond swiftly to flood emergencies and contribute to long-term flood resilience planning.[155]

1.2.1.13. United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) Flood Data

The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) Flood Data is a vital resource for global flood risk management and disaster preparedness efforts. This database, part of UNDRR’s broader disaster risk reduction framework, provides essential information on flood events, vulnerability assessments, and strategies for minimizing the impact of flooding on communities around the world. The platform is particularly valuable for governments, policymakers, and disaster management professionals working to reduce flood risks and enhance resilience in flood-prone areas.

UNDRR Flood Data offers a wide array of tools and reports, including global flood risk maps, early warning systems, and records of past flood events. It identifies regions that are especially vulnerable to flooding, shedding light on how factors like climate change and urbanization are increasing flood risks. By promoting a multi-hazard approach, UNDRR ensures that flood risk is incorporated into broader disaster management and development strategies.

A key feature of the platform is its alignment with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, which focuses on reducing disaster losses and building community resilience. The data provided helps countries track their progress in meeting global flood risk reduction targets and offers guidance on improving flood preparedness, response, and recovery efforts. UNDRR also supports capacity-building programs, offering training materials that assist countries in developing and implementing effective flood risk reduction strategies.

In addition, UNDRR collaborates with international organizations and national governments to promote data sharing and foster partnerships. This coordination helps streamline responses to floods and promotes sustainable development in regions affected by frequent flooding.[156]

1.2.1.14. Global Disaster Alert and Coordination System (GDACS) Flood Data

The Disaster Warning and Coordination System represents a collaborative framework between the United Nations and the European Commission. It involves disaster managers and emergency information systems from around the world, aiming to fill gaps in information and coordination during the initial phase following major disasters. The Global Disaster Alert and Coordination System (GDACS) provides real-time access to web-based disaster information systems and related coordination tools.

GDACS activities are overseen and supported by the GDACS Advisory Board, which is currently chaired by the Joint Research Centre. Annual meetings of the GDACS Advisory Group bring together disaster managers, scientists, mapping experts, webmasters, and other professionals to define standards for information exchange and strategies for the further development of related tools and services.

GDACS services are designed to facilitate information sharing among all stakeholders, thereby supporting decision-making and coordination. These services are based on the collective knowledge of disaster managers worldwide and the collaborative capabilities of all relevant disaster information systems. This integrated approach ensures that GDACS effectively addresses the complex needs of disaster response and recovery.

1.2.1.15. International Disaster Database (EM-DAT)

The International Disaster Database (EM-DAT), managed by the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), serves as a comprehensive global resource for tracking and analyzing disaster events, including floods. Since its establishment in 1988, EM-DAT has provided reliable data on disaster occurrences and impacts worldwide, making it an essential tool for governments, researchers, humanitarian organizations, and policymakers focused on reducing disaster risks and strengthening resilience.

EM-DAT’s flood data covers a wide range of aspects, including the number of flood events, the populations affected, fatalities, economic damages, and the geographic distribution of flood occurrences. By offering both historical and real-time flood data from around the world, the database is critical for identifying trends and assessing long-term flood risks. Analyzing this data allows users to gain important insights into the frequency and severity of floods, ultimately helping improve flood preparedness and mitigation strategies.

The database categorizes its data by disaster type, region, and impact, providing a detailed look at how floods affect different countries and populations. This information is particularly valuable for crafting disaster risk reduction (DRR) strategies, as it helps policymakers identify vulnerable regions and allocate resources effectively for flood prevention and response. Additionally, EM-DAT offers comprehensive reports and summaries on major flood disasters, highlighting the causes, impacts, and key lessons learned from each event.

EM-DAT plays a vital role in supporting the international community’s efforts to meet global disaster risk reduction targets, including those outlined in the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction. By providing accessible and accurate flood data, EM-DAT contributes to a deeper understanding of flood hazards and helps shape effective policies to reduce flood risks and enhance disaster preparedness.[157]

1.2.1.16. Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC) Flood Data

The Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC) Flood Data platform plays a crucial role in tracking, analyzing, and sharing information about flood events and disaster risk reduction efforts across the Asia-Pacific region. Established in 1998, the ADRC is dedicated to helping its member countries enhance their capacity to manage and reduce flood risks while promoting collaboration among regional stakeholders. The flood data provided by the ADRC is an essential resource for governments, researchers, and disaster management agencies working to mitigate the impacts of floods and improve resilience in one of the world’s most disaster-prone areas.

ADRC’s flood data includes detailed records of both historical and recent flood events, covering their location, severity, economic impact, and the number of people affected. It also provides valuable insights into regional flood risk factors such as climate change, urbanization, and monsoon patterns, which can increase flood risks in vulnerable areas. This information is critical for identifying at-risk populations and regions, enabling authorities to develop more targeted disaster preparedness and response strategies.

A key focus of the ADRC is supporting its member countries in building disaster resilience by promoting the exchange of knowledge, technologies, and best practices for flood risk reduction. The ADRC flood data platform offers a variety of resources, including flood hazard maps, developments in early warning systems, and case studies of successful flood mitigation projects. The center also runs capacity-building programs and training workshops designed to enhance disaster risk management skills at the local, national, and regional levels.

In addition to providing flood data, the ADRC works closely with international organizations and agencies to advance disaster risk reduction strategies that incorporate both structural and non-structural flood mitigation measures. By sharing data and expertise, the ADRC helps countries improve their flood risk management policies, enhance emergency response capabilities, and reduce the social and economic impacts of floods.[158]

1.2.1.17. Australian Flood Risk Information Portal (AFRIP)

The Australian Flood Risk Information Portal (AFRIP) is an extensive online resource that provides access to flood risk data throughout Australia. Managed by Geoscience Australia, AFRIP consolidates flood studies and data from state, territory, and local governments into a single, easily accessible platform. It is a critical tool for planners, policymakers, emergency responders, researchers, and the public, helping to guide flood risk management decisions and improve preparedness in flood-prone areas.

AFRIP offers detailed flood risk maps, flood hazard data, and floodplain management reports, covering key information such as potential flood extents, depths, and durations. The portal also provides insights into historical flood events, allowing users to analyze flood patterns and understand the effects of past floods on infrastructure, communities, and ecosystems. These historical records are essential for shaping future land-use planning, emergency response strategies, and development projects in flood-susceptible regions.

The platform also supports decision-makers by offering tools such as flood modeling software, which can simulate various flood scenarios and estimate potential impacts under different climate conditions. By encouraging collaboration among government agencies, researchers, and local authorities, AFRIP ensures that its data remains up-to-date and relevant to ongoing flood risk reduction efforts.

By promoting an integrated approach to flood risk management, AFRIP helps Australian communities enhance their resilience to flooding while minimizing the social, economic, and environmental costs associated with flood disasters. Continuously updated with new studies and data, the portal remains an essential resource for flood preparedness, mitigation, and recovery efforts.[159]

1.2.1.18. Canadian Disaster Database (CDD)

The Canadian Disaster Database (CDD) is a comprehensive national repository that gathers information on disaster events, including significant floods that have impacted communities across Canada. Managed by Public Safety Canada, the CDD provides valuable data on the occurrence, impacts, and consequences of various disasters—natural, technological, and conflict-related—helping to improve disaster preparedness, response, and mitigation efforts nationwide. Policymakers, researchers, emergency management professionals, and the public rely on this data to better understand disaster risks and trends in Canada.

For flood events, the CDD includes detailed records that cover their locations, timelines, affected populations, and economic damages. It also tracks critical flood risk factors, such as river levels, precipitation patterns, and urban development in flood-prone regions. This data is crucial for assessing historical flood trends and pinpointing vulnerable communities that may require targeted mitigation efforts.

The CDD plays a key role in flood risk reduction by providing insights into the causes and impacts of past floods, helping decision-makers formulate policies and strategies aimed at minimizing future flood risks. Continuously updated, the database includes reports on flood recovery efforts and lessons learned from each event, contributing to more resilient infrastructure and communities nationwide.

Beyond floods, the CDD offers a broader perspective on disaster risks across Canada, allowing for a more integrated approach to disaster management that includes flood mitigation within wider risk reduction strategies. As a publicly accessible resource, the CDD is essential for strengthening disaster risk management efforts across the country.[160]

1.2.1.19. UK Environment Agency Flood Data

The UK Environment Agency Flood Data platform is a crucial resource for monitoring, forecasting, and managing flood risks throughout England. Managed by the Environment Agency, this system provides real-time information on river and coastal flood events, flood warnings, and long-term flood risk assessments. It is an invaluable tool for government agencies, emergency responders, local authorities, developers, and the public, helping to improve flood preparedness and reduce the impact of flood-related damage.

The flood data provided by the UK Environment Agency includes flood warnings, river levels, rainfall data, and detailed flood risk maps. These maps highlight areas most vulnerable to flooding, enabling local communities and planners to assess potential risks and take preventive measures. Covering both riverine and coastal flooding, the platform offers essential details on water levels, flood extents, and historical flood events. This data is critical for guiding land-use policies, improving flood defenses, and planning future developments in flood-prone regions.

In addition to real-time data, the UK Environment Agency provides long-term flood risk assessments that focus on areas likely to face increased flooding due to climate change, rising sea levels, and heightened rainfall. The agency also offers guidance on flood protection, floodplain management, and property-level flood resilience, supporting homeowners and infrastructure projects in preparing for future flood risks.

Frequently updated, the flood data platform ensures users have access to the latest information, enabling informed decision-making for flood risk management and emergency response. This resource plays a key role in reducing the social and economic impacts of floods across communities in the UK.[161]

1.2.1.20. India Water Resources Information System (India-WRIS)

The India Water Resources Information System (India-WRIS) is a comprehensive platform that provides real-time and historical data on water resources throughout India, with a particular focus on flood monitoring, river systems, and sustainable water management. Developed through a collaboration between the Ministry of Jal Shakti and the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), India-WRIS plays a key role in flood risk assessment, disaster preparedness, and water resource management across the country. It serves as a valuable tool for policymakers, disaster management agencies, researchers, and the general public.

India-WRIS offers detailed flood-related information, including river basin maps, data on flood-prone areas, water levels in major rivers, and real-time updates on river flow and rainfall. By combining satellite imagery, ground-based hydrological data, and geographic information system (GIS) technology, the platform effectively monitors and forecasts flood events across India’s extensive river networks. Its visual representation of water levels and flood extents supports early warning systems, helping communities prepare for potential flood risks.

Beyond real-time monitoring, India-WRIS provides access to historical flood data, enabling users to study past flood events and analyze trends in flood frequency and intensity. This data is crucial for long-term planning, infrastructure development, and devising strategies to minimize the impact of floods, particularly in vulnerable regions such as the Ganges and Brahmaputra river basins. The platform also aids in developing flood mitigation measures like riverbank fortification, dam management, and urban drainage planning.

Regularly updated with data from national and state agencies, India-WRIS remains a reliable resource for tracking water-related disasters and managing water resources effectively. By integrating flood data with broader water management tools, the platform promotes a holistic approach to disaster risk reduction and sustainable water management.[162]

1.2.1.21. China Flood Database

The China Flood Database is a critical national resource that provides comprehensive data on flood events throughout China, supporting disaster preparedness, flood risk management, and long-term planning efforts. Managed by the Ministry of Water Resources of the People’s Republic of China, the database compiles and disseminates detailed information on both historical and real-time flood events, helping government agencies, researchers, and policymakers better understand and mitigate the impact of floods in one of the world’s most flood-prone regions.

The database offers detailed records of past floods, including metrics such as flood extents, affected populations, economic losses, and infrastructure impacts. It integrates data from river monitoring systems, satellite imagery, and hydrological models to track real-time water levels, precipitation patterns, and flood warnings. This real-time monitoring is crucial for issuing early flood alerts and enabling rapid response measures to protect communities and minimize damage.

Beyond real-time monitoring, the China Flood Database provides flood risk assessments that identify vulnerable regions, especially in major river basins like the Yangtze, Yellow, and Pearl rivers. These assessments are invaluable for urban planners, engineers, and local governments as they develop flood prevention and mitigation strategies, such as levees, dams, and floodplain management. The database also informs flood control policies and resilience-building initiatives aimed at safeguarding both rural and urban areas from flood-related disasters.

Continuously updated with data from national and local monitoring networks, the China Flood Database ensures that users have access to the most current information for effective planning, response, and recovery efforts.[163]

1.2.1.22. Brazil National Center for Monitoring and Early Warning of Natural Disasters (CEMADEN)

The Brazil National Center for Monitoring and Early Warning of Natural Disasters (CEMADEN) is a key institution dedicated to monitoring natural disasters, including floods, and providing early warnings to mitigate risks and protect lives. Established in 2011 under the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovation, CEMADEN plays a central role in Brazil’s disaster risk management strategy by offering real-time data and forecasts on natural hazards, particularly in areas susceptible to flooding, landslides, and droughts.

CEMADEN’s flood monitoring system relies on a network of hydrological stations, satellite data, and radar systems to track river levels, precipitation, and weather patterns across the country. The center delivers real-time alerts about potential flood risks to local authorities and disaster management teams, enabling them to prepare for and respond swiftly to imminent flood threats. These early warnings are especially crucial in minimizing flood impacts in densely populated urban areas and regions near major rivers, such as the Amazon, São Francisco, and Paraná.

In addition to real-time monitoring, CEMADEN maintains a database of historical flood events, essential for analyzing flood trends, pinpointing vulnerable areas, and crafting long-term risk mitigation strategies. The center collaborates closely with other government agencies, including the National Institute for Space Research (INPE) and the National Water Agency (ANA), to enhance flood prediction models and integrate flood risk into broader national and regional development plans.

CEMADEN also actively supports local communities by offering educational programs and capacity-building initiatives aimed at raising awareness of flood risks and promoting resilience measures. Its data and tools are publicly accessible, making CEMADEN an indispensable resource for researchers, urban planners, and policymakers involved in flood risk management and disaster preparedness throughout Brazil.[164]

1.2.1.23. South African Weather Service Flood Data

The South African Weather Service (SAWS) Flood Data is a vital resource for monitoring and forecasting flood events across South Africa. Managed by SAWS, this platform provides real-time data on weather patterns, rainfall, river levels, and flood conditions, helping to reduce flood risks and support disaster response efforts. SAWS plays a key role in strengthening national flood preparedness by offering early warnings and detailed flood risk assessments.

SAWS flood data is collected from a combination of satellite imagery, ground-based meteorological stations, and hydrological models, ensuring comprehensive coverage of flood-prone areas throughout the country. The service delivers real-time updates on heavy rainfall, flash floods, and rising river levels, enabling timely alerts for communities and local authorities. These early warnings are crucial in preventing loss of life and minimizing damage to infrastructure, especially in regions prone to seasonal flooding.

Alongside real-time monitoring, SAWS provides historical flood data, which is essential for understanding flood patterns, assessing the severity of past events, and helping local governments and urban planners design effective flood mitigation strategies. The flood risk maps and reports produced by SAWS inform infrastructure planning, land-use policies, and disaster management strategies aimed at reducing vulnerability to future floods.

SAWS also collaborates with international organizations and regional disaster management bodies to improve flood forecasting capabilities and integrate advanced climate models into flood predictions. By making its data publicly accessible, SAWS supports decision-makers, emergency responders, researchers, and the public in preparing for and managing flood risks across South Africa.[165]

1.2.1.24. Mexico National Center for Disaster Prevention (CENAPRED)

The Mexico National Center for Disaster Prevention (CENAPRED) is Mexico’s leading institution responsible for disaster risk management, including flood monitoring and prevention. Established under the National System of Civil Protection, CENAPRED provides real-time data, early warnings, and risk assessments related to various natural disasters, with a strong focus on mitigating the impacts of floods. It plays a vital role in protecting the population from flood-related hazards and in fostering preparedness across vulnerable regions.

CENAPRED’s flood data is collected through a network of hydrological monitoring stations, meteorological data, and satellite imagery. This allows the center to track rainfall, river levels, and potential flood zones, issuing early warnings to local governments and emergency response teams. Real-time flood alerts help ensure that communities receive timely information on rising floodwaters and other related hazards, facilitating swift evacuations and the implementation of emergency plans. CENAPRED’s flood risk maps, developed using geographic information systems (GIS), provide detailed views of flood-prone areas, helping local authorities better understand the threats and plan accordingly.

Beyond real-time flood monitoring, CENAPRED offers comprehensive reports on historical flood events, which are essential for identifying trends, assessing vulnerability, and guiding the development of flood defense infrastructure, such as levees and stormwater management systems. These reports are crucial for long-term urban planning, especially in regions that experience frequent flooding during hurricane season or heavy rainfall periods.

CENAPRED also collaborates with other national and international organizations to improve flood forecasting models and disaster preparedness strategies, ensuring Mexico is equipped to respond effectively to both immediate and future flood threats. Publicly accessible data, including educational resources, make CENAPRED a key tool for building community resilience to floods and other natural disasters.[166]

1.2.1.25. Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) Flood Data

The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) Flood Data is a vital resource for real-time flood monitoring, forecasting, and disaster preparedness across Japan. Managed by the Japan Meteorological Agency, this platform provides timely updates on weather patterns, river levels, rainfall, and potential flood risks. JMA plays a critical role in disaster risk reduction by issuing early flood warnings and delivering detailed data, helping to safeguard communities and reduce the impact of floods, especially during Japan’s frequent typhoon and monsoon seasons.

JMA’s flood monitoring system utilizes a network of meteorological stations, river gauges, and radar technologies to track weather conditions and detect potential flooding. The agency offers real-time alerts for heavy rainfall, river floods, and storm surges, allowing local governments, emergency responders, and the public to prepare and respond swiftly to flood events. These early warnings are essential for minimizing damage and saving lives during severe weather conditions, such as typhoons and torrential rains, which are common in Japan.

Beyond real-time monitoring, JMA provides flood risk maps and historical flood data, offering valuable insights into the frequency and severity of past flood events. This information is crucial for long-term urban planning, infrastructure development, and the construction of flood prevention measures like levees, floodgates, and dams. JMA’s detailed forecasts on rainfall and river levels help authorities design effective flood mitigation strategies and bolster preparedness in flood-prone areas.

JMA also collaborates with other national and international meteorological organizations to improve flood forecasting models and enhance disaster preparedness. Its publicly accessible data and resources support a wide range of stakeholders, including disaster management agencies, researchers, and the general public, in reducing flood risks and strengthening resilience to natural disasters.[167]

1.2.1.26. Philippines Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Information System (DRRMIS)

The Philippines Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Information System (DRRMIS) is an integrated platform that consolidates data and resources related to disaster risk management, with a strong focus on flood monitoring and risk reduction. Managed by the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC), this system plays a critical role in ensuring timely disaster preparedness, response, and recovery efforts in a country highly vulnerable to typhoons, monsoon rains, and flooding.

DRRMIS gathers real-time data from various monitoring systems, including weather forecasts, rainfall patterns, and river level measurements, to provide accurate and timely flood risk assessments. The platform is designed to issue early warnings, alerting local authorities and communities about impending flood risks, especially during typhoon season. These early warnings help facilitate the implementation of evacuation plans, the mobilization of emergency response teams, and the deployment of resources to mitigate the effects of floods on affected populations.

In addition to real-time monitoring, DRRMIS provides historical flood data, which is essential for identifying flood-prone areas and assessing the long-term impacts of floods on infrastructure and communities. The platform supports the creation of flood risk maps and vulnerability assessments, enabling local governments and urban planners to integrate flood risk considerations into land-use planning and infrastructure development.

Designed to support a multi-stakeholder approach, DRRMIS integrates contributions from various government agencies, local authorities, and international partners. This platform is a valuable resource for policy development, community awareness programs, and capacity-building initiatives aimed at enhancing resilience to floods and other natural disasters across the Philippines.[168]

1.2.1.27. New Zealand Flood Hazard Database

The New Zealand Flood Hazard Database is an essential resource for understanding and managing flood risks across New Zealand. Managed by the Ministry for the Environment in collaboration with regional councils and local authorities, this database provides extensive information on flood-prone areas, historical flood events, and potential flood hazards. It plays a key role in supporting flood risk management efforts, helping local governments, urban planners, emergency services, and the public make informed decisions to mitigate flood impacts and enhance disaster preparedness.

The database offers detailed flood hazard maps that identify areas at risk from river floods, coastal inundation, and storm surges. These maps are crucial for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and designing flood defenses such as levees and stormwater drainage systems. Along with hazard maps, the database also includes data on river levels, rainfall patterns, and soil saturation, helping monitor and predict potential flood events.

Historical flood data in the New Zealand Flood Hazard Database is essential for understanding long-term flood trends, assessing community vulnerability, and evaluating the effectiveness of existing flood mitigation strategies. This information is particularly useful for identifying regions that are highly susceptible to flooding, especially as climate change leads to more frequent and severe flood events.

Regularly updated with the latest flood risk assessments and real-time data, the New Zealand Flood Hazard Database ensures users have access to accurate and timely information. It also supports community awareness efforts by providing educational resources that help individuals and businesses prepare for and respond to flood events.[169]

1.2.1.28. Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring (Roshydromet)

The Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring (Roshydromet) is the primary national agency responsible for monitoring weather conditions and flood risks throughout the Russian Federation. Roshydromet plays a crucial role in flood risk assessment, early warning systems, and disaster preparedness, providing essential data to government agencies, local authorities, and the public to help them respond effectively to flood threats. This work is particularly important given Russia’s vast geography and large river systems, such as the Volga, Lena, and Amur rivers, which are prone to seasonal flooding.

Roshydromet collects flood data through an extensive network of hydrological and meteorological stations, satellite observations, and river monitoring systems. This data allows the agency to track real-time river levels, rainfall patterns, and snowmelt—key indicators of potential flood events. By providing real-time flood warnings and forecasts, Roshydromet enables timely evacuations and emergency responses, particularly during critical periods like spring snowmelt and heavy rainfall seasons.

The agency also maintains a comprehensive database of historical flood events, which helps analyze trends in flood frequency and severity. This information is vital for local governments and urban planners, allowing them to assess long-term flood risks and design infrastructure projects aimed at flood mitigation, such as dams, levees, and drainage systems. Roshydromet’s historical data is also crucial for understanding how climate change affects Russia’s water systems and for planning future flood prevention measures.

Beyond providing flood warnings, Roshydromet contributes to public awareness and educational initiatives, helping communities build resilience to flood hazards. The agency collaborates with national and international meteorological organizations to improve flood forecasting technologies and enhance disaster response capabilities.[170]

1.2.1.29. Indonesian National Disaster Management Authority (BNPB) Flood Data

The Indonesian National Disaster Management Authority (BNPB) Flood Data is an essential resource for managing and mitigating flood risks across Indonesia, a country particularly vulnerable to natural disasters due to its geographic location and frequent monsoon rains. BNPB plays a central role in coordinating flood monitoring, issuing early warnings, and responding to flood events, especially in densely populated and flood-prone areas such as Jakarta and the islands of Sumatra and Java. The flood data provided by BNPB is vital for disaster preparedness, helping government agencies, local authorities, and the public better manage flood risks and strengthen community resilience.

BNPB’s flood monitoring system utilizes a network of weather stations, river level gauges, and satellite data to track real-time conditions that may lead to flooding, such as heavy rainfall and rising river levels. The agency provides early warning alerts to help local authorities and communities prepare for imminent flood threats. This is especially critical during Indonesia’s rainy season, when flooding and landslides are frequent and can cause widespread damage.

The flood data platform also contains historical flood information, allowing for the analysis of flood frequency, intensity, and impact over time. This data informs infrastructure development, including the construction of flood barriers, drainage systems, and other protective measures. In addition, BNPB’s flood risk maps highlight vulnerable areas, enabling local governments to prioritize resources and develop effective evacuation plans.

BNPB also promotes flood preparedness by offering training and educational resources to communities, helping them understand how to reduce the risks and impacts of floods. The agency collaborates with national and international partners to enhance flood forecasting models, improve disaster response capabilities, and integrate flood risk management into broader disaster risk reduction strategies.[171]

1.2.1.30. French National Institute of Geographic and Forest Information (IGN) Flood Data

The French National Institute of Geographic and Forest Information (IGN) Flood Data is a vital resource for mapping and analyzing flood risks throughout France. As the national agency responsible for geographic and forest information, IGN provides critical flood-related data through detailed maps and geographic information system (GIS) tools that support disaster risk management and flood preparedness efforts across the country. This data is essential for urban planners, government agencies, emergency responders, and researchers focused on mitigating the impacts of floods.

IGN’s flood data includes high-resolution flood hazard maps that highlight areas at risk of flooding from both rivers and coastal waters. These maps, developed using satellite imagery, aerial surveys, and advanced hydrological models, offer precise information on flood extents, depths, and durations. Such data is key to shaping land-use planning decisions, guiding infrastructure development, and designing flood prevention systems like levees and stormwater management networks.

Beyond hazard mapping, IGN provides access to historical flood data, enabling users to analyze past flood events and assess trends in flood frequency and severity. This information is crucial for understanding long-term flood risks and planning for future flood scenarios, particularly in vulnerable regions like the Seine and Rhône river basins. Additionally, IGN offers interactive tools that allow users to overlay flood risk data with other geographic information, facilitating comprehensive assessments of flood vulnerabilities in both urban and rural areas.

The IGN flood data platform is continuously updated and integrated with real-time monitoring systems to ensure data accuracy and relevance. By making this information publicly accessible, IGN plays a pivotal role in disaster preparedness and resilience-building efforts across France, helping local governments and communities better anticipate and respond to flood events.[172]

1.2.1.31. German Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG) Flood Data

The German Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG) Flood Data is a critical resource for monitoring and analyzing flood risks across Germany. As the national authority for hydrological information, BfG provides vital flood-related data through comprehensive maps and advanced hydrological models, supporting disaster risk management and flood preparedness efforts. This data is invaluable for urban planners, government agencies, emergency responders, and researchers working to minimize the impact of floods.

BfG’s flood data includes high-resolution flood hazard maps that identify areas vulnerable to flooding from both rivers and coastal regions. These maps are developed using satellite imagery, ground surveys, and sophisticated hydrological models, offering precise information on flood extents, depths, and durations. Such detailed data is essential for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and designing flood prevention measures like levees, flood barriers, and drainage systems.

In addition to hazard mapping, BfG provides access to historical flood data, allowing users to analyze past flood events and assess patterns in flood frequency and severity. This historical information is key for understanding long-term flood risks and preparing for future scenarios, particularly in flood-prone regions like the Rhine and Elbe river basins. BfG also offers interactive tools that allow users to integrate flood risk data with other geographic information, enabling comprehensive assessments of flood vulnerabilities in both urban and rural areas.

The BfG flood data platform is continuously updated and integrated with real-time monitoring systems to ensure data accuracy and timeliness. By making this information publicly accessible, BfG plays a crucial role in enhancing disaster preparedness and resilience across Germany, helping local governments and communities better anticipate and respond to flood events.[173]

1.2.1.32. Netherlands Flood Database

The Netherlands Flood Database is an essential tool for managing and analyzing flood risks in a country where much of the land lies below sea level. Managed by national agencies like Rijkswaterstaat, part of the Dutch Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management, this database provides critical flood-related data through advanced geographic information systems (GIS), detailed flood risk maps, and hydrological models. The data supports disaster risk management and flood preparedness, serving urban planners, government agencies, emergency responders, and researchers working to mitigate the impact of floods.

Flood data in the Netherlands includes comprehensive hazard maps that identify areas vulnerable to flooding from rivers and coastal zones, particularly in regions like the Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt delta. These maps are generated using satellite data, high-resolution topographic surveys, and sophisticated models that predict flood extents, depths, and durations. This information is vital for guiding land-use planning, ensuring infrastructure safety, and designing flood prevention systems such as dikes, levees, and water management networks.

Beyond hazard mapping, the Netherlands Flood Database provides access to historical flood data, allowing users to analyze past flood events and evaluate trends in flood frequency and intensity. This historical information is invaluable for understanding long-term flood risks, particularly in areas safeguarded by the country’s renowned dike system. The database also features interactive tools that enable users to overlay flood data with other geographic information, facilitating detailed risk assessments in both urban and rural areas.

Continuously updated with the latest hydrological and meteorological data, the Netherlands Flood Database plays a pivotal role in the country’s flood defense strategies. Integrated with real-time monitoring systems, it ensures that local governments and communities can access up-to-date information to better anticipate and respond to flood threats. By providing this data to the public, the Netherlands reinforces its leadership in flood risk management and resilience.[174]

1.2.1.33. Swiss Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN) Flood Data

The Swiss Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN) Flood Data is a crucial resource for managing flood risks throughout Switzerland, a country with diverse landscapes of rivers, lakes, and mountainous regions. As the national authority responsible for environmental protection and natural hazard management, FOEN provides essential flood-related data through advanced geographic information systems (GIS), hazard maps, and hydrological models. This data plays a vital role in disaster risk management, flood preparedness, and mitigation efforts, helping urban planners, government agencies, emergency responders, and researchers make informed decisions.

FOEN’s flood data includes high-resolution flood hazard maps that identify areas at risk from rivers, lakes, and mountain streams. These maps are created using satellite imagery, ground-based surveys, and cutting-edge hydrological models, offering detailed insights into flood extents, depths, and flow velocities. This information is key for land-use planning, infrastructure development, and designing flood protection measures like levees, dams, and retention basins.

Beyond hazard mapping, FOEN offers access to historical flood data, enabling users to analyze past flood events and detect trends in flood frequency, severity, and impacts. This historical data is especially important for understanding long-term flood risks in vulnerable areas such as the Swiss Plateau and Alpine valleys. FOEN also provides interactive tools that allow users to overlay flood risk data with other geographic layers, supporting comprehensive assessments of flood vulnerabilities in both urban and rural areas.

The FOEN flood data platform is regularly updated and integrated with real-time monitoring systems, ensuring that the information remains accurate and relevant for effective flood risk management. By making this data publicly accessible, FOEN plays a pivotal role in disaster preparedness and resilience-building across Switzerland, helping local governments and communities better anticipate and respond to flood events.[175]

1.2.1.34. Austrian Flood Hazard Map

The Austrian Flood Hazard Map is a vital tool for managing and assessing flood risks throughout Austria. Developed by the Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment, and Water Management (BMNT) in collaboration with regional authorities, this resource provides essential flood-related data through detailed maps and hydrological models. These maps play a key role in disaster risk management, flood preparedness, and mitigation efforts, serving urban planners, government agencies, emergency responders, and researchers focused on minimizing the impact of floods.

The Austrian flood hazard maps highlight areas at risk of flooding from rivers and other water bodies. Using satellite data, topographical surveys, and advanced hydrological models, these maps offer precise information on flood extents, depths, and flow dynamics. This data is critical for land-use planning, guiding infrastructure development, and shaping flood protection systems, including levees, retention areas, and flood diversion channels.

In addition to current hazard mapping, the Austrian Flood Hazard Map provides historical flood data, allowing users to assess patterns in flood frequency and severity. This information is crucial for understanding long-term flood risks, particularly in vulnerable regions like the Danube and Inn river basins. The platform also includes interactive tools that enable users to overlay flood hazard data with other geographic information, facilitating comprehensive assessments of flood vulnerabilities in both urban and rural areas.

Regularly updated and integrated with real-time monitoring systems, the Austrian Flood Hazard Map is a central part of Austria’s flood risk management strategy. By making this data publicly available, Austria ensures that local governments and communities are well-equipped to anticipate and respond effectively to flood events.[176]

1.2.1.35. Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate (NVE) Flood Data

The Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate (NVE) Flood Data is an essential resource for understanding and managing flood risks throughout Norway, a country with vast rivers, lakes, and coastal areas that are vulnerable to flooding. As the national authority responsible for water resource management and natural hazard mitigation, NVE provides comprehensive flood-related data through advanced hydrological models, geographic information systems (GIS), and detailed flood maps. This data supports disaster risk management, flood preparedness, and adaptation strategies for urban planners, government agencies, emergency responders, and researchers.

NVE’s flood data includes high-resolution flood hazard maps that identify areas at risk from rivers, coastal waters, and lakes. Developed using satellite imagery, ground-based surveys, and advanced hydrological models, these maps offer precise information on flood extents, depths, and durations. Such data is crucial for guiding land-use planning, informing infrastructure development, and shaping flood protection systems like flood barriers, levees, and stormwater management facilities.

In addition to hazard mapping, NVE provides access to historical flood data, allowing users to analyze past flood events and assess patterns in flood frequency and severity. This information is vital for understanding long-term flood risks, particularly in flood-prone areas such as the Glomma and Drammen river regions. NVE also offers interactive tools that allow users to overlay flood risk data with other geographic layers, enabling comprehensive assessments of flood vulnerabilities in both urban and rural regions.

The NVE flood data platform is continuously updated with real-time monitoring systems, ensuring data accuracy and relevance for effective flood risk management. By making this information publicly accessible, NVE plays a critical role in strengthening disaster preparedness and resilience across Norway, helping local governments and communities better anticipate and respond to flood events.[177]

1.2.1.36. Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI) Flood Data

The Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI) Flood Data is a vital resource for managing and analyzing flood risks across Sweden. As the national authority for meteorology, hydrology, and oceanography, SMHI provides critical flood-related data through advanced hydrological models, geographic information systems (GIS), and detailed flood hazard maps. This data plays a key role in supporting disaster risk management, flood preparedness, and mitigation efforts by urban planners, government agencies, emergency responders, and researchers focused on reducing the impacts of floods.

SMHI’s flood data includes high-resolution flood hazard maps that highlight areas at risk of flooding from rivers, lakes, and coastal waters. Developed using satellite imagery, ground-based surveys, and advanced hydrological models, these maps provide precise information on flood extents, depths, and flow velocities. This data is essential for guiding land-use planning, informing infrastructure development, and designing flood protection measures such as levees, floodwalls, and stormwater drainage systems.

Beyond hazard mapping, SMHI offers access to historical flood data, allowing users to analyze past flood events and detect patterns in flood frequency, severity, and impact. This historical information is critical for understanding long-term flood risks, particularly in vulnerable areas like the Göta and Dalälven river basins. SMHI also provides interactive tools that enable users to combine flood risk data with other geographic layers, facilitating comprehensive assessments of flood vulnerabilities in both urban and rural regions.

Continuously updated with real-time monitoring systems, SMHI’s flood data platform ensures that local governments and communities have access to the latest information for effective flood risk management. By making this data publicly accessible, SMHI plays a crucial role in strengthening disaster preparedness and resilience across Sweden, helping authorities and communities better anticipate and respond to flood events.[178]

1.2.1.37. Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE) Flood Data

The Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE) Flood Data is a vital resource for understanding and managing flood risks across Finland. As the national authority responsible for environmental protection and research, SYKE provides essential flood-related data through advanced hydrological models, geographic information systems (GIS), and detailed flood risk maps. This data supports disaster risk management, flood preparedness, and climate adaptation efforts, serving urban planners, government agencies, emergency responders, and researchers dedicated to reducing the impacts of floods.

SYKE’s flood data includes high-resolution flood hazard maps that identify areas at risk from rivers, lakes, and coastal waters. Developed using satellite imagery, ground surveys, and sophisticated hydrological models, these maps provide precise information on flood extents, depths, and flood durations. This data is crucial for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and designing flood prevention systems like levees, retention basins, and drainage networks.

In addition to hazard mapping, SYKE offers access to historical flood data, allowing users to analyze past flood events and detect trends in flood frequency, severity, and impact. This historical data is key for understanding long-term flood risks and preparing for future flood scenarios, particularly in vulnerable regions like those along the Oulu and Kymi rivers. SYKE also provides interactive tools that allow users to overlay flood risk data with other geographic layers, facilitating comprehensive assessments of flood vulnerabilities in both urban and rural areas.

SYKE’s flood data platform is regularly updated and integrated with real-time monitoring systems to ensure accuracy and relevance for effective flood risk management. By making this data publicly accessible, SYKE plays a crucial role in strengthening disaster preparedness and resilience across Finland, helping local authorities and communities better anticipate and respond to flood events.[179]

1.2.1.38. Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI) Flood Data

The Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI) Flood Data is an essential resource for managing and assessing flood risks across Denmark. As the national authority responsible for meteorological and hydrological services, DMI provides critical flood-related data through advanced hydrological models, geographic information systems (GIS), and detailed flood hazard maps. This data supports disaster risk management, flood preparedness, and climate adaptation efforts, serving urban planners, government agencies, emergency responders, and researchers working to mitigate the impacts of floods.

DMI’s flood data includes high-resolution flood hazard maps that identify areas at risk of flooding from coastal waters, rivers, and heavy rainfall. These maps, developed using satellite data, weather observations, and advanced modeling tools, provide detailed insights into flood extents, depths, and durations. This information is vital for guiding land-use planning, designing resilient infrastructure, and implementing flood protection systems like dikes, flood barriers, and drainage networks.

Beyond hazard mapping, DMI offers access to historical flood data, allowing users to analyze past flood events and assess trends in flood frequency, severity, and impact. This historical data is crucial for understanding long-term flood risks, particularly in low-lying coastal areas such as the Danish Wadden Sea region and major river basins. DMI also provides interactive tools that enable users to overlay flood risk data with other geographic layers, facilitating comprehensive flood risk assessments for both urban and rural areas.

The DMI flood data platform is continuously updated with real-time weather and water level data to ensure accuracy and relevance. By making this data publicly accessible, DMI plays a key role in enhancing flood preparedness and resilience across Denmark, helping local authorities and communities better anticipate and respond to flood events.[180]

1.2.1.39. Italian National Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA) Flood Data

The Italian National Institute for Environmental Protection and Research (ISPRA) Flood Data is a crucial resource for managing and analyzing flood risks across Italy. As the national authority responsible for environmental monitoring and protection, ISPRA provides essential flood-related data through advanced hydrological models, geographic information systems (GIS), and detailed flood hazard maps. This data supports disaster risk management, flood preparedness, and mitigation strategies, helping urban planners, government agencies, emergency responders, and researchers minimize the impact of floods.

ISPRA’s flood data includes high-resolution flood hazard maps that highlight areas at risk of flooding from rivers, lakes, and coastal waters, particularly in vulnerable regions such as the Po River Basin and the Venice lagoon. These maps are developed using satellite imagery, ground-based surveys, and sophisticated hydrological models, offering precise information on flood extents, depths, and flow velocities. This data is critical for guiding land-use planning, ensuring the resilience of critical infrastructure, and designing flood protection systems like levees, embankments, and drainage networks.

Beyond hazard mapping, ISPRA provides access to historical flood data, allowing users to analyze past flood events and identify trends in flood frequency and severity. This historical information is vital for understanding long-term flood risks and planning for future flood scenarios, especially in regions frequently affected by extreme weather events. ISPRA also offers interactive tools that allow users to overlay flood risk data with other geographic layers, enabling comprehensive assessments of flood vulnerabilities in both urban and rural areas.

Continuously updated and integrated with real-time monitoring systems, the ISPRA flood data platform ensures data accuracy and relevance for effective flood risk management. By making this information publicly accessible, ISPRA plays a key role in strengthening disaster preparedness and resilience across Italy, helping local governments and communities better anticipate and respond to flood events.[181]

1.2.1.40. Spanish Ministry for the Ecological Transition and the Demographic Challenge (MITECO) Flood Data

The Spanish Ministry for the Ecological Transition and the Demographic Challenge (MITECO) Flood Data is an essential resource for managing and assessing flood risks across Spain. As the national authority responsible for environmental protection and water management, MITECO provides critical flood-related data through comprehensive flood hazard maps, hydrological models, and geographic information systems (GIS). This data plays a vital role in supporting disaster risk management, flood preparedness, and climate adaptation efforts, helping urban planners, government agencies, emergency responders, and researchers mitigate the impact of floods.

MITECO’s flood data includes high-resolution flood hazard maps that highlight areas at risk of flooding from rivers, coastal zones, and flash floods. Developed using satellite imagery, hydrological surveys, and advanced modeling tools, these maps provide detailed insights into flood extents, depths, and potential impacts. This information is crucial for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and the design of flood protection systems such as levees, flood barriers, and drainage networks.

In addition to flood hazard mapping, MITECO offers access to historical flood data, enabling users to analyze past flood events and detect trends in flood frequency and intensity. This historical data is key for understanding long-term flood risks, particularly in vulnerable regions such as the Ebro River Basin, Andalusian coastal areas, and the Mediterranean coast. MITECO also provides interactive tools that allow users to overlay flood risk data with other geographic layers, enabling comprehensive flood risk assessments in both urban and rural areas.

Regularly updated with real-time hydrological and meteorological data, the MITECO flood data platform ensures accuracy and relevance for effective flood risk management. By making this data publicly accessible, MITECO plays a pivotal role in enhancing disaster preparedness and resilience across Spain, helping local governments and communities better anticipate and respond to flood events.[182]

1.2.1.41. Thailand National Disaster Warning Center (NDWC) Flood Data

The Thailand National Disaster Warning Center (NDWC) Flood Data is a critical resource for monitoring, managing, and mitigating flood risks throughout Thailand. As the national authority responsible for disaster warnings and preparedness, NDWC provides essential flood-related data through advanced hydrological models, geographic information systems (GIS), and detailed flood hazard maps. This data plays a pivotal role in disaster risk management, flood preparedness, and response efforts, supporting government agencies, urban planners, emergency responders, and researchers working to minimize the impact of floods in flood-prone areas.

NDWC’s flood data includes high-resolution flood hazard maps that identify areas at risk of flooding from rivers, heavy rainfall, and coastal storm surges. These maps are developed using satellite imagery, real-time weather data, and advanced hydrological models, offering precise information on flood extents, depths, and durations. This information is essential for land-use planning, infrastructure development, and designing flood protection systems such as levees, drainage networks, and flood barriers, particularly in vulnerable regions like the Chao Phraya River Basin and coastal areas.

In addition to hazard mapping, NDWC provides access to historical flood data, allowing users to analyze past flood events and detect trends in flood frequency and severity. This historical data is vital for understanding long-term flood risks and planning for future flood scenarios, particularly in regions increasingly affected by climate change. NDWC also offers interactive tools that enable users to overlay flood risk data with other geographic information, allowing for detailed assessments of flood vulnerabilities in both urban and rural areas.

Continuously updated with real-time meteorological and hydrological data, the NDWC flood data platform ensures accuracy and timeliness for issuing flood warnings and supporting disaster management. By making this information publicly accessible, NDWC plays a crucial role in enhancing flood preparedness and resilience across Thailand, helping local communities and authorities better anticipate and respond to flood events.[183]

1.2.1.42. Malaysian National Disaster Management Agency (NADMA) Flood Data

The Malaysian National Disaster Management Agency (NADMA) Flood Data is a critical resource for managing and assessing flood risks throughout Malaysia. As the primary national agency responsible for disaster management and preparedness, NADMA provides essential flood-related data through advanced geographic information systems (GIS), hydrological models, and detailed flood hazard maps. This data plays a key role in supporting disaster risk management, flood preparedness, and mitigation efforts, aiding urban planners, government agencies, emergency responders, and researchers in minimizing the impact of floods—a frequent natural hazard in Malaysia.

NADMA’s flood data includes high-resolution flood hazard maps that pinpoint areas vulnerable to flooding from rivers, heavy rainfall, and coastal tides, particularly in regions like the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, and Sarawak. Developed using satellite imagery, real-time weather data, and hydrological models, these maps provide precise information on flood extents, depths, and durations. This data is crucial for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and designing flood protection systems like levees, stormwater drainage systems, and floodwalls.

In addition to flood hazard mapping, NADMA offers access to historical flood data, allowing users to analyze past flood events and detect patterns in flood frequency and severity. This historical information is essential for understanding long-term flood risks and planning for future scenarios, particularly in flood-prone areas affected by monsoons and tropical storms. NADMA also provides interactive tools that enable users to combine flood risk data with other geographic layers, facilitating comprehensive flood risk assessments for both urban and rural regions.

NADMA’s flood data platform is regularly updated with real-time meteorological and hydrological information to ensure data accuracy and timeliness for issuing flood warnings and managing disaster responses. By making this information publicly accessible, NADMA plays a pivotal role in strengthening disaster preparedness and resilience across Malaysia, helping local authorities and communities better anticipate and respond to flood events.[184]

1.2.1.43. Bangladesh Flood Forecasting and Warning Centre (FFWC)

The Bangladesh Flood Forecasting and Warning Centre (FFWC) is a critical institution responsible for monitoring, forecasting, and disseminating flood-related information across Bangladesh. As part of the Bangladesh Water Development Board (BWDB), FFWC provides essential flood data through advanced hydrological models, real-time monitoring systems, and detailed flood forecasting services. Given Bangladesh’s high vulnerability to seasonal flooding from rivers, monsoon rains, and coastal surges, FFWC’s data plays a crucial role in disaster risk management, flood preparedness, and mitigation efforts, supporting government agencies, urban planners, emergency responders, and at-risk communities.

FFWC’s flood data includes real-time flood forecasting and early warning systems that predict potential flooding in major river basins like the Brahmaputra, Ganges, and Meghna rivers. These forecasts are generated using satellite imagery, rainfall data, and advanced hydrological models, offering precise information on flood extents, water levels, and expected flood durations. This data is vital for guiding emergency response efforts, supporting the evacuation of vulnerable populations, and protecting infrastructure in flood-prone regions.

In addition to real-time forecasting, FFWC provides access to historical flood data, enabling users to analyze past flood events and detect patterns in flood frequency and severity. This historical information is essential for identifying long-term flood risks, particularly in highly vulnerable regions such as the northern and central floodplains. FFWC also offers interactive tools that allow users to visualize and overlay flood data with other geographic layers, facilitating comprehensive flood risk assessments in both urban and rural areas.

The FFWC platform is continuously updated with real-time meteorological and hydrological data, ensuring accurate and timely flood warnings. By making this data publicly available, FFWC plays a key role in strengthening disaster preparedness and resilience across Bangladesh, helping local governments and communities better anticipate and respond to flood events.[185]

1.2.1.44. Vietnam Disaster Management Authority (VNDMA) Flood Data

The Vietnam Disaster Management Authority (VNDMA) Flood Data is a vital resource for monitoring and managing flood risks throughout Vietnam, a country highly vulnerable to seasonal flooding, typhoons, and heavy rainfall. As the national authority responsible for disaster preparedness and response, VNDMA provides critical flood-related data through advanced hydrological models, geographic information systems (GIS), and detailed flood hazard maps. This data plays a central role in supporting disaster risk management, flood preparedness, and mitigation efforts, helping urban planners, government agencies, emergency responders, and researchers reduce the impacts of floods.

VNDMA’s flood data includes high-resolution flood hazard maps that identify areas vulnerable to flooding from rivers, coastal zones, and intense rainstorms, particularly in flood-prone regions like the Mekong Delta, Red River Delta, and central coastal provinces. These maps are developed using satellite imagery, real-time weather data, and advanced hydrological models, providing precise information on flood extents, depths, and durations. This data is essential for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and designing flood protection systems such as levees, drainage systems, and flood barriers.

In addition to hazard mapping, VNDMA offers access to historical flood data, enabling users to analyze past flood events and detect trends in flood frequency, severity, and impact. This historical information is crucial for understanding long-term flood risks and preparing for future scenarios, especially as climate change intensifies flood hazards in vulnerable areas. VNDMA also provides interactive tools that allow users to overlay flood risk data with other geographic information, facilitating comprehensive assessments of flood vulnerabilities in both urban and rural settings.

VNDMA’s flood data platform is continuously updated with real-time meteorological and hydrological information, ensuring accurate and timely flood warnings. By making this data publicly accessible, VNDMA plays a key role in enhancing disaster preparedness and resilience across Vietnam, helping local authorities and communities better anticipate and respond to flood events.[186]

1.2.1.45. Sri Lanka Disaster Management Centre (DMC) Flood Data

The Sri Lanka Disaster Management Centre (DMC) Flood Data is a crucial resource for monitoring, assessing, and mitigating flood risks throughout Sri Lanka. As the national authority responsible for disaster management and preparedness, DMC provides critical flood-related data through advanced hydrological models, geographic information systems (GIS), and detailed flood hazard maps. This data supports disaster risk management, flood preparedness, and mitigation strategies, helping urban planners, government agencies, emergency responders, and researchers minimize the impacts of floods, particularly during the monsoon seasons.

DMC’s flood data includes high-resolution flood hazard maps that highlight areas vulnerable to flooding from rivers, heavy rainfall, and coastal storm surges. Developed using satellite imagery, real-time weather data, and hydrological models, these maps offer precise information on flood extents, depths, and durations. This information is essential for guiding land-use planning, designing resilient infrastructure, and developing flood protection measures like levees, embankments, and drainage systems, particularly in flood-prone regions such as the Kelani and Kalu river basins.

In addition to hazard mapping, DMC provides access to historical flood data, allowing users to analyze past flood events and identify trends in flood frequency and severity. This historical data is key to understanding long-term flood risks and planning for future scenarios, especially as climate change increases rainfall intensity and the likelihood of flooding in certain areas. DMC also offers interactive tools that allow users to overlay flood risk data with other geographic information, facilitating comprehensive flood risk assessments in both urban and rural settings.

The DMC flood data platform is continuously updated with real-time meteorological and hydrological information to ensure accurate and timely flood warnings. By making this data publicly accessible, DMC plays a pivotal role in enhancing disaster preparedness and resilience across Sri Lanka, helping local governments and communities better anticipate and respond to flood events.[187]

1.2.1.46. Pakistan Meteorological Department Flood Data

The Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD) Flood Data is an essential resource for monitoring, predicting, and managing flood risks across Pakistan. As the national authority responsible for weather forecasting, hydrology, and climate monitoring, PMD provides crucial flood-related data through advanced hydrological models, real-time weather observations, and detailed flood forecasting systems. This data plays a key role in supporting disaster risk management, flood preparedness, and response efforts, aiding government agencies, urban planners, emergency responders, and researchers in minimizing the impacts of floods, particularly during the monsoon season.

PMD’s flood data includes real-time flood forecasting and early warning systems that cover areas at risk from rivers, heavy rainfall, and glacial melt, especially in vulnerable regions like the Indus River Basin and the mountainous northern areas. These forecasts are generated using satellite imagery, rainfall data, and sophisticated hydrological models, providing accurate predictions of flood extents, water levels, and durations. This information is crucial for guiding emergency response plans, facilitating evacuations, and safeguarding infrastructure in flood-prone areas.

Beyond real-time flood forecasting, PMD offers access to historical flood data, enabling users to analyze past flood events and assess trends in flood frequency and severity. This historical data is key to understanding long-term flood risks, particularly in regions frequently impacted by monsoon floods, such as Sindh and Punjab. PMD also provides interactive tools that allow users to overlay flood risk data with other geographic layers, enabling comprehensive flood vulnerability assessments in both urban and rural areas.

PMD’s flood data platform is regularly updated with real-time meteorological and hydrological information, ensuring accurate and timely flood warnings. By making this data publicly accessible, PMD plays a crucial role in enhancing flood preparedness and resilience across Pakistan, helping local governments and communities better anticipate and respond to flood events.[188]

1.2.1.47. Nepal Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM) Flood Data

The Nepal Department of Hydrology and Meteorology (DHM) Flood Data is a vital resource for monitoring, forecasting, and managing flood risks throughout Nepal, a country highly vulnerable to seasonal flooding, glacial lake outbursts, and monsoon rains. As the national authority responsible for hydrological and meteorological services, DHM provides essential flood-related data through advanced hydrological models, real-time weather observations, and flood hazard maps. This data is crucial for supporting disaster risk management, flood preparedness, and mitigation efforts, aiding urban planners, government agencies, emergency responders, and researchers in reducing the impact of floods.

DHM’s flood data includes real-time flood forecasting and early warning systems for riverine floods, flash floods, and potential glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). These forecasts are generated using satellite imagery, rainfall data, and advanced hydrological models, offering precise predictions of flood extents, water levels, and durations. This information is essential for guiding emergency response efforts, enabling timely evacuations, and protecting infrastructure in flood-prone regions like the Terai plains and the Koshi and Gandaki river basins.

Beyond real-time forecasting, DHM offers access to historical flood data, allowing users to analyze past flood events and assess trends in flood frequency and severity. This historical data is key for understanding long-term flood risks, particularly in regions frequently affected by monsoon-induced floods. DHM also provides interactive tools that allow users to overlay flood risk data with other geographic information, facilitating comprehensive assessments of flood vulnerabilities in both urban and rural settings.

The DHM flood data platform is continuously updated with real-time meteorological and hydrological data, ensuring accuracy and relevance for effective flood risk management. By making this data publicly accessible, DHM plays a key role in enhancing flood preparedness and resilience across Nepal, helping local governments and communities better anticipate and respond to flood events.[189]

1.2.1.48. Myanmar Department of Meteorology and Hydrology (DMH) Flood Data

The Myanmar Department of Meteorology and Hydrology (DMH) Flood Data is a crucial resource for managing and predicting flood risks across Myanmar, a country highly vulnerable to seasonal monsoon flooding, cyclones, and riverine floods. As the national authority for weather forecasting, hydrology, and climate monitoring, DMH provides essential flood-related data through advanced hydrological models, real-time weather observations, and detailed flood hazard maps. This data plays a key role in supporting disaster risk management, flood preparedness, and response efforts, helping government agencies, urban planners, emergency responders, and researchers mitigate the impacts of floods.

DMH’s flood data includes real-time flood forecasting and early warning systems for areas at risk from rivers, heavy monsoon rains, and coastal storm surges. These forecasts are developed using satellite imagery, rainfall data, and advanced hydrological models, providing precise predictions of flood extents, water levels, and durations. This information is critical for guiding emergency response efforts, supporting evacuations, and protecting infrastructure, especially in flood-prone regions like the Ayeyarwady River Basin and coastal areas vulnerable to storm surges.

Beyond real-time forecasting, DMH provides access to historical flood data, enabling users to analyze past flood events and assess trends in flood frequency and severity. This historical data is key to understanding long-term flood risks and planning for future scenarios, particularly in areas frequently impacted by monsoon-induced floods and cyclones. DMH also offers interactive tools that allow users to overlay flood risk data with other geographic information, enabling comprehensive flood risk assessments in both urban and rural regions.

The DMH flood data platform is continuously updated with real-time meteorological and hydrological information, ensuring accurate and timely flood warnings. By making this data publicly accessible, DMH plays a pivotal role in enhancing flood preparedness and resilience across Myanmar, helping local governments and communities better anticipate and respond to flood events.[190]

1.2.1.49. Bhutan Department of Disaster Management Flood Data

The Bhutan Department of Disaster Management (DDM) Flood Data is a crucial resource for assessing and managing flood risks in Bhutan, a country highly vulnerable to riverine floods, flash floods, and glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). As the national authority for disaster preparedness and response, DDM provides essential flood-related data through geographic information systems (GIS), hydrological models, and detailed flood hazard maps. This data plays a vital role in supporting disaster risk management, flood preparedness, and mitigation efforts, helping government agencies, urban planners, emergency responders, and researchers reduce the impacts of floods.

DDM’s flood data includes high-resolution flood hazard maps that highlight areas at risk from rivers, glacial lakes, and heavy monsoon rains, particularly in vulnerable regions like the Punakha and Wangdue valleys. Developed using satellite imagery, topographic surveys, and hydrological models, these maps provide precise information on flood extents, depths, and potential impacts. This data is crucial for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and designing flood protection systems like levees and early warning systems for GLOFs.

In addition to hazard mapping, DDM offers access to historical flood data, enabling users to analyze past flood events and detect patterns in flood frequency and severity. This historical data is essential for understanding long-term flood risks, particularly in regions prone to seasonal monsoon flooding and the threat of GLOFs from rapidly melting glaciers. DDM also provides interactive tools that allow users to overlay flood risk data with other geographic layers, enabling comprehensive assessments of flood vulnerabilities in both urban and rural areas.

DDM’s flood data platform is continuously updated with real-time meteorological and hydrological data, ensuring timely and accurate flood warnings. By making this data publicly accessible, DDM plays a key role in enhancing disaster preparedness and resilience across Bhutan, helping local authorities and communities better anticipate and respond to flood events.[191]

1.2.1.50. Peru National Service of Meteorology and Hydrology (SENAMHI) Flood Data

The Peru National Service of Meteorology and Hydrology (SENAMHI) Flood Data is a vital resource for managing and assessing flood risks across Peru, a country frequently impacted by seasonal flooding, heavy rainfall, and the effects of the El Niño phenomenon. As the national authority for meteorological and hydrological services, SENAMHI provides critical flood-related data through advanced hydrological models, geographic information systems (GIS), and real-time flood forecasting systems. This data plays a crucial role in supporting disaster risk management, flood preparedness, and mitigation strategies for government agencies, urban planners, emergency responders, and researchers aiming to reduce the impacts of floods.

SENAMHI’s flood data includes high-resolution flood hazard maps that highlight areas vulnerable to flooding from rivers, torrential rains, and landslides, particularly in regions like the Amazon Basin, the Andes, and coastal areas. These maps are developed using satellite imagery, ground-based surveys, and advanced hydrological models, offering precise information on flood extents, depths, and flow velocities. This data is essential for guiding land-use planning, infrastructure development, and designing flood protection systems like levees, drainage networks, and flood retention basins.

Beyond flood hazard mapping, SENAMHI provides access to historical flood data, allowing users to analyze past flood events and detect trends in flood frequency, severity, and impact. This historical information is key to understanding long-term flood risks, especially in regions prone to extreme weather events exacerbated by climate variability. SENAMHI also offers interactive tools that enable users to overlay flood risk data with other geographic layers, facilitating comprehensive flood vulnerability assessments in both urban and rural settings.

The SENAMHI flood data platform is continuously updated with real-time hydrological and meteorological information, ensuring timely and accurate flood warnings. By making this data publicly accessible, SENAMHI plays a key role in enhancing disaster preparedness and resilience across Peru, helping local governments and communities better anticipate and respond to flood events.[192]

1.2.2. Droughts

1.2.2.1. Global Integrated Drought Monitoring and Prediction System (GIDMaPS)

The Global Integrated Drought Monitoring and Prediction System (GIDMaPS) is an advanced platform designed to offer real-time drought monitoring and predictive analysis on a global scale. It integrates various data sources, including satellite observations, climate models, and ground-based measurements, to deliver accurate and timely information about drought conditions worldwide. GIDMaPS is crucial for understanding the spatial and temporal variability of droughts, facilitating early warnings and effective management of drought risks.

GIDMaPS provides a variety of drought indices and maps that address different aspects of drought, including meteorological, agricultural, and hydrological droughts. These tools help researchers, policymakers, and disaster management authorities to evaluate the severity and impact of droughts in various regions. By offering predictions and forecasts, GIDMaPS enables proactive measures to mitigate the adverse effects of drought on agriculture, water resources, and ecosystems.

Beyond its operational functions, GIDMaPS contributes to global research on drought and climate change. It offers a consistent framework for drought monitoring and prediction, aiding studies on the causes and impacts of droughts, as well as the formulation of adaptation and resilience strategies. GIDMaPS plays a vital role in enhancing global preparedness for drought, improving the capacity to manage its effects efficiently.[193]

1.2.2.2. National Drought Mitigation Center (NDMC) Drought Monitor

The National Drought Mitigation Center (NDMC) Drought Monitor is a key resource for tracking and assessing drought conditions across the United States. It provides a comprehensive overview of current drought conditions, including details on precipitation deficits, soil moisture levels, and indices like the Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI). This information is critical for understanding the severity, extent, and impact of droughts in different regions of the U.S.

The NDMC Drought Monitor is widely used by various stakeholders, such as farmers, water managers, policymakers, and emergency services. It offers weekly updates and detailed maps of drought conditions, assisting in informed decision-making for agricultural planning, water resource management, and disaster response. The Monitor also provides early warnings and forecasts that are essential for implementing proactive measures to mitigate drought impacts on crops, livestock, and water supplies.

In addition to its operational role, the NDMC engages in research on drought and its effects, contributing to strategies for drought preparedness and resilience. The center is also active in public outreach and education, helping to raise awareness about drought risks and promoting effective management practices. Through its integrated approach to drought monitoring, research, and education, the NDMC significantly enhances the nation’s capacity to cope with drought.[194]

1.2.2.3. European Drought Observatory (EDO)

The European Drought Observatory (EDO) is a crucial platform that provides in-depth information on drought conditions across Europe. EDO offers a range of drought-related data, including precipitation anomalies, soil moisture levels, and standardized precipitation indices (SPI). By integrating data from various sources, such as satellite observations and ground-based measurements, EDO delivers a comprehensive analysis of drought severity, extent, and impact across different European regions.

EDO’s data is used by a diverse group of stakeholders, including policymakers, researchers, and disaster management authorities, to monitor and assess drought conditions. The platform provides maps and reports that aid in identifying areas at risk of drought, enabling early warnings and timely interventions to reduce impacts on agriculture, water resources, and ecosystems. EDO also offers tools for analyzing drought trends and forecasting future conditions, which are essential for developing effective drought management strategies.

Beyond its operational applications, EDO contributes to research on climate change and its effects on drought patterns in Europe. By providing a consistent framework for drought monitoring and analysis, EDO supports studies on the relationship between drought, climate variability, and land use. This research is crucial for developing long-term strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to the evolving climate.[195]

1.2.2.4. United States Drought Monitor (USDM)

The United States Drought Monitor (USDM) is an essential tool for monitoring and assessing drought conditions across the United States. Developed through collaboration between the National Drought Mitigation Center, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the USDM provides weekly updates on the severity and extent of droughts. It incorporates various data sources, including precipitation, soil moisture, and drought indices, to offer a comprehensive view of current conditions.

The USDM is widely utilized by stakeholders such as farmers, water managers, policymakers, and emergency services for informed decision-making in agriculture, water resource management, and disaster response. The monitor provides detailed maps and reports that help identify drought-affected areas and assess potential impacts on crops, livestock, and water supplies. By offering early warnings and forecasts, the USDM supports proactive measures to mitigate the effects of drought.

In addition to its operational role, the USDM contributes to research on drought and climate change. The data provided by the monitor is used to study the relationship between drought, weather patterns, and climate variability, enhancing the understanding of how changing climate conditions influence drought frequency and severity. This research is vital for developing strategies to improve drought resilience and adaptation.[196]

1.2.2.5. Global Drought Information System (GDIS)

The Global Drought Information System (GDIS) is an international platform designed to offer a comprehensive view of global drought conditions. GDIS integrates data from various regional and national drought monitoring systems, serving as a centralized source of information on drought severity, extent, and impacts worldwide. This system is essential for understanding the global scope and implications of drought, particularly in the context of climate change and increasing water scarcity.

GDIS provides a variety of products, including drought indices, maps, and reports, covering different aspects of drought such as meteorological, agricultural, and hydrological droughts. By offering real-time monitoring and predictions, GDIS helps researchers, policymakers, and disaster management authorities assess and respond to drought risks effectively. The system supports early warnings and timely interventions to minimize the impacts of drought on agriculture, water resources, and communities.

Beyond its operational uses, GDIS contributes to global research efforts on drought and climate variability. By providing a consistent framework for drought monitoring and analysis, GDIS supports studies on the causes and effects of drought and the development of strategies for adaptation and resilience. This integration of monitoring, prediction, and research makes GDIS a crucial resource for understanding and managing drought on a global scale.[197]

1.2.2.6. Australian Bureau of Meteorology Drought Data

The Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) has a comprehensive database on drought conditions in Australia, covering metrics like rainfall deficiencies, soil moisture levels, and drought indices. This information is vital for understanding when and where droughts occur, how long they last, and their severity across different regions. The data is frequently updated, offering near real-time insights into current drought conditions. It serves as a crucial resource for various stakeholders such as researchers, farmers, and policymakers who need reliable data for making informed decisions.

BOM’s drought data is utilized for multiple purposes, including agricultural planning, water resource management, and disaster preparedness. For example, farmers use this data to decide when to plant crops and how to manage irrigation, while water authorities rely on it to balance water supply and demand during dry periods. BOM also provides tools and resources to help users interpret the data effectively, allowing for analysis of short-term and long-term drought impacts by integrating climatic, hydrological, and agricultural factors.

In the context of climate research, BOM’s data is invaluable. Researchers analyze historical data to study long-term trends in drought occurrence and severity, which contributes to a better understanding of climate variability and change. This historical perspective is essential for developing strategies to mitigate the impacts of future droughts and enhance climate resilience.[198]

1.2.2.7. International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI) Drought Data

The International Research Institute for Climate and Society (IRI) provides a global outlook on drought monitoring and analysis. Using various climatic models and satellite observations, IRI offers insights into precipitation patterns, soil moisture, and vegetation health across different regions. This data is crucial for understanding the global impacts of drought, especially in vulnerable and developing areas where traditional monitoring systems might be insufficient.

IRI’s drought data serves a broad audience, including governments, NGOs, and international agencies, helping them plan and implement drought response and mitigation strategies. The data identifies regions at risk of drought, facilitating early warnings and timely interventions to minimize the impact on agriculture, water resources, and communities. Additionally, IRI provides training and support for users to integrate this data into their decision-making processes effectively.

The institute also contributes to research by exploring the relationships between drought and climatic phenomena such as El Niño and La Niña. This research enhances seasonal climate forecasting and improves the global capacity for drought preparedness and response. Therefore, IRI’s drought data is an invaluable resource for understanding and managing drought at a global scale.[199]

1.2.2.8. African Drought Monitor (ADM)

The African Drought Monitor (ADM) is an essential tool for monitoring and assessing drought conditions across the African continent. Developed through a collaborative effort between international and African organizations, the ADM provides real-time data on precipitation, soil moisture, and drought indices. This data is crucial for understanding the distribution of droughts in Africa, where many regions are highly vulnerable to water scarcity.

The ADM is particularly useful for agricultural planning and food security. By providing early warnings of potential drought conditions, the ADM enables farmers and policymakers to take proactive measures to mitigate the impact on crop production and water resources. The system uses satellite-based observations and ground measurements to offer a comprehensive overview of current drought conditions, enabling timely and effective response efforts.

In addition to its operational role, the ADM contributes to climate change research and variability in Africa. By analyzing trends in drought occurrence and severity, researchers gain a better understanding of the long-term impacts of climate change on the continent’s water cycle. This knowledge is critical for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future climate conditions.[200]

1.2.2.9. India Meteorological Department (IMD) Drought Data

The India Meteorological Department (IMD) provides detailed data on drought conditions across India. The data includes information on rainfall patterns, soil moisture levels, and temperature anomalies, which are essential for monitoring and managing droughts in this region. Given India’s diverse climatic zones, the IMD’s drought data is crucial for understanding regional variations in drought occurrence and intensity.

IMD’s data is widely used in agricultural planning and water resource management. By offering early warnings and forecasts, the IMD helps farmers make informed decisions about planting and irrigation, thereby reducing the impact of drought on crop yields. Government agencies and disaster management authorities also use this data to plan and implement drought mitigation measures, such as water conservation strategies and emergency water distribution.

IMD contributes to research on climate variability and change. By analyzing long-term data, researchers can study trends in monsoon patterns and their relationship to drought occurrences. This research is vital for predicting future drought risks and developing adaptation strategies to cope with the changing climate, ensuring the country’s agricultural and water security.[201]

1.2.2.10. China Meteorological Administration (CMA) Drought Data

The China Meteorological Administration (CMA) plays a significant role in monitoring and managing drought conditions in China. The CMA provides comprehensive data on rainfall, soil moisture, and drought indices, covering various regions and climatic zones across the country. This data is crucial for understanding the spatial distribution and severity of droughts in China, which can significantly impact agriculture, water resources, and the economy.

CMA’s drought data is utilized for numerous applications, including agricultural planning, water resource management, and disaster preparedness. By offering timely and accurate information, the CMA helps farmers and policymakers make informed decisions to mitigate the impact of drought on crop production and water supply. The data is also used by research institutions to study the relationship between climate change and drought patterns in China.

Moreover, CMA collaborates with international organizations to enhance drought monitoring and early warning systems. This collaboration improves the global understanding of drought dynamics and contributes to developing more effective drought management strategies. Therefore, CMA’s data is an invaluable resource for both national and international efforts to address drought challenges.[202]

1.2.2.11. Brazilian National Institute for Space Research (INPE) Drought Data

The Brazilian National Institute for Space Research (INPE) offers detailed drought data for Brazil, utilizing satellite-based observations and ground measurements to monitor conditions across the country. INPE’s data includes information on rainfall anomalies, soil moisture levels, and vegetation health, which are critical for understanding the occurrence and impact of droughts in Brazil’s diverse climatic regions.

INPE’s data is particularly important for agricultural planning and water management.

By providing early warnings of potential droughts, INPE helps farmers and water authorities take proactive measures to mitigate the effects on crop yields and water supply. The data is also used for research on the impacts of deforestation and land-use changes on the hydrological cycle, contributing to a better understanding of how human activities influence drought dynamics.

INPE collaborates with international organizations to enhance global drought monitoring capabilities. These partnerships aid in developing advanced remote sensing technologies and models for assessing drought conditions. This integration of technology and research makes INPE’s drought data a valuable resource for national and international efforts to tackle the challenges of drought.[203]

1.2.2.12. South African Weather Service Drought Monitor

The South African Weather Service (SAWS) provides comprehensive data on drought conditions in South Africa, including rainfall patterns, soil moisture levels, and temperature anomalies. This data is essential for understanding the occurrence and severity of droughts in the region, guiding agricultural planning, water resource management, and disaster preparedness.

SAWS plays a crucial role in providing early warnings and forecasts for drought conditions, helping farmers and policymakers make informed decisions. The data is used to develop strategies for water conservation and distribution, mitigate the impact on crop production, and manage demand on water resources. This proactive approach is vital for reducing the socio-economic impacts of droughts on communities and the environment.

Additionally, SAWS collaborates with other African and international organizations to enhance drought monitoring and management capabilities. By contributing to research and development in this field, SAWS helps improve the understanding of drought dynamics and the effectiveness of drought response strategies. This collaboration enhances South Africa’s and neighboring countries’ capacity to cope with drought challenges.[204]

1.2.2.13. Canadian Drought Monitor

The Canadian Drought Monitor (CDM) is a critical resource for monitoring and assessing drought conditions across Canada. The CDM provides monthly updates on drought conditions, including data on precipitation deficits, soil moisture levels, and streamflow patterns. This information is essential for understanding the spatial distribution and intensity of droughts in Canada, where the diverse climate presents unique challenges for drought monitoring.

CDM’s data is widely used by agricultural producers, water managers, and policymakers for planning and decision-making. The monitor provides early warnings of emerging drought conditions, helping stakeholders take proactive measures to mitigate the impacts on agriculture, water supply, and ecosystems. By integrating data from multiple sources, including satellite observations and ground-based measurements, the CDM offers a comprehensive view of drought conditions across the country.

In addition to its operational applications, the CDM contributes to research on climate change and its impact on drought patterns in Canada. By analyzing long-term trends in drought occurrence and severity, researchers can better understand the implications of a changing climate on Canada’s water resources and agricultural systems. This research is crucial for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future drought risks.[205]

1.2.2.14. Mexican National Water Commission (CONAGUA) Drought Data

The Mexican National Water Commission (CONAGUA) provides essential data on drought conditions across Mexico, including information on rainfall anomalies, soil moisture deficits, and reservoir levels. This data is crucial for understanding the onset and impact of droughts in different regions of Mexico. Managing water resources and mitigating the effects of drought on agriculture, industry, and communities depend on this vital data.

CONAGUA’s data is used for various purposes, including agricultural planning, water supply management, and disaster preparedness. By offering early warnings and forecasts, CONAGUA helps farmers, water managers, and government agencies make informed decisions to reduce the impact of drought on crop production and water availability. The data is also used to develop and implement water conservation strategies, such as controlled irrigation and water rationing.

In addition to its operational role, CONAGUA collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance drought monitoring and response capabilities. Through these partnerships, CONAGUA contributes to developing more effective tools and methodologies for assessing and managing drought risk. This collaboration is key to improving Mexico’s resilience to drought and ensuring the sustainable use of its water resources.[206]

1.2.2.15. Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) Drought Data

The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) offers extensive data on drought conditions in Japan, covering rainfall patterns, soil moisture levels, and temperature anomalies. This data is essential for understanding the occurrence and severity of droughts in different regions of Japan. JMA’s data is regularly updated and used for various applications, including agricultural planning, water resource management, and disaster preparedness.

JMA’s data is crucial for helping farmers and policymakers make informed decisions to mitigate the impact of drought on crop production and water supply. The agency provides early warnings and forecasts of potential drought conditions, enabling proactive measures such as water conservation and controlled irrigation. Additionally, JMA collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance drought monitoring and early warning systems.

The data also plays a significant role in research on climate variability and change. By analyzing long-term trends in drought occurrence and severity, researchers can study the impact of global warming on Japan’s climate system. This research is crucial for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future climate conditions, ensuring the sustainable management of Japan’s water resources.[207]

1.2.2.16. New Zealand Drought Monitor

The New Zealand Drought Monitor provides crucial data on drought conditions across New Zealand, offering insights into rainfall patterns, soil moisture levels, and temperature anomalies. This data is essential for understanding the onset, duration, and severity of droughts in New Zealand’s diverse climatic regions. The monitor is an important tool for managing water resources, agricultural planning, and disaster preparedness.

New Zealand’s Drought Monitor is used by a wide range of stakeholders, including farmers, water managers, and policymakers. By providing early warnings and forecasts, the monitor helps these stakeholders make informed decisions to mitigate the impact of drought on crop production and water supply. The data is also used to develop strategies for water conservation and distribution, ensuring the sustainable use of water resources during dry periods.

In addition to its operational applications, the New Zealand Drought Monitor contributes to research on climate variability and change. By analyzing long-term trends in drought occurrence and severity, researchers can better understand the impact of climate change on New Zealand’s water resources and agricultural systems. This research is crucial for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future drought risks.[208]

1.2.2.17. European Space Agency (ESA) Drought Monitoring

The European Space Agency (ESA) plays a crucial role in drought monitoring by providing satellite-based data that offers a global perspective on drought conditions. ESA’s data includes information on soil moisture, vegetation health, and water bodies, enabling a comprehensive analysis of drought impacts on various regions. By utilizing advanced remote sensing technologies, ESA contributes to the understanding of drought dynamics on a global scale.

ESA’s data is particularly valuable for countries and regions with limited ground-based monitoring infrastructure. The satellite observations provide consistent and accurate information on drought conditions, aiding in early warning, risk assessment, and mitigation strategies. ESA’s drought monitoring is also integrated with other datasets, such as meteorological and hydrological data, to offer a more holistic view of the climate system.

In addition to its operational applications, ESA’s data is used in research on climate change and its impact on global drought patterns. By analyzing long-term trends and anomalies, researchers can better understand the relationships between climate variability, land-use changes, and drought occurrences. This research is essential for developing global strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future climate conditions.[209]

1.2.2.18. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Drought Data

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations provides comprehensive drought data that focuses on the impacts of drought on food security and agriculture. FAO’s data includes information on rainfall deficits, soil moisture, and vegetation health, offering insights into how drought conditions affect crop production, livestock, and rural livelihoods. This data is crucial for planning and implementing food security and drought mitigation strategies.

FAO’s drought data is used by a wide range of stakeholders, including governments, NGOs, and international agencies, to support agricultural planning and emergency response. The data helps identify areas at risk of food insecurity due to drought, enabling timely interventions such as food distribution, water supply management, and livelihood support programs. By providing early warnings and risk assessments, FAO contributes to reducing the vulnerability of communities to drought.

In addition to its operational applications, FAO conducts research on the relationships between drought, food security, and climate change. This research is essential for understanding how changing climatic conditions affect agricultural systems and for developing strategies to enhance resilience. By integrating data, research, and practical applications, FAO plays a key role in global efforts to address the challenges posed by drought.[210]

1.2.2.19. World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Drought Information

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) provides a wealth of information on drought monitoring and management at the global level. WMO’s data includes climate and weather observations, drought indices, and seasonal forecasts, offering insights into the onset, duration, and severity of droughts worldwide. This information is crucial for understanding drought dynamics and for coordinating international efforts to mitigate the impacts of drought on societies and economies.

WMO plays a key role in enhancing global drought monitoring capabilities by standardizing methodologies and facilitating the exchange of data and best practices among member countries. The organization provides early warnings and advisories that support national meteorological and hydrological services in their efforts to manage drought risks. By promoting the integration of drought data with other climatic and environmental information, WMO contributes to a more comprehensive approach to drought management.

In addition to its operational role, WMO conducts research on the impact of climate variability and change on drought occurrences and intensity. This research is vital for improving seasonal forecasting, understanding the role of large-scale climate phenomena such as El Niño, and enhancing the resilience of communities to future drought risks. WMO’s efforts in capacity building and knowledge sharing are crucial for improving global preparedness and response to drought.[211]

1.2.2.20. NASA Drought Monitoring

NASA provides cutting-edge drought monitoring data through its advanced satellite missions and remote sensing technologies. NASA’s data includes information on soil moisture, vegetation health, and water availability, offering a detailed analysis of drought conditions on a global scale. By using satellites like the Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) and the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE), NASA can detect changes in soil moisture and groundwater levels with high precision.

NASA’s drought monitoring data is crucial for a wide range of applications, including agricultural planning, water resource management, and disaster response. The data helps identify regions experiencing or at risk of drought, enabling timely interventions to mitigate the impacts on agriculture, water supply, and ecosystems. NASA’s data is also used in research to understand the relationship between drought and other climatic variables, such as temperature and precipitation anomalies.

In addition to operational monitoring, NASA collaborates with international organizations and research institutions to enhance global drought monitoring capabilities. By providing open access to its data and developing tools for analysis and visualization, NASA supports the global effort to improve drought resilience and adapt to changing climate conditions. This integration of technology, research, and collaboration makes NASA’s drought monitoring a vital resource for understanding and managing droughts worldwide.[212]

1.2.2.21. Climate Prediction Center (CPC) Drought Data

The Climate Prediction Center (CPC) provides comprehensive drought data that is essential for understanding the onset, development, and impact of drought conditions. CPC’s data includes information on precipitation deficits, soil moisture, and drought indices such as the Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI). This data is crucial for monitoring and forecasting drought conditions, particularly in the United States where it is widely used for agricultural planning, water management, and disaster preparedness.

CPC plays a key role in providing early warnings and seasonal outlooks for drought conditions, helping stakeholders make informed decisions to mitigate the impacts on agriculture, water resources, and ecosystems. The data is used by farmers, water managers, and emergency services to plan for water conservation, controlled irrigation, and other drought mitigation measures. By providing timely and accurate information, CPC contributes to reducing the socio-economic impacts of drought.

In addition to its operational applications, CPC conducts research on climate variability and change, focusing on the relationships between large-scale climate patterns such as El Niño and drought occurrences. This research is vital for improving seasonal forecasting and enhancing the understanding of drought dynamics. CPC’s data and research efforts play a crucial role in advancing drought preparedness and resilience.[213]

1.2.2.22. UK Met Office Drought Data

The UK Met Office provides detailed drought data and monitoring services that are vital for understanding and managing drought conditions in the United Kingdom. The data includes information on rainfall deficits, soil moisture levels, and river flows, which are crucial for assessing the onset, severity, and duration of droughts. The UK Met Office’s data is used by a wide range of stakeholders, including farmers, water managers, and policymakers, to make informed decisions about water resources and agricultural planning.

The UK Met Office plays a key role in providing early warnings and seasonal forecasts for drought conditions, helping to mitigate the impacts on agriculture, water supply, and ecosystems. The data is utilized to develop and implement water conservation strategies, such as controlled irrigation and water rationing, ensuring the sustainable use of water resources during dry periods. By offering timely and accurate information, the UK Met Office supports efforts to reduce the socio-economic impacts of drought.

In addition to its operational applications, the UK Met Office conducts research on climate variability and change, focusing on the long-term trends and patterns of drought occurrence in the UK. This research is essential for understanding the potential impacts of climate change on drought frequency and severity, and for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future climate conditions.[214]

1.2.2.23. German Weather Service (DWD) Drought Data

The German Weather Service (Deutscher Wetterdienst, DWD) provides comprehensive drought data for Germany, offering detailed insights into rainfall patterns, soil moisture levels, and vegetation health. DWD’s data is essential for understanding the occurrence and impact of drought conditions across Germany’s diverse climatic regions. The service plays a crucial role in providing early warnings and forecasts, helping farmers, water managers, and policymakers make informed decisions to mitigate the impacts of drought.

DWD’s data is used for various applications, including agricultural planning, water resource management, and disaster preparedness. By offering real-time monitoring and analysis of drought conditions, DWD helps develop and implement strategies to conserve water and manage demand during dry periods. The data is also valuable for research on the long-term impacts of climate change on Germany’s water resources and agricultural systems.

In addition to its operational applications, DWD collaborates with other European and international organizations to enhance drought monitoring and management capabilities. Through these partnerships, DWD contributes to the development of standardized methodologies and best practices for assessing and managing drought risks. This collaboration is key to improving Germany’s resilience to drought and ensuring the sustainable use of its water resources.[215]

1.2.2.24. French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA) Drought Data

The French National Institute for Agricultural Research (INRA) provides valuable drought data focusing on the impact of drought on agriculture in France. INRA’s data includes information on soil moisture, rainfall deficits, and crop health, offering insights into how drought conditions affect agricultural productivity and food security. This data is crucial for developing strategies to mitigate the impact of drought on France’s agricultural sector.

INRA’s data is used for various purposes, including agricultural planning, water management, and disaster response. By providing early warnings and risk assessments, INRA helps farmers and policymakers make informed decisions about crop selection, irrigation, and water conservation. The data is also used to support research on the relationships between drought, crop yields, and climate variability, contributing to the development of more resilient agricultural systems.

In addition to its operational applications, INRA collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance drought monitoring and management capabilities. Through these partnerships, INRA contributes to the development of advanced tools and methodologies for assessing the impact of drought on agriculture. This integration of research and practical application makes INRA’s drought data a valuable resource for enhancing the resilience of France’s agricultural sector to drought.[216]

1.2.2.25. Spanish National Research Council (CSIC) Drought Monitor

The Spanish National Research Council (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, CSIC) provides a comprehensive drought monitor that offers detailed insights into drought conditions across Spain. The monitor includes data on rainfall patterns, soil moisture, and vegetation health, which are crucial for understanding the occurrence and impact of droughts in Spain’s diverse climatic regions. CSIC’s drought monitor is an essential tool for managing water resources, agricultural planning, and disaster preparedness.

CSIC’s data is widely used by farmers, water managers, and policymakers to make informed decisions about water use and agricultural practices during dry periods. By providing early warnings and real-time monitoring of drought conditions, the monitor helps stakeholders take proactive measures to mitigate the impact on crop yields and water supply. The data is also used for research on the long-term impacts of climate change on Spain’s hydrological cycle and agricultural systems.

In addition to its operational applications, CSIC collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance drought monitoring and management capabilities. Through these partnerships, CSIC contributes to the development of advanced tools and methodologies for assessing and managing drought risks. This integration of research, monitoring, and practical application makes CSIC’s drought monitor a valuable resource for improving Spain’s resilience to drought.[217]

1.2.2.26. Italian National Research Council (CNR) Drought Data

The Italian National Research Council (Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, CNR) provides detailed drought data for Italy, offering insights into rainfall patterns, soil moisture levels, and vegetation health. CNR’s data is essential for understanding the occurrence and impact of drought conditions in Italy’s diverse climatic regions. The data is used for various applications, including agricultural planning, water resource management, and disaster preparedness.

CNR plays a crucial role in providing early warnings and forecasts for drought conditions, helping farmers, water managers, and policymakers make informed decisions to mitigate the impacts on agriculture, water supply, and ecosystems. The data is utilized to develop and implement water conservation strategies, such as controlled irrigation and water rationing, ensuring the sustainable use of water resources during dry periods.

In addition to its operational applications, CNR collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance drought monitoring and management capabilities. Through these partnerships, CNR contributes to the development of advanced tools and methodologies for assessing and managing drought risks. This collaboration is key to improving Italy’s resilience to drought and ensuring the sustainable use of its water resources.[218]

1.2.2.27. Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring (Roshydromet) Drought Data

The Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring (Roshydromet) provides extensive drought data for Russia, offering insights into rainfall patterns, soil moisture levels, and temperature anomalies. Roshydromet’s data is essential for understanding the occurrence and impact of drought conditions across Russia’s vast and diverse climatic regions. The data is used for various applications, including agricultural planning, water resource management, and disaster preparedness.

Roshydromet plays a key role in providing early warnings and forecasts for drought conditions, helping farmers, water managers, and policymakers make informed decisions to mitigate the impacts on agriculture, water supply, and ecosystems. The data is utilized to develop and implement water conservation strategies, such as controlled irrigation and water rationing, ensuring the sustainable use of water resources during dry periods.

In addition to its operational applications, Roshydromet conducts research on the impact of climate variability and change on drought patterns in Russia. By analyzing long-term trends in drought occurrence and severity, researchers can better understand the implications of a changing climate on Russia’s water resources and agricultural systems. This research is crucial for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future drought risks.[219]

1.2.2.28. Norwegian Meteorological Institute Drought Data

The Norwegian Meteorological Institute provides comprehensive drought data for Norway, offering detailed insights into rainfall patterns, soil moisture levels, and temperature anomalies. The institute’s data is crucial for understanding the occurrence and impact of drought conditions in Norway’s unique climatic regions. By providing early warnings and real-time monitoring, the Norwegian Meteorological Institute helps stakeholders make informed decisions about water resources and agricultural planning.

The data is widely used for various applications, including agricultural planning, water resource management, and disaster preparedness. The Norwegian Meteorological Institute provides early warnings and forecasts for drought conditions, helping farmers, water managers, and policymakers mitigate the impacts on agriculture, water supply, and ecosystems. The data is also utilized to develop and implement water conservation strategies, ensuring the sustainable use of water resources during dry periods.

In addition to its operational applications, the Norwegian Meteorological Institute collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance drought monitoring and management capabilities. Through these partnerships, the institute contributes to the development of advanced tools and methodologies for assessing and managing drought risks. This collaboration is key to improving Norway’s resilience to drought and ensuring the sustainable use of its water resources.[220]

1.2.2.29. Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI) Drought Data

The Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI) provides extensive drought data for Sweden, offering insights into rainfall patterns, soil moisture levels, and vegetation health. SMHI’s data is essential for understanding the occurrence and impact of drought conditions across Sweden’s diverse climatic regions. The institute plays a crucial role in providing early warnings and forecasts, helping stakeholders make informed decisions to mitigate the impacts of drought.

SMHI’s data is used for various applications, including agricultural planning, water resource management, and disaster preparedness. By offering real-time monitoring and analysis of drought conditions, SMHI helps develop and implement strategies to conserve water and manage demand during dry periods. The data is also valuable for research on the long-term impacts of climate change on Sweden’s water resources and agricultural systems.

In addition to its operational applications, SMHI collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance drought monitoring and management capabilities. Through these partnerships, SMHI contributes to the development of advanced tools and methodologies for assessing and managing drought risks. This integration of research, monitoring, and practical application makes SMHI’s drought data a valuable resource for improving Sweden’s resilience to drought.[221]

1.2.2.30. Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI) Drought Data

The Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI) provides comprehensive drought data for Denmark, offering detailed insights into rainfall patterns, soil moisture levels, and temperature anomalies. DMI’s data is essential for understanding the occurrence and impact of drought conditions in Denmark’s unique climatic regions. The data is used for various applications, including agricultural planning, water resource management, and disaster preparedness.

DMI plays a key role in providing early warnings and forecasts for drought conditions, helping farmers, water managers, and policymakers make informed decisions to mitigate the impacts on agriculture, water supply, and ecosystems. The data is utilized to develop and implement water conservation strategies, such as controlled irrigation and water rationing, ensuring the sustainable use of water resources during dry periods.

In addition to its operational applications, DMI collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance drought monitoring and management capabilities. Through these partnerships, DMI contributes to the development of advanced tools and methodologies for assessing and managing drought risks. This collaboration is key to improving Denmark’s resilience to drought and ensuring the sustainable use of its water resources.[222]

1.2.2.31. Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI) Drought Data

The Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI) offers detailed drought data and monitoring services that are crucial for understanding drought conditions in Finland. FMI’s data covers a range of metrics, including rainfall deficits, soil moisture levels, and temperature anomalies. Given Finland’s unique climate, this information is vital for assessing the onset, duration, and severity of droughts, particularly in areas where water scarcity can have significant environmental and economic impacts.

FMI’s data is used in several applications, such as agricultural planning, water resource management, and forest fire risk assessment. By providing early warnings and forecasts, FMI assists stakeholders in making informed decisions to reduce the impact of drought on agriculture, forestry, and water supply. This data underpins strategies for water conservation, ensuring that water use remains sustainable during periods of low precipitation.

Beyond its operational role, FMI conducts research on the long-term effects of climate variability and change on Finland’s water resources.

By examining historical and current drought data, researchers gain valuable insights into trends and patterns of drought occurrences in Finland. This research is essential for developing adaptation strategies to enhance resilience against changing climate conditions, securing Finland’s environmental and economic stability.[223]

1.2.2.32. Argentine National Weather Service (SMN) Drought Data

The Argentine National Weather Service (Servicio Meteorológico Nacional, SMN) provides extensive drought data for Argentina. SMN’s data includes information on rainfall anomalies, soil moisture deficits, and temperature patterns, which are essential for understanding drought conditions across Argentina’s diverse climatic regions. This data is crucial for managing water resources, planning agricultural activities, and mitigating the impacts of drought on the economy.

SMN’s drought data is widely utilized in agricultural planning, particularly in regions where drought can significantly affect crop yields and livestock. Farmers and water managers rely on this data to make informed decisions about irrigation and water conservation strategies. SMN also offers early warnings and forecasts, allowing for proactive measures to reduce the socio-economic impacts of drought, such as implementing water rationing and providing support to affected communities.

In addition to its operational responsibilities, SMN collaborates with international organizations to enhance drought monitoring and research efforts. Through these collaborations, SMN contributes to a deeper understanding of how climate variability and change affect drought patterns in Argentina. This research is essential for developing strategies to increase resilience and adapt to the changing climate, ensuring the sustainability of agricultural and water management practices.[224]

1.2.2.33. Chilean Meteorological Directorate (DMC) Drought Data

The Chilean Meteorological Directorate (Dirección Meteorológica de Chile, DMC) provides critical data on drought conditions throughout Chile. DMC’s drought data includes information on precipitation deficits, soil moisture levels, and temperature anomalies, offering insights into the spatial and temporal distribution of droughts in Chile’s varied climatic regions. This information is essential for managing water resources and supporting agricultural and environmental planning.

Farmers, water managers, and policymakers use DMC’s data to make informed decisions about water use and agricultural practices. By providing early warnings and real-time monitoring, DMC helps stakeholders take proactive steps to mitigate the impacts of drought on crop yields, livestock, and water supply. This data is also crucial for managing the country’s water reservoirs and preparing for potential water shortages in urban and rural areas.

DMC also collaborates with national and international institutions to improve drought monitoring and research. By contributing to a better understanding of drought dynamics in Chile, DMC plays a significant role in enhancing the country’s resilience to drought and in developing strategies to adapt to the effects of climate change on water resources and agriculture.[225]

1.2.2.34. Peruvian National Service of Meteorology and Hydrology (SENAMHI) Drought Data

The Peruvian National Service of Meteorology and Hydrology (SENAMHI) provides essential drought data, crucial for understanding the complex climatic conditions in Peru. SENAMHI’s data includes rainfall anomalies, soil moisture levels, and temperature patterns, offering valuable insights into the occurrence and severity of droughts across the country’s diverse regions. This information is vital for agricultural planning, water resource management, and disaster preparedness.

SENAMHI’s data supports agricultural decision-making, especially in regions where droughts can severely impact crop yields and food security. By providing early warnings and forecasts, SENAMHI enables farmers and water managers to implement strategies that mitigate the effects of drought, such as adopting drought-resistant crops and managing irrigation more effectively. This proactive approach is crucial for reducing the socio-economic impacts of drought on vulnerable communities.

Furthermore, SENAMHI collaborates with national and international organizations to enhance drought monitoring and research capabilities. Through these partnerships, SENAMHI contributes to the understanding of how climate variability and change affect drought patterns in Peru. This research is essential for developing long-term strategies to increase resilience and adapt to the impacts of a changing climate on water resources and agriculture.[226]

1.2.2.35. Colombia Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology and Environmental Studies (IDEAM) Drought Data

The Colombia Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology, and Environmental Studies (IDEAM) provides comprehensive drought data that is crucial for understanding and managing drought conditions in Colombia. IDEAM’s data includes rainfall deficits, soil moisture, and temperature anomalies, offering insights into the spatial and temporal distribution of droughts across the country’s diverse climatic regions. This information is essential for managing water resources, agricultural planning, and disaster risk reduction.

IDEAM’s drought data is widely used for agricultural planning, particularly in areas where droughts can significantly impact crop production and food security. By providing early warnings and forecasts, IDEAM assists farmers and water managers in taking proactive measures, such as adjusting irrigation practices and implementing water conservation strategies to mitigate drought impacts. The data also supports government policies and initiatives aimed at improving water management and reducing community vulnerability to drought.

In addition to its operational uses, IDEAM collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance drought monitoring and research efforts. By contributing to a deeper understanding of drought dynamics in Colombia, IDEAM plays a vital role in developing strategies to improve resilience and adapt to the changing climate. This combination of monitoring, research, and practical application makes IDEAM’s drought data a valuable resource for Colombia’s efforts to manage and mitigate the impacts of drought.[227]

1.2.2.36. Venezuelan National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology (INAMEH) Drought Data

The Venezuelan National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology (INAMEH) provides essential data on drought conditions throughout Venezuela. INAMEH’s drought data includes rainfall anomalies, soil moisture levels, and temperature patterns, which are crucial for understanding the onset and severity of droughts in Venezuela’s diverse climatic regions. This data is vital for managing water resources, supporting agricultural planning, and mitigating the impacts of drought on communities and ecosystems.

INAMEH’s drought data is used for a variety of applications, including agricultural planning, water management, and disaster preparedness. By offering early warnings and forecasts, INAMEH helps farmers, water managers, and policymakers make informed decisions to reduce the impact of drought on crop production, livestock, and water supply. The data also aids in the development and implementation of water conservation strategies, ensuring the sustainable use of water resources during periods of low rainfall.

In addition to its operational role, INAMEH conducts research on the long-term impacts of climate variability and change on drought patterns in Venezuela. By analyzing historical and current drought data, researchers can identify trends and develop strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future drought risks. This research is crucial for improving Venezuela’s capacity to cope with the challenges posed by drought and for ensuring sustainable water and agricultural management practices.[228]

1.2.2.37. Turkish State Meteorological Service (TSMS) Drought Data

The Turkish State Meteorological Service (TSMS) offers comprehensive drought data essential for understanding and managing drought conditions in Turkey. TSMS’s data includes rainfall deficits, soil moisture, and temperature anomalies, which are crucial for monitoring and assessing droughts across Turkey’s diverse climatic regions. This data is used for various applications, including agricultural planning, water resource management, and disaster preparedness.

TSMS plays a key role in providing early warnings and forecasts for drought conditions, helping stakeholders make informed decisions to mitigate impacts on agriculture, water supply, and ecosystems. The data supports the development and implementation of water conservation strategies, such as controlled irrigation and water rationing, ensuring sustainable use of water resources during dry periods. By offering timely and accurate information, TSMS helps to minimize the socio-economic impacts of drought.

In addition to its operational role, TSMS collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance drought monitoring and research capabilities. These partnerships contribute to a better understanding of how climate variability and change influence drought patterns in Turkey. This research is vital for developing strategies to increase resilience and adapt to the changing climate, ensuring sustainable agricultural and water management practices.[229]

1.2.2.38. Iranian Meteorological Organization (IRIMO) Drought Data

The Iranian Meteorological Organization (IRIMO) offers detailed drought data crucial for understanding Iran’s climatic conditions. This data encompasses information on rainfall patterns, soil moisture levels, and temperature anomalies, which are essential for monitoring droughts across the various regions of Iran. In a country where water scarcity is a significant concern, IRIMO’s data is vital for agricultural planning, water resource management, and disaster preparedness.

IRIMO provides early warnings and forecasts for drought conditions, assisting farmers and water managers in making informed decisions to mitigate the impact on agriculture and water supply. The data facilitates the implementation of water conservation measures and helps develop strategies to cope with periods of low precipitation. By offering accurate and timely information, IRIMO plays a key role in reducing the socio-economic impacts of drought on communities and industries, supporting the country’s overall water management efforts.

Beyond its operational uses, IRIMO conducts research into the long-term effects of climate variability and change on drought patterns in Iran. By analyzing historical data and current trends, researchers gain a better understanding of the factors influencing drought severity and frequency. This research is critical for developing strategies that enhance resilience and adaptation to changing climatic conditions, thereby promoting sustainable water management practices for the future.[230]

1.2.2.39. Indonesian Meteorological, Climatological, and Geophysical Agency (BMKG) Drought Data

The Indonesian Meteorological, Climatological, and Geophysical Agency (BMKG) provides comprehensive drought data essential for managing drought conditions in Indonesia. BMKG’s data includes rainfall anomalies, soil moisture, and temperature patterns, which are crucial for monitoring the onset and severity of droughts across Indonesia’s diverse islands and climatic regions. This data is fundamental for agricultural planning, water resource management, and disaster preparedness in a country that frequently experiences climate extremes.

BMKG plays a vital role in offering early warnings and forecasts for drought conditions, helping farmers, water managers, and policymakers make informed decisions to reduce the impact on agriculture, water supply, and ecosystems. The data supports the development and implementation of water conservation strategies, such as controlled irrigation and water rationing, ensuring sustainable use of water resources during periods of low rainfall.

In addition to its operational functions, BMKG collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance drought monitoring and research capabilities. Through these partnerships, BMKG contributes to a better understanding of how climate variability and change influence drought patterns in Indonesia. This research is crucial for developing strategies to increase resilience and adapt to the changing climate, particularly considering Indonesia’s vulnerability to climate-related hazards, such as droughts and floods.[231]

1.2.2.40. Philippines Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) Drought Data

The Philippines Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) provides crucial drought data vital for understanding and managing drought conditions in the Philippines. PAGASA’s data includes information on rainfall deficits, soil moisture, and temperature anomalies, which are important for assessing the onset, severity, and duration of droughts in the archipelago’s various climatic regions. This data is essential for agricultural planning, water resource management, and disaster risk reduction in a country frequently exposed to weather extremes.

PAGASA provides early warnings and forecasts for drought conditions, assisting farmers, water managers, and policymakers in making informed decisions to mitigate the impacts on agriculture, water supply, and communities. The data supports implementing water conservation measures, such as controlled irrigation and water rationing, ensuring the sustainable use of water resources during dry periods. By offering accurate and timely information, PAGASA plays a crucial role in reducing the socio-economic impacts of drought on vulnerable populations.

Beyond its operational role, PAGASA collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance drought monitoring and research efforts. Through these partnerships, PAGASA contributes to a better understanding of how climate variability and change affect drought patterns in the Philippines. This research is essential for developing strategies to increase resilience and adapt to the changing climate, especially given the Philippines’ susceptibility to climate-related hazards such as typhoons and prolonged dry spells.[232]

1.3. Meteorological Hazards and Disasters

Extreme weather events, often originating in the atmosphere, are referred to as meteorological disasters, and they have the potential to cause widespread damage to ecosystems, property, and human life [53, 81, 84, 85, 88, 115-119]. These types of natural disasters include hurricanes, tornadoes, blizzards, thunderstorms, heatwaves, and cold spells [91, 120, 121]. Since they occur frequently and can cause severe damage, meteorological disasters rank among the most destructive of all natural calamities worldwide. Understanding climate patterns and atmospheric dynamics is key to predicting these events and developing strategies to mitigate their harmful effects, which often disrupt large populations, economies, and critical infrastructure [1, 18, 67, 102, 122-146].

Hurricanes, also called typhoons or cyclones depending on the region, are one of the most devastating meteorological hazards [50, 147-149]. These powerful tropical storms form over warm ocean waters and can bring intense winds, torrential rain, and life-threatening storm surges to coastal areas. As hurricanes hit land, they can cause catastrophic flooding and widespread damage, especially in regions with vulnerable coastal communities. The increasing occurrence of rapid hurricane intensification, driven by warming ocean temperatures, is a growing cause for concern. To reduce the impact of such storms, disaster preparedness must include well-coordinated evacuation plans, robust infrastructure, and early warning systems that can alert residents before the storm strikes [75, 77, 78, 110, 150-164].

Tornadoes, another violent form of meteorological hazard, are characterized by fast-moving columns of rotating air that extend from thunderstorms to the ground [165-175]. Although tornadoes typically impact a limited area, they are capable of causing severe damage to everything in their path, including buildings, vehicles, and trees. With wind speeds that can exceed 300 kilometers per hour, tornadoes are particularly destructive in areas like “Tornado Alley” in the central United States, where the conditions are prime for their formation. Because tornadoes often strike with little warning, real-time alerts and accurate weather forecasting play a vital role in preventing casualties [165, 176].

Heatwaves, which are extended periods of extreme heat, can have equally devastating consequences, especially for at-risk populations such as the elderly or those with chronic health issues [85, 115, 150, 177-181]. These prolonged heat events can overwhelm energy grids, spark wildfires, and lead to crop failures, further exacerbating social and economic hardships. As global temperatures rise due to climate change, heatwaves are becoming both more frequent and more intense. To protect communities, strategies like cooling centers, public awareness campaigns, and improved energy systems are essential for managing the effects of extreme heat.

In contrast to heatwaves, cold spells and blizzards can have equally severe effects but on the opposite end of the weather spectrum [182-184]. These hazardous events bring freezing temperatures, heavy snowfall, and dangerous ice conditions, which can paralyze transportation networks, cut off power, and leave people exposed to life-threatening conditions like frostbite and hypothermia. Snowstorms, in particular, can cause infrastructure damage, such as roof collapses under the weight of heavy snow, while disrupting daily activities for millions of people. Preparing for such winter disasters with adequate snow removal equipment, road treatments, and available shelters is critical for reducing their impact [19, 73, 118, 185, 186].

Thunderstorms, though commonplace, can evolve into severe weather events capable of producing hazards like lightning, heavy rain, and hail [187, 188]. Lightning strikes often lead to fires, while flash floods triggered by heavy rainfall pose a particular threat in urban areas where drainage systems are often insufficient. Hailstorms, which involve large pellets of ice falling from the sky, can cause serious damage to crops, vehicles, and buildings[189]. Severe thunderstorms are also often accompanied by strong winds, which only increase their potential for destruction.

The influence of larger global climate patterns, such as El Niño and La Niña, is closely linked to the occurrence of meteorological disasters [180, 190]. These phenomena can alter storm tracks, temperature, and precipitation patterns, leading to an increased likelihood of extreme weather events like floods, droughts, and hurricanes. Such shifts in global climate patterns make it harder to predict the frequency and intensity of weather-related disasters.

Efforts to reduce the damage caused by meteorological disasters must involve a combination of early warning systems, improved infrastructure, disaster preparedness, and public education [10, 31, 40, 41, 126, 134, 191-206]. Advances in meteorological science, such as the use of satellites and computer models, have made it possible to predict these hazards with greater accuracy. However, as climate change continues to alter weather patterns across the globe, the need for proactive disaster management strategies becomes more urgent. As the impacts of these disasters intensify, societies must develop more robust and forward-thinking approaches to safeguarding people and property from the growing threat of extreme weather.

1.3.1.Storms

1.3.1.1. National Hurricane Center (NHC) Atlantic Hurricane Database (HURDAT)

The National Hurricane Center (NHC) manages the Atlantic Hurricane Database, commonly referred to as HURDAT. This database is an extensive record of tropical cyclones in the Atlantic basin, detailing the tracks and intensities of hurricanes and tropical storms dating back to the mid-19th century. HURDAT is invaluable for understanding historical hurricane patterns, analyzing changes in hurricane frequency and intensity, and enhancing the accuracy of forecasting models.

HURDAT is widely utilized by researchers, meteorologists, and disaster management officials to study hurricane behavior and improve preparedness and response strategies. It contains detailed information about each storm’s path, wind speeds, and central pressure, serving as a crucial resource for investigating the impacts of hurricanes on coastal areas. By providing this historical record, HURDAT helps identify trends and anomalies in hurricane activity, leading to a better comprehension of the factors that influence hurricane formation and movement.

Beyond its immediate applications, HURDAT is essential for research on climate change and its potential influence on hurricane activity. Scientists analyze long-term data to investigate how rising sea surface temperatures and other climatic factors may be impacting the frequency and intensity of hurricanes. This research is vital for developing strategies to adapt to and mitigate the effects of future hurricanes on vulnerable communities.[233]

1.3.1.2. European Severe Weather Database (ESWD)

The European Severe Weather Database (ESWD) is a crucial resource that provides comprehensive information on severe weather events across Europe. Maintained by the European Severe Storms Laboratory (ESSL), ESWD collects and archives data on various severe weather phenomena, including thunderstorms, tornadoes, hail, heavy rainfall, and windstorms. This database is key to understanding the occurrence and impacts of severe weather events in Europe.

ESWD’s data is used by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency services to monitor and analyze severe weather patterns. It includes detailed information on the location, time, intensity, and impact of each event, enhancing the accuracy of forecasting models and early warning systems. By offering a complete record of severe weather events, ESWD supports efforts to improve preparedness and response, thereby reducing risks to life and property.

In addition to its practical applications, ESWD plays a significant role in research on climate variability and change. By analyzing the database, scientists can study trends in severe weather occurrences and explore how a changing climate may impact the frequency and severity of such events. This research is crucial for developing strategies to mitigate the effects of severe weather on communities and infrastructure.[234]

1.3.1.3. Storm Prediction Center (SPC) Severe Weather Database

The Storm Prediction Center (SPC) Severe Weather Database is a vital tool for tracking and analyzing severe weather events across the United States. SPC collects and archives data on a wide range of severe weather phenomena, including tornadoes, thunderstorms, hail, and damaging winds. This database is essential for understanding the patterns and impacts of severe weather, aiding in the development of forecasting and early warning systems.

SPC’s data is extensively used by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency management officials to enhance the accuracy of severe weather predictions and promote public safety. The database offers detailed information on the timing, location, and severity of each event, including associated damages and casualties. By providing a comprehensive record of severe weather occurrences, SPC helps improve risk assessment and disaster preparedness, minimizing the impacts on communities and infrastructure.

Beyond its operational role, the SPC Severe Weather Database contributes to research on the relationship between severe weather and climate change. By analyzing long-term trends and patterns, scientists can examine how climate changes may be affecting the frequency and intensity of severe weather events. This research is fundamental to developing strategies for adapting to and mitigating the effects of severe weather in the future.[235]

1.3.1.4. NOAA Storm Events Database

The NOAA Storm Events Database is an extensive repository of information on significant weather events in the United States. Managed by the National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI), the database includes records of thunderstorms, tornadoes, hurricanes, floods, and winter storms. This resource is essential for understanding the occurrence and impacts of severe weather across the country.

Meteorologists, researchers, and disaster management officials use the NOAA Storm Events Database to analyze weather patterns, assess risks associated with severe weather, and enhance forecasting models. The database provides detailed reports on each event, including the date, location, severity, and impact, such as damages and casualties. This comprehensive record helps identify trends and patterns in severe weather activity, contributing to more effective preparedness and response strategies.

In addition to its operational uses, the NOAA Storm Events Database is instrumental in research on climate variability and change. Scientists use the data to study how changes in the climate system may be influencing the frequency and intensity of severe weather events. This research is vital for developing long-term strategies to mitigate the impacts of severe weather and strengthen community resilience.[236]

1.3.1.5. Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) Best Track Data

The Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) Best Track Data offers a comprehensive record of tropical cyclones in the Western Pacific and Indian Oceans. This database includes detailed information on the track, intensity, and duration of each typhoon or cyclone, with records dating back to the mid-20th century. JTWC’s data is essential for understanding the behavior of tropical cyclones and enhancing forecasting models in these regions.

Meteorologists, researchers, and disaster management agencies extensively use JTWC’s Best Track Data to analyze tropical cyclone patterns and impacts. The database provides information on the storm’s path, wind speeds, central pressure, and intensity, making it a valuable resource for studying the effects of cyclones on coastal areas. By offering historical and real-time data, JTWC aids efforts to improve preparedness and response to typhoons, reducing the risk to life and property.

JTWC’s Best Track Data also plays a significant role in research on climate change and its potential effects on tropical cyclone activity. By examining long-term trends in the data, scientists can investigate how rising sea surface temperatures and other climate variables might influence the frequency and intensity of cyclones. This research is crucial for developing strategies to adapt to and mitigate the impacts of future cyclones.[237]

1.3.1.6. Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) Severe Weather Database

The Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) maintains a Severe Weather Database that offers comprehensive information on severe weather events across Australia. This database includes records of thunderstorms, hailstorms, tornadoes, cyclones, and other extreme weather events. BOM’s data is crucial for understanding the occurrence and impact of severe weather in Australia and for improving forecasting models and early warning systems.

BOM’s Severe Weather Database is utilized by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency management agencies to monitor and analyze severe weather patterns. It contains information on the location, timing, and severity of each event, enhancing the accuracy of weather predictions and promoting public safety. By offering a thorough record of severe weather events, BOM supports efforts to mitigate impacts on communities, infrastructure, and the environment.

In addition to its operational applications, BOM’s Severe Weather Database contributes to research on climate variability and change. By analyzing this data, scientists can identify trends in severe weather occurrences and examine the potential effects of climate change on the frequency and severity of these events. This research is crucial for developing strategies to adapt to and mitigate the impacts of severe weather in Australia.[238]

1.3.1.7. Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) Typhoon Database

The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) Typhoon Database provides extensive information on typhoons and tropical storms in the Western Pacific region. This database includes data on the track, intensity, and duration of each typhoon, spanning several decades of historical records. JMA’s typhoon data is vital for understanding these powerful storms’ behavior and improving forecasting models and early warning systems.

JMA’s Typhoon Database is widely used by meteorologists, researchers, and disaster management authorities to analyze typhoon patterns and impacts on Japan and surrounding regions. It provides details on the storm’s path, wind speeds, and central pressure, offering valuable insights into the effects of typhoons on coastal areas. By delivering both real-time and historical data, JMA supports efforts to improve preparedness and response to typhoons, mitigating risks to life and property.

Beyond its operational role, JMA’s Typhoon Database is essential for research on climate change and its potential influence on typhoon activity. By analyzing long-term trends, scientists can explore how rising sea surface temperatures and other climate variables might affect the frequency and intensity of typhoons. This research is crucial for developing strategies to adapt to and mitigate the impacts of future typhoons.[239]

1.3.1.8. Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) Cyclone Database

The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) Cyclone Database is a key resource for understanding tropical cyclones in the North Indian Ocean region. It contains detailed information on the track, intensity, and duration of cyclones, offering a comprehensive record of these significant weather events. This data is crucial for enhancing cyclone forecasting models, early warning systems, and disaster preparedness efforts in India and neighboring countries.

IMD’s Cyclone Database is extensively used by meteorologists, researchers, and disaster management agencies to monitor and analyze cyclone patterns and impacts. It provides details on the storm’s path, wind speeds, and central pressure, aiding in assessing potential impacts on coastal regions and guiding emergency response efforts. By offering both historical and real-time data, IMD supports efforts to improve public safety and reduce the socio-economic impacts of cyclones.

In addition to its operational applications, IMD’s Cyclone Database plays a crucial role in research on climate change and its effects on tropical cyclone activity. Scientists use this long-term data to study how changes in sea surface temperatures and other climate variables might influence cyclone frequency and intensity. This research is essential for developing strategies to adapt to and mitigate the impacts of future cyclones on vulnerable communities.[240]

1.3.1.9. Canadian Disaster Database (CDD) – Storm Events

The Canadian Disaster Database (CDD) provides a comprehensive record of significant storm events in Canada. Managed by Public Safety Canada, the database includes information on various types of storms, such as thunderstorms, blizzards, ice storms, and hurricanes. This resource is vital for understanding the occurrence and impact of severe weather in Canada and for enhancing disaster preparedness and response efforts.

CDD’s storm data is widely used by researchers, emergency management officials, and policymakers to evaluate the risks associated with severe weather events. It contains details on the date, location, and impact of each event, aiding in identifying patterns and trends in storm activity. By providing an extensive record of storm events, the CDD supports efforts to enhance resilience and reduce community vulnerability to severe weather.

In addition to its operational uses, the CDD contributes to research on how climate change might be affecting storm frequency and severity in Canada. Scientists analyze long-term data to understand how changing climate conditions may influence the behavior of storms and other extreme weather events. This research is crucial for developing strategies to adapt to and mitigate the impacts of severe weather in the future.[241]

1.3.1.10. European Windstorm Database (XWS)

The European Windstorm Database (XWS) offers comprehensive data on windstorms across Europe, including details on their track, intensity, and impacts. Covering a significant historical period, the XWS is vital for understanding the patterns and severity of windstorms in Europe, helping develop forecasting models and conduct risk assessments.

Meteorologists, researchers, and insurance companies use the XWS database to monitor and analyze windstorm activity. The data includes detailed information on wind speeds, storm tracks, and affected areas, contributing to improved early warning systems and public safety measures. By providing a record of past windstorms, XWS aids in understanding the risks associated with these events and developing strategies to minimize their impacts on infrastructure and communities.

In addition to its practical applications, XWS is instrumental in research on the relationship between windstorms and climate variability. By analyzing long-term trends in the data, scientists can explore how changes in atmospheric circulation patterns might be influencing the frequency and intensity of windstorms in Europe. This research is crucial for improving the understanding of future windstorm risks in a changing climate.[242]

1.3.1.11. Pacific Disaster Center (PDC) Global Hazards Atlas

The Pacific Disaster Center (PDC) Global Hazards Atlas is a cutting-edge platform offering real-time data on a broad range of natural hazards, including severe weather events. This resource provides global coverage of storms, cyclones, and other extreme weather phenomena, integrating data from sources like satellite observations and ground-based measurements. The Atlas provides a detailed analysis of both current and historical hazard events, making it an essential tool for disaster management and preparedness.

The PDC Global Hazards Atlas is extensively utilized by emergency management agencies, researchers, and policymakers. It delivers crucial information on the location, intensity, and impact of each event, thereby improving risk assessment and disaster response. With real-time alerts and forecasts, the Atlas supports early warning and preparedness efforts, helping reduce the potential impact of storms and other hazards on communities.

Beyond its operational use, the PDC Global Hazards Atlas contributes significantly to research on climate change’s impact on the frequency and intensity of severe weather events. By analyzing long-term data, scientists can explore how changing climatic conditions affect the behavior of storms and other natural hazards. This research is critical for developing strategies to adapt to and mitigate the effects of extreme weather in the future.[243]

1.3.1.12. UK Met Office Storm Data

The UK Met Office offers comprehensive storm data essential for understanding severe weather events in the United Kingdom. This data includes information on storms, wind events, and other severe weather phenomena, providing insights into their patterns and impacts. The UK Met Office plays a crucial role in monitoring and forecasting severe weather, offering early warnings that help mitigate risks to life and property.

Meteorologists, emergency services, and policymakers use the UK Met Office’s storm data to assess the potential impacts of storms and develop response strategies. The data contains detailed information on wind speeds, storm tracks, and affected areas, aiding in the development of accurate forecasts and enhancing public safety. By providing a historical record of storm events, the UK Met Office supports efforts to understand and manage long-term risks associated with severe weather.

In addition to its operational role, the UK Met Office contributes to research on the link between severe weather and climate change. By analyzing historical storm data, researchers can investigate how changing climatic conditions may influence the frequency and intensity of storms in the UK. This research is vital for devising strategies to adapt to future weather extremes and enhance community resilience.[244]

1.3.1.13. Hong Kong Observatory (HKO) Typhoon Database

The Hong Kong Observatory (HKO) maintains a detailed Typhoon Database focusing on typhoons affecting the Western Pacific region, particularly those impacting Hong Kong. The database includes historical records of typhoon tracks, intensity, and duration, offering invaluable insights into the behavior of these storms. The HKO Typhoon Database is crucial for enhancing typhoon forecasting and understanding their effects on coastal areas.

HKO’s Typhoon Database is widely used by meteorologists, researchers, and disaster management authorities to analyze the patterns and impacts of typhoons. The data includes detailed information on wind speeds, central pressure, and storm paths, which helps in assessing potential impacts on urban and coastal regions. By providing accurate and timely information, the HKO supports efforts to improve public safety and reduce the socio-economic impacts of typhoons.

Beyond operational use, the HKO Typhoon Database plays a vital role in research on climate change and its influence on typhoon activity. By analyzing long-term trends, scientists can examine how rising sea surface temperatures and other climate factors may affect typhoon frequency and intensity. This research is essential for developing strategies to adapt to and mitigate the impacts of future typhoons in the region.[245]

1.3.1.14. Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDEMA) Storm Data

The Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDEMA) offers vital storm data for the Caribbean, a region frequently affected by hurricanes and tropical storms. CDEMA’s database includes information on the track, intensity, and impact of these storms, providing a comprehensive record essential for understanding severe weather in the Caribbean. This data is crucial for disaster preparedness, risk assessment, and the development of early warning systems.

CDEMA’s storm data is widely used by emergency management agencies, researchers, and policymakers to monitor and analyze the impacts of hurricanes and storms in the Caribbean. The database includes detailed reports on wind speeds, storm surges, and damage assessments, aiding in improving forecast accuracy and disaster response. By offering real-time and historical data, CDEMA helps to increase resilience and reduce the vulnerability of communities to severe weather.

Additionally, CDEMA collaborates with international organizations to enhance storm monitoring and research in the Caribbean. By studying the long-term impacts of climate change on storm frequency and intensity, CDEMA contributes to a better understanding of future risks and develops strategies to adapt to changing weather patterns. This comprehensive approach to monitoring, research, and practical application is key to improving the region’s preparedness for severe storms.[246]

1.3.1.15. New Zealand MetService Severe Weather Database

The New Zealand MetService maintains a Severe Weather Database that offers detailed information on extreme weather events across New Zealand. This database includes records of storms, heavy rainfall, strong winds, and other severe weather phenomena. The data is crucial for understanding the occurrence and impacts of severe weather in New Zealand, supporting the development of accurate forecasting models and early warning systems.

The MetService’s Severe Weather Database is utilized by meteorologists, emergency services, and researchers to monitor and analyze severe weather patterns. The data includes detailed information on the timing, location, and intensity of each event, aiding in risk assessment and enhancing public safety. By providing a comprehensive record of severe weather events, the MetService helps to minimize the impacts on communities, infrastructure, and the environment.

In addition to its operational applications, the New Zealand MetService contributes to research on the effects of climate variability and change on severe weather in the region. By examining long-term data, scientists can study how changes in the climate system may influence the frequency and intensity of storms and other extreme weather events. This research is essential for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future weather extremes.[247]

1.3.1.16. South African Weather Service Severe Weather Database

The South African Weather Service (SAWS) offers a Severe Weather Database that provides detailed information on extreme weather events throughout South Africa. This database includes records of thunderstorms, hailstorms, tornadoes, and other severe weather phenomena. The data is essential for understanding the occurrence and impact of severe weather in South Africa, assisting in the development of forecasting models and early warning systems.

SAWS’s Severe Weather Database is widely utilized by meteorologists, emergency management agencies, and researchers to monitor and analyze severe weather patterns. The data includes information on the location, timing, and intensity of each event, improving the accuracy of predictions and enhancing public safety. By offering a comprehensive record of severe weather events, SAWS supports efforts to reduce impacts on communities and infrastructure.

SAWS also collaborates with international organizations to enhance severe weather monitoring and research capabilities. By studying long-term trends in the data, scientists can explore how climate variability and change may affect the frequency and severity of severe weather events in South Africa. This research is vital for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future climate conditions.[248]

1.3.1.17. Philippines Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) Typhoon Database

The Philippines Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) maintains a comprehensive Typhoon Database providing detailed information on tropical cyclones impacting the Philippines. The database includes records of typhoon tracks, intensity, and duration, offering valuable insights into these powerful storms’ behavior in the Western Pacific region. PAGASA’s data is essential for improving forecasting models and enhancing early warning systems.

PAGASA’s Typhoon Database is used by meteorologists, researchers, and disaster management authorities to analyze typhoon patterns and impacts in the Philippines. It includes information on wind speeds, storm surges, and rainfall, aiding in assessing potential impacts on coastal communities and infrastructure. By providing accurate and timely information, PAGASA supports efforts to improve public safety and mitigate the socio-economic impacts of typhoons.

In addition to its operational role, PAGASA’s Typhoon Database contributes to research on climate change and its influence on tropical cyclone activity. By examining long-term trends, scientists can explore how changes in sea surface temperatures and other climate variables might affect the frequency and intensity of typhoons. This research is crucial for developing strategies to adapt to and mitigate the effects of future typhoons in the region.[249]

1.3.1.18. Brazilian National Institute for Space Research (INPE) Storm Data

The Brazilian National Institute for Space Research (INPE) provides detailed storm data vital for understanding severe weather events in Brazil. INPE’s data includes information on thunderstorms, tropical cyclones, hail, and other severe weather phenomena, offering insights into their patterns and impacts. This data is crucial for developing accurate forecasting models and enhancing early warning systems in a country experiencing diverse weather extremes.

INPE’s storm data is extensively used by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency management agencies to monitor and analyze severe weather patterns. The database provides detailed information on the timing, location, and intensity of each event, aiding in risk assessment and enhancing public safety. By offering a comprehensive record of storm events, INPE supports efforts to mitigate impacts on communities, agriculture, and infrastructure.

In addition to its operational applications, INPE collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance severe weather monitoring and research capabilities. By examining long-term trends in the data, scientists can explore how climate variability and change may influence the frequency and severity of severe weather events in Brazil. This research is essential for developing strategies to adapt to and mitigate the impacts of extreme weather in the future.[250]

1.3.1.19. French National Meteorological Service (Météo-France) Storm Data

Météo-France, the French National Meteorological Service, offers comprehensive storm data that is crucial for understanding severe weather events in France. This data includes records of thunderstorms, windstorms, hail, and other extreme weather phenomena. Météo-France’s data is essential for improving forecasting models, developing early warning systems, and enhancing public safety in response to severe weather.

Météo-France’s storm data is widely used by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency services to monitor and analyze severe weather patterns. It contains information on the location, timing, and intensity of each event, aiding in risk assessment and response strategies. By providing a detailed record of storm events, Météo-France supports efforts to minimize the impacts of severe weather on communities, infrastructure, and agriculture.

Beyond its operational applications, Météo-France contributes to research on the relationship between severe weather and climate change. By analyzing historical storm data, researchers can investigate how changes in atmospheric circulation patterns and other climate factors may affect the frequency and intensity of storms in France. This research is critical for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future climate conditions.[251]

1.3.1.20. German Weather Service (DWD) Severe Weather Database

The German Weather Service (Deutscher Wetterdienst, DWD) maintains a Severe Weather Database that provides detailed information on extreme weather events in Germany. This database includes records of thunderstorms, hailstorms, tornadoes, and other severe weather phenomena. The data is crucial for understanding the occurrence and impact of severe weather in Germany, supporting the development of accurate forecasting models and early warning systems.

DWD’s Severe Weather Database is extensively used by meteorologists, emergency management agencies, and researchers to monitor and analyze severe weather patterns. The data includes information on the location, timing, and intensity of each event, improving prediction accuracy and public safety. By providing a comprehensive record of severe weather events, DWD aids efforts to minimize the impacts on communities, infrastructure, and the environment.

DWD also collaborates with international organizations to enhance severe weather monitoring and research capabilities. By studying long-term trends in the data, scientists can explore how climate variability and change may affect the frequency and severity of severe weather events in Germany. This research is crucial for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future climate conditions.[252]

1.3.1.21. Chinese Meteorological Administration (CMA) Typhoon Database

The Chinese Meteorological Administration (CMA) provides an extensive Typhoon Database offering detailed information on tropical cyclones in the Western Pacific region. This database includes records of typhoon tracks, intensity, and duration, providing valuable insights into the behavior of these storms. CMA’s data is crucial for improving forecasting models and enhancing early warning systems in China and neighboring countries.

Meteorologists, researchers, and disaster management authorities widely use CMA’s Typhoon Database to analyze the patterns and impacts of typhoons on China and nearby regions. The data contains detailed information on wind speeds, central pressure, and storm paths, aiding in assessing potential impacts on coastal areas and urban centers. By offering real-time and historical data, CMA supports efforts to improve public safety and reduce the socio-economic impacts of typhoons.

CMA’s Typhoon Database is also key in research on climate change and its influence on typhoon activity. By analyzing long-term trends, scientists can investigate how changes in sea surface temperatures and other climate variables may impact the frequency and intensity of typhoons. This research is essential for developing strategies to adapt to and mitigate the effects of future typhoons in the region.[253]

1.3.1.22. Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring (Roshydromet) Storm Data

The Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring (Roshydromet) offers comprehensive storm data covering a variety of severe weather events across Russia. This database includes detailed records of thunderstorms, blizzards, hurricanes, and other extreme weather phenomena. Roshydromet’s data is essential for understanding severe weather patterns in Russia and supports the development of advanced forecasting models and early warning systems.

Roshydromet’s storm data is widely utilized by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency management agencies to monitor and analyze weather events. The database provides detailed information on the timing, location, and intensity of each event, which aids in improving risk assessments and enhancing public safety. By maintaining a comprehensive record of storm events, Roshydromet helps to mitigate the impacts on infrastructure, communities, and the environment.

In addition to its operational uses, Roshydromet collaborates with both national and international organizations to strengthen severe weather monitoring and research capabilities. By examining long-term trends in the data, scientists can investigate how climate variability and change may affect the frequency and severity of severe weather events in Russia. This research is crucial for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future climate conditions.[254]

1.3.1.23. Italian National Research Council (CNR) Storm Data

The Italian National Research Council (Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, CNR) offers storm data crucial for understanding severe weather events in Italy. The database includes information on thunderstorms, windstorms, hail, and other severe weather phenomena, providing valuable insights into their occurrence and impact. CNR’s data is essential for enhancing weather forecasting models and improving early warning systems.

CNR’s storm data is used by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency management authorities to track and analyze severe weather patterns in Italy. This data includes detailed information on the timing, location, and intensity of each event, supporting improved risk assessments and response strategies. By maintaining a comprehensive record of storm events, CNR aids efforts to mitigate the impacts on communities, infrastructure, and the environment.

In addition to its operational role, CNR collaborates with national and international organizations to bolster severe weather monitoring and research capabilities. By studying long-term trends in the data, scientists can explore how climate variability and change may be influencing the frequency and intensity of severe weather events in Italy. This research is crucial for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future weather extremes.[255]

1.3.1.24. Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI) Severe Weather Database

The Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI) maintains a Severe Weather Database that provides detailed records of extreme weather events in Finland. This includes data on thunderstorms, blizzards, strong winds, and other severe weather phenomena. FMI’s data is vital for understanding the occurrence and impact of severe weather in Finland, aiding in the creation of accurate forecasting models and early warning systems.

FMI’s Severe Weather Database is widely used by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency management agencies to monitor and analyze severe weather patterns. The data offers detailed insights into the timing, location, and intensity of each event, contributing to improved risk assessments and public safety measures. By offering a comprehensive record of severe weather events, FMI supports efforts to mitigate the impacts on communities, infrastructure, and the environment.

Besides its practical applications, FMI also contributes to research on the influence of climate variability and change on severe weather in Finland. By analyzing long-term trends in the data, scientists can explore how changing climatic conditions may be affecting the frequency and intensity of storms and other extreme weather events. This research is crucial for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future weather extremes.[256]

1.3.1.25. Norwegian Meteorological Institute (MET Norway) Storm Data

The Norwegian Meteorological Institute (MET Norway) offers a comprehensive Storm Data database that includes detailed information on severe weather events in Norway. This includes records of storms, strong winds, heavy rainfall, and other extreme weather phenomena. MET Norway’s data is essential for understanding severe weather patterns in the country and is crucial for developing forecasting models and early warning systems.

MET Norway’s storm data is utilized by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency management authorities to monitor and analyze weather events. This data includes detailed information on the timing, location, and intensity of each event, which aids in improving risk assessments and enhancing public safety. By providing a detailed record of storm events, MET Norway helps reduce the impacts on communities, infrastructure, and the environment.

In addition to its operational applications, MET Norway collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance severe weather monitoring and research capabilities. By examining long-term trends in the data, scientists can explore how climate variability and change may be influencing the frequency and intensity of severe weather events in Norway. This research is key to developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future climate conditions.[257]

1.3.1.26. Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI) Severe Weather Database

The Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI) maintains a Severe Weather Database that offers detailed information on extreme weather events in Denmark. This database includes records of thunderstorms, windstorms, hail, and other severe weather phenomena. DMI’s data is crucial for understanding the occurrence and impact of severe weather in Denmark and plays a vital role in developing accurate forecasting models and early warning systems.

DMI’s Severe Weather Database is widely used by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency management authorities to monitor and analyze severe weather patterns. The data contains detailed information on the location, timing, and intensity of each event, aiding in risk assessments and enhancing public safety. By providing a comprehensive record of severe weather events, DMI supports efforts to mitigate impacts on communities, infrastructure, and the environment.

In addition to its practical uses, DMI collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance severe weather monitoring and research capabilities. By studying long-term trends in the data, scientists can explore how climate variability and change may affect the frequency and intensity of severe weather events in Denmark. This research is essential for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future climate conditions.[258]

1.3.1.27. Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI) Storm Data

The Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI) provides a comprehensive Storm Data database detailing severe weather events in Sweden. This includes records of thunderstorms, windstorms, heavy snowfall, and other extreme weather phenomena. SMHI’s data is essential for understanding severe weather patterns in Sweden and plays a critical role in developing forecasting models and early warning systems.

SMHI’s Storm Data is utilized by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency management authorities to monitor and analyze weather patterns. The data includes detailed information on the timing, location, and intensity of each event, aiding in risk assessments and enhancing public safety. By maintaining a comprehensive record of storm events, SMHI supports efforts to mitigate the impacts on communities, infrastructure, and the environment.

In addition to its operational applications, SMHI collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance severe weather monitoring and research capabilities. By studying long-term trends in the data, scientists can explore how climate variability and change may affect the frequency and intensity of severe weather events in Sweden. This research is crucial for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future climate conditions.[259]

1.3.1.28. Spanish Meteorological Agency (AEMET) Storm Data

The Spanish Meteorological Agency (AEMET) provides detailed storm data essential for understanding severe weather events in Spain. This database includes records of thunderstorms, windstorms, hail, and other extreme weather phenomena, offering insights into their occurrence and impact. AEMET’s data is crucial for improving weather forecasting models and enhancing early warning systems.

AEMET’s Storm Data is widely used by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency management authorities to monitor and analyze severe weather patterns in Spain. The data includes information on the timing, location, and intensity of each event, aiding in risk assessments and response strategies. By providing a comprehensive record of storm events, AEMET supports efforts to reduce the impacts on communities, infrastructure, and agriculture.

Additionally, AEMET collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance severe weather monitoring and research capabilities. By studying long-term trends in the data, scientists can explore how climate variability and change may influence the frequency and intensity of severe weather events in Spain. This research is crucial for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future climate conditions.[260]

1.3.1.29. Portuguese Institute for Sea and Atmosphere (IPMA) Severe Weather Database

The Portuguese Institute for Sea and Atmosphere (IPMA) maintains a Severe Weather Database that offers detailed information on extreme weather events in Portugal. This includes records of thunderstorms, windstorms, heavy rainfall, and other severe weather phenomena. IPMA’s data is essential for understanding severe weather patterns in Portugal and plays a vital role in developing accurate forecasting models and early warning systems.

IPMA’s Severe Weather Database is widely used by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency management authorities to monitor and analyze severe weather patterns. The data contains information on the location, timing, and intensity of each event, aiding in risk assessments and enhancing public safety. By providing a comprehensive record of severe weather events, IPMA supports efforts to mitigate impacts on communities, infrastructure, and the environment.

In addition to its practical uses, IPMA collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance severe weather monitoring and research capabilities. By examining long-term trends in the data, scientists can explore how climate variability and change may influence the frequency and intensity of severe weather events in Portugal. This research is crucial for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future climate conditions.[261]

1.3.1.30. Thailand Meteorological Department (TMD) Storm Data

The Thailand Meteorological Department (TMD) provides comprehensive storm data essential for understanding severe weather events in Thailand. This database includes records of tropical cyclones, thunderstorms, heavy rainfall, and other extreme weather phenomena. TMD’s storm data is crucial for improving weather forecasting models and enhancing early warning systems, especially in a region frequently affected by monsoons and tropical storms.

TMD’s Storm Data is used by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency management authorities to monitor and analyze weather patterns in Thailand. The data includes detailed information on the timing, location, and intensity of each event, which helps improve risk assessments and enhance public safety. By offering a comprehensive record of storm events, TMD supports efforts to mitigate the impacts on communities, agriculture, and infrastructure.

In addition to its operational applications, TMD collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance severe weather monitoring and research capabilities. By studying long-term trends in the data, scientists can explore how climate variability and change may be affecting the frequency and intensity of severe weather events in Thailand. This research is vital for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future climate conditions.[262]

1.3.1.31. Indonesian Meteorological, Climatological, and Geophysical Agency (BMKG) Severe Weather Database

The Indonesian Meteorological, Climatological, and Geophysical Agency (BMKG) maintains a Severe Weather Database that offers detailed information on extreme weather events in Indonesia. This includes records of tropical cyclones, thunderstorms, heavy rainfall, and other severe weather phenomena. BMKG’s data is crucial for understanding severe weather patterns in Indonesia and is essential for developing accurate forecasting models and early warning systems.

BMKG’s Severe Weather Database is utilized by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency management authorities to monitor and analyze severe weather patterns. The data includes detailed information on the timing, location, and intensity of each event, aiding in risk assessments and enhancing public safety. By maintaining a comprehensive record of severe weather events, BMKG supports efforts to mitigate the impacts on communities, agriculture, and infrastructure.

Besides its operational applications, BMKG collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance severe weather monitoring and research capabilities. By examining long-term trends in the data, scientists can explore how climate variability and change may affect the frequency and intensity of severe weather events in Indonesia. This research is essential for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future climate conditions.[263]

1.3.1.32. Malaysian Meteorological Department (MetMalaysia) Storm Data

The Malaysian Meteorological Department (MetMalaysia) offers detailed storm data crucial for understanding severe weather events in Malaysia. This database includes records of tropical cyclones, thunderstorms, heavy rainfall, and other extreme weather phenomena. MetMalaysia’s data is vital for improving weather forecasting models and enhancing early warning systems in a country frequently affected by monsoons and tropical storms.

MetMalaysia’s Storm Data is widely used by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency management authorities to monitor and analyze weather patterns in Malaysia. The data provides detailed information on the timing, location, and intensity of each event, aiding in risk assessments and enhancing public safety. By maintaining a comprehensive record of storm events, MetMalaysia supports efforts to mitigate the impacts on communities, agriculture, and infrastructure.

In addition to its operational applications, MetMalaysia collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance severe weather monitoring and research capabilities. By studying long-term trends in the data, scientists can explore how climate variability and change may be affecting the frequency and intensity of severe weather events in Malaysia. This research is crucial for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future climate conditions.[264]

1.3.1.33. Vietnam Meteorological and Hydrological Administration (VNMHA) Storm Data

The Vietnam Meteorological and Hydrological Administration (VNMHA) provides a comprehensive Storm Data database detailing severe weather events in Vietnam. This includes records of tropical cyclones, thunderstorms, heavy rainfall, and other extreme weather phenomena. VNMHA’s data is essential for understanding severe weather patterns in Vietnam and supports the development of forecasting models and early warning systems.

VNMHA’s Storm Data is utilized by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency management authorities to monitor and analyze weather patterns in Vietnam. The data offers detailed information on the timing, location, and intensity of each event, aiding in risk assessments and enhancing public safety. By maintaining a comprehensive record of storm events, VNMHA supports efforts to mitigate the impacts on communities, agriculture, and infrastructure.

In addition to its operational applications, VNMHA collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance severe weather monitoring and research capabilities. By examining long-term trends in the data, scientists can explore how climate variability and change may affect the frequency and intensity of severe weather events in Vietnam. This research is crucial for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future climate conditions.[265]

1.3.1.34. Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD) Cyclone Database

The Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD) maintains a Cyclone Database providing detailed information on tropical cyclones affecting the Bay of Bengal region, especially those impacting Bangladesh. This database includes records of cyclone tracks, intensity, and duration, offering valuable insights into the behavior of these powerful storms. BMD’s data is crucial for improving forecasting models and enhancing early warning systems in a country frequently affected by tropical cyclones.

BMD’s Cyclone Database is used by meteorologists, researchers, and disaster management authorities to analyze the patterns and impacts of cyclones in Bangladesh. The data includes details on wind speeds, storm surges, and rainfall, aiding in assessing the potential impact on coastal communities and infrastructure. By providing accurate and timely information, BMD supports efforts to enhance public safety and mitigate the socio-economic impacts of cyclones.

In addition to its operational role, BMD’s Cyclone Database contributes to research on climate change and its effects on tropical cyclone activity. By analyzing long-term trends, scientists can study how changes in sea surface temperatures and other climate variables may influence the frequency and intensity of cyclones. This research is essential for developing strategies to adapt to and mitigate the impacts of future cyclones in the region.[266]

1.3.1.35. Sri Lanka Department of Meteorology Storm Data

The Sri Lanka Department of Meteorology offers a Storm Data database detailing severe weather events affecting Sri Lanka. This includes records of tropical cyclones, thunderstorms, heavy rainfall, and other extreme weather phenomena. The Department’s data is crucial for understanding severe weather patterns in Sri Lanka, aiding in developing forecasting models and early warning systems.

The Storm Data provided by the Sri Lanka Department of Meteorology is used by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency management authorities to monitor and analyze weather patterns in the region. The data includes detailed information on the timing, location, and intensity of each event, aiding in risk assessments and enhancing public safety. By providing a comprehensive record of storm events, the Department supports efforts to mitigate the impacts on communities, agriculture, and infrastructure.

In addition to its operational applications, the Department of Meteorology contributes to research on the effects of climate variability and change on severe weather in Sri Lanka. By examining long-term trends in the data, scientists can explore how changing climatic conditions may influence the frequency and intensity of storms. This research is crucial for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future weather extremes.[267]

1.3.1.36. Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD) Cyclone Database

The Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD) maintains a Cyclone Database that provides detailed information on tropical cyclones in the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal regions, particularly those affecting Pakistan. The database includes records of cyclone tracks, intensity, and duration, offering valuable insights into the behavior of these storms. PMD’s data is essential for improving forecasting models and enhancing early warning systems in a country vulnerable to tropical cyclones.

PMD’s Cyclone Database is used by meteorologists, researchers, and disaster management authorities to analyze the patterns and impacts of cyclones on Pakistan. The data includes details on wind speeds, storm surges, and rainfall, aiding in assessing the potential impact on coastal communities and infrastructure. By providing accurate and timely information, PMD supports efforts to enhance public safety and mitigate the socio-economic impacts of cyclones.

In addition to its operational role, PMD’s Cyclone Database contributes to research on climate change and its effects on tropical cyclone activity. By analyzing long-term trends, scientists can study how changes in sea surface temperatures and other climate variables may influence the frequency and intensity of cyclones. This research is crucial for developing strategies to adapt to and mitigate the impacts of future cyclones in the region.[268]

1.3.1.37. Iranian Meteorological Organization (IRIMO) Storm Data

The Iranian Meteorological Organization (IRIMO) provides a Storm Data database that offers detailed information on severe weather events affecting Iran. This includes records of thunderstorms, heavy rainfall, strong winds, and other extreme weather phenomena. IRIMO’s data is essential for understanding severe weather patterns in Iran, aiding in developing forecasting models and early warning systems.

IRIMO’s Storm Data is utilized by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency management authorities to monitor and analyze weather patterns in Iran. The data provides detailed information on the timing, location, and intensity of each event, aiding in risk assessments and enhancing public safety. By maintaining a comprehensive record of storm events, IRIMO supports efforts to mitigate the impacts on communities, agriculture, and infrastructure.

In addition to its operational applications, IRIMO collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance severe weather monitoring and research capabilities. By examining long-term trends in the data, scientists can explore how climate variability and change may affect the frequency and intensity of severe weather events in Iran. This research is crucial for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future climate conditions.[269]

1.3.1.38. Turkish State Meteorological Service (TSMS) Severe Weather Database

The Turkish State Meteorological Service (TSMS) maintains a Severe Weather Database that offers detailed information on extreme weather events in Turkey. This database includes records of thunderstorms, windstorms, hail, and other severe weather phenomena. TSMS’s data is essential for understanding severe weather patterns in Turkey, aiding in the development of accurate forecasting models and early warning systems.

TSMS’s Severe Weather Database is widely used by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency management authorities to monitor and analyze severe weather patterns. The data provides information on the location, timing, and intensity of each event, aiding in risk assessments and enhancing public safety. By maintaining a comprehensive record of severe weather events, TSMS supports efforts to mitigate impacts on communities, infrastructure, and agriculture.

In addition to its operational applications, TSMS collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance severe weather monitoring and research capabilities. By examining long-term trends in the data, scientists can explore how climate variability and change may affect the frequency and intensity of severe weather events in Turkey. This research is crucial for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future climate conditions.[270]

1.3.1.39. Mexican National Meteorological Service (SMN) Storm Data

The Mexican National Meteorological Service (Servicio Meteorológico Nacional, SMN) provides comprehensive storm data crucial for understanding severe weather events in Mexico. The database includes records of tropical cyclones, thunderstorms, heavy rainfall, and other extreme weather phenomena. SMN’s data is essential for improving weather forecasting models and enhancing early warning systems in a region frequently affected by hurricanes and severe storms.

SMN’s Storm Data is used by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency management authorities to monitor and analyze weather patterns in Mexico. The data provides detailed information on the timing, location, and intensity of each event, aiding in risk assessments and enhancing public safety. By maintaining a comprehensive record of storm events, SMN supports efforts to mitigate the impacts on communities, agriculture, and infrastructure.

In addition to its operational applications, SMN collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance severe weather monitoring and research capabilities. By studying long-term trends in the data, scientists can explore how climate variability and change may influence the frequency and intensity of severe weather events in Mexico. This research is crucial for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future climate conditions.[271][272]

1.3.1.40. Argentine National Meteorological Service (SMN) Severe Weather Database

The Argentine National Meteorological Service (Servicio Meteorológico Nacional, SMN) maintains a Severe Weather Database offering detailed information on extreme weather events in Argentina. This database includes records of thunderstorms, hail, tornadoes, and other severe weather phenomena. SMN’s data is essential for understanding severe weather patterns in Argentina and is crucial for developing accurate forecasting models and early warning systems.

SMN’s Severe Weather Database is widely utilized by meteorologists, researchers, and emergency management authorities to monitor and analyze severe weather patterns. The data provides information on the location, timing, and intensity of each event, aiding in risk assessments and enhancing public safety. By maintaining a comprehensive record of severe weather events, SMN supports efforts to mitigate the impacts on communities, agriculture, and infrastructure.

In addition to its operational applications, SMN collaborates with other national and international organizations to enhance severe weather monitoring and research capabilities. By examining long-term trends in the data, scientists can explore how climate variability and change may affect the frequency and intensity of severe weather events in Argentina. This research is crucial for developing strategies to enhance resilience and adapt to future climate conditions.[273]

1.3.2. Tornadoes

1.3.2.1. Storm Prediction Center (SPC) Tornado Database

The Storm Prediction Center (SPC) Tornado Database, managed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), is a highly detailed and authoritative resource for tornado data in the United States. This database has a vast collection of records on tornado events dating back to the mid-20th century. Each record provides key details, including the tornado’s date, location, path length, width, and intensity, along with information on fatalities and injuries. Tornado intensity is categorized using the Enhanced Fujita (EF) scale, which helps to understand the strength and potential impact of each event.

The database compiles data from various sources, such as public reports, storm spotter observations, and radar data, ensuring accuracy and completeness. This integration of multiple data sources makes the SPC Tornado Database an essential tool for researchers and meteorologists, enabling the analysis of both the timing and spatial distribution of tornadoes. This analysis is crucial for enhancing forecasting models and risk assessments.

In addition, this database is key in advancing tornado-related scientific research. It allows for a deeper examination of trends, variations, and how climate change might be influencing tornado frequency and strength. Furthermore, it supports the creation of public safety measures, aiding in the development of more effective tornado preparedness and response strategies. The SPC Tornado Database is easily accessible and is a valuable reference for academic researchers, government agencies, and anyone interested in tornado activity.[274]

1.3.2.2. European Severe Weather Database (ESWD) – Tornadoes

The European Severe Weather Database (ESWD) – Tornadoes, managed by the European Severe Storms Laboratory (ESSL), serves as a crucial repository for tornado data across Europe. It offers detailed records of tornado occurrences throughout the continent, including the event date, location, intensity, and associated meteorological phenomena. This database covers both historical and current data, making it an invaluable resource for understanding the unique characteristics and patterns of tornadoes in Europe, which can differ considerably from those in other parts of the world.

The ESWD collects information from a wide range of sources, such as national meteorological services, storm chasers, media reports, and public submissions. This comprehensive approach ensures a detailed and inclusive record of tornado events, which enhances our knowledge of the frequency and distribution of tornadoes across Europe. It also facilitates cross-border research, allowing for a broader analysis of tornado activity on a continental level, which is essential for understanding the complex dynamics of severe weather in various European climates.

By offering access to standardized and detailed tornado data, the ESWD is a vital tool for researchers and meteorologists. It supports the study of spatial and temporal trends, risk assessments in different regions, and the refinement of forecasting models. Additionally, the ESWD helps raise public awareness of severe weather risks and encourages the development of better disaster preparedness and mitigation strategies throughout Europe.[275]

1.3.2.3. NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) Tornado Data

The NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) Tornado Data is a critical resource for tracking tornado occurrences throughout the United States. This comprehensive database provides detailed records, including information on the date, time, location, path length, width, and intensity of tornadoes. Additionally, it includes data on associated damage, fatalities, and injuries, all classified using the Enhanced Fujita (EF) scale to indicate the strength and potential impact of each tornado.

NCEI gathers this information from a diverse range of sources, such as weather stations, radar data, eyewitness accounts, and damage surveys, ensuring a high level of accuracy and completeness. This multi-source approach makes the database an invaluable tool for researchers and meteorologists, allowing for in-depth analysis of temporal and spatial patterns in tornado activity. This analysis is crucial for studying the effects of climate change on tornado behavior and trends.

The database is not only a cornerstone for research but also essential for emergency management and disaster risk reduction. It supports improved tornado forecasting and warning systems, helping to bolster public safety measures and enhance community preparedness. By offering a thorough historical record of tornadoes, the NCEI Tornado Data is instrumental in mitigating the impacts of these severe weather events.

1.3.2.4. Tornado History Project

The Tornado History Project is a comprehensive online database that compiles historical tornado data across the United States, dating back to 1950. This user-friendly resource offers detailed information on each tornado event, including date, location, path, width, intensity (classified using the Fujita and Enhanced Fujita scales), and damage assessments. Drawing from NOAA data, it presents this information in an accessible format, making it an invaluable tool for researchers, educators, and the general public.

The project provides interactive maps and search tools, allowing users to explore tornado tracks, analyze trends, and gain insights into the frequency and distribution of tornadoes. This data is used to study seasonal variations, regional patterns, and long-term trends in tornado activity, enhancing our understanding of tornado dynamics and their impacts on various communities.

Besides its research applications, the Tornado History Project serves an educational purpose by raising awareness about tornado risks and safety measures. By providing comprehensive historical data, it supports efforts to improve forecasting, preparedness, and response strategies, ultimately contributing to enhanced public safety and resilience against tornado-related disasters.[276]

1.3.2.5. National Weather Service (NWS) Storm Data

The National Weather Service (NWS) Storm Data is an extensive archive of severe weather events, including tornadoes, managed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). This database contains detailed records of tornado occurrences, including date, time, location, intensity, and the extent of damage. It serves as a standardized and authoritative source of information for research, public awareness, and disaster preparedness.

Data within the NWS Storm Data is collected through a network of meteorological stations, radar observations, and reports from storm spotters, emergency management officials, and the public. This comprehensive approach ensures the database’s thoroughness and reliability, providing an in-depth account of tornado activity across the United States. Researchers and meteorologists utilize this data to study tornado patterns, refine forecasting models, and assess the effectiveness of warning systems.

Beyond its research significance, the NWS Storm Data is an essential tool for emergency managers, policymakers, and the public. It aids in identifying high-risk areas, informing mitigation strategies, and supporting educational efforts to promote tornado safety. By offering a detailed historical record of tornado events, the NWS Storm Data contributes to building more resilient communities and minimizing the impact of these natural disasters.[277]

1.3.2.6. Canadian National Tornado Database

The Canadian National Tornado Database, maintained by Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC), is a vital resource for studying tornado activity in Canada. This database provides comprehensive records of tornado events, detailing the date, location, path length, intensity (rated on the Enhanced Fujita scale), and impact. Although tornadoes are less frequent in Canada compared to other regions, they pose significant risks, making this database crucial for understanding their patterns and behavior.

Information in this database is compiled from a variety of sources, including weather stations, radar observations, and reports from storm spotters and the public. This meticulous data collection ensures a high level of accuracy and reliability, making it an essential tool for researchers and meteorologists. The Canadian National Tornado Database supports studies on tornado dynamics, trends, and the possible influence of climate change on tornado occurrences in Canada.

Additionally, this database plays a significant role in emergency management and public safety. It aids in risk assessment, the development of effective warning systems, and the formulation of disaster preparedness and response strategies. By enhancing our understanding of tornado behavior in Canada, the database contributes to building resilience and reducing the impact of these severe weather events on communities.[278]

1.3.2.7. Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) Tornado Database

The Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) Tornado Database offers detailed records of tornado occurrences in Australia. Maintained by BOM, this database includes crucial information such as the date, location, intensity, and impact of tornado events. Considering Australia’s unique weather patterns, this database is key to understanding the behavior and characteristics of tornadoes in the region, which are relatively rare but can still be destructive.

Data is collected from various sources, including weather stations, radar observations, and public reports, to ensure a comprehensive understanding of each tornado event. The BOM Tornado Database assists researchers and meteorologists in studying the conditions leading to tornado formation in Australia, enhancing forecasting and risk assessments. It also helps in understanding how tornadoes relate to other severe weather phenomena like thunderstorms and cyclones.

This database is a valuable tool for emergency management and public safety. By providing historical data on tornado occurrences, it aids in developing effective preparedness and response plans, contributing to community resilience and reducing the impact of severe weather events.[279]

1.3.2.8. UK Met Office Tornado Database

The UK Met Office Tornado Database compiles detailed records of tornado events in the United Kingdom. Managed by the UK Met Office, this database includes essential information such as the date, location, intensity, and damage assessments of tornado occurrences. Despite their relatively low frequency in the UK, tornadoes are studied through this database to understand their characteristics and potential impact.

Data is gathered from multiple sources like weather observations, radar data, and reports from storm spotters and the public, ensuring the database’s accuracy and comprehensiveness. This resource is vital for researchers analyzing trends, assessing risks, and enhancing forecasting models tailored to the UK’s climate.

The UK Met Office Tornado Database is also an important tool for public safety and emergency planning. It helps authorities and communities understand tornado risks and supports the development of effective mitigation and response strategies, thereby contributing to enhanced preparedness and reducing the impact of severe weather events.[280]

1.3.2.9. South African Weather Service Tornado Data

The South African Weather Service Tornado Data provides extensive records of tornado activity in South Africa. Managed by the South African Weather Service (SAWS), this database includes vital information such as the date, location, intensity, and impact of tornado events. Given South Africa’s diverse climate, the database is key to understanding the occurrence and characteristics of tornadoes in the region.

Data is collected from various sources, including meteorological stations, radar observations, and eyewitness reports, ensuring a reliable overview of tornado events. This information is crucial for researchers and meteorologists studying the conditions that lead to tornado formation in South Africa. It also helps identify trends and patterns in tornado activity, contributing to improved forecasting models and risk assessments.

This tornado data is a crucial tool for disaster risk management, informing emergency preparedness and response strategies. By providing detailed records of historical tornado events, it aids in raising awareness about tornado risks in South Africa and supports efforts to build community resilience.[281]

1.3.2.10. Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) Tornado Database

The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) Tornado Database serves as an authoritative source for tornado data in Japan. This database contains detailed records of tornado occurrences, including date, location, intensity, and associated weather conditions. Japan’s complex meteorological landscape makes this database vital for understanding tornado behavior in the region, influenced by factors like typhoons and seasonal weather patterns.

The data is compiled from a network of meteorological stations, radar observations, and public reports to ensure accuracy and comprehensiveness. The JMA Tornado Database is essential for studying the frequency, distribution, and intensity of tornadoes in Japan. Researchers use this information to enhance forecasting models, evaluate the effects of climate change on tornado activity, and improve disaster preparedness and response strategies.

In addition to its research applications, this database plays a crucial role in public safety and awareness, supporting the development of mitigation measures and educating communities about tornado risks. By providing reliable data on tornado occurrences, the JMA Tornado Database helps reduce the impact of severe weather events in Japan.[282]

1.3.2.11. Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) Tornado Data

The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) Tornado Data provides a thorough record of tornado events in India. This database includes information such as the date, location, intensity, and impact of tornadoes. Although relatively rare in India, understanding these events is crucial due to the country’s diverse climatic zones.

Data is compiled from various sources, including meteorological stations, radar observations, and public reports, ensuring a comprehensive record of tornado activity. Researchers use this information to study the characteristics and behavior of tornadoes in India, contributing to enhanced forecasting models and disaster risk reduction efforts.

The IMD Tornado Data serves as a valuable resource for public safety and emergency management, supporting the development of preparedness and response strategies. By offering detailed historical data on tornado occurrences, it helps increase awareness of tornado risks and enhances our understanding of severe weather phenomena, playing a key role in building resilience against such events.[283]

1.3.2.12. Brazilian National Institute for Space Research (INPE) Tornado Data

The Brazilian National Institute for Space Research (INPE) Tornado Data offers detailed records of tornado occurrences in Brazil. This database includes key information such as the date, location, intensity, and impact of tornado events throughout the country. Brazil’s varied climate and geography make this database essential for understanding the occurrence and characteristics of tornadoes in the region.

Data is sourced from meteorological observations, satellite data, and public reports, ensuring a comprehensive and reliable record of tornado activity. The INPE Tornado Data is crucial for studying the patterns and behavior of tornadoes in Brazil, aiding in the development of improved forecasting models and risk assessments. It also contributes to understanding the relationship between tornadoes and other severe weather phenomena, such as thunderstorms and tropical cyclones.

This database is vital for disaster risk management and public safety. It supports the creation of effective mitigation and response strategies by providing historical information on tornadoes in Brazil. By enhancing our knowledge of tornadoes, the INPE Tornado Data plays a significant role in reducing the impact of these severe weather events and building community resilience.[284]

1.3.2.13. Argentine National Weather Service (SMN) Tornado Data

The Argentine National Weather Service (SMN) Tornado Data provides comprehensive records of tornado activity in Argentina. Managed by the SMN, this database includes vital information such as the date, location, intensity, and impact of tornado events. Due to Argentina’s varied climate and geography, understanding the characteristics and behavior of tornadoes in this region is crucial.

Data is collected from meteorological stations, radar observations, and public reports, ensuring an accurate and reliable record of tornado occurrences. Researchers utilize this data to study the frequency, distribution, and intensity of tornadoes in Argentina, aiding in the development of forecasting models and risk assessments. The database also supports research into the potential impact of climate change on tornado activity in the region.

The SMN Tornado Data is an essential tool for disaster risk management and public safety. It offers valuable information for developing preparedness and response strategies, helping to mitigate the impact of tornadoes on communities. By deepening our understanding of tornadoes in Argentina, this database promotes resilience and aids in mitigating the effects of severe weather events.[285]

1.3.2.14. New Zealand MetService Tornado Database

The New Zealand MetService Tornado Database provides a detailed account of tornado occurrences in New Zealand. Managed by MetService, it includes critical information such as the date, location, intensity, and impact of tornado events. The unique weather patterns and geographical features of New Zealand make this database valuable for understanding tornado behavior in the region.

Data is collected from various sources, including weather stations, radar observations, and public reports, to ensure a comprehensive record of each event. The MetService Tornado Database supports researchers and meteorologists in studying the conditions that lead to tornado formation in New Zealand, contributing to improved forecasting and risk assessments. It also helps in understanding the link between tornadoes and other severe weather phenomena, such as thunderstorms and cyclones.

This database is a crucial tool for public safety and emergency management. By providing historical data on tornadoes, it aids in developing effective preparedness and response plans, ultimately enhancing community resilience and reducing the impact of severe weather events in New Zealand.[286]

1.3.2.15. French National Meteorological Service (Météo-France) Tornado Data

The French National Meteorological Service (Météo-France) Tornado Data offers a detailed record of tornado occurrences in France. This database includes essential information such as the date, location, intensity, and impact of tornado events. Given France’s diverse climate and weather patterns, this resource is crucial for understanding the occurrence and characteristics of tornadoes in the region.

Data is gathered from a network of weather stations, radar observations, and public reports, ensuring a reliable and accurate record of tornado activity. The Météo-France Tornado Data is used by researchers and meteorologists to study the patterns and behavior of tornadoes in France, aiding in the development of enhanced forecasting models and risk assessments. It also supports research on the potential impact of climate change on tornado activity in the region.

This database is an important resource for disaster risk management and public safety. By providing historical data on tornado occurrences, it supports the development of effective preparedness and response strategies. Enhancing our understanding of tornadoes, the Météo-France Tornado Data plays a key role in building resilience and reducing the impact of severe weather events in France.[287]

1.3.2.16. German Weather Service (DWD) Tornado Database

The German Weather Service (DWD) Tornado Database is a comprehensive source of information on tornado activity in Germany. Maintained by DWD, this database includes records of tornado events, such as date, location, intensity, and associated damage. Although tornadoes are less frequent in Germany, understanding and managing tornado hazards in the country is crucial.

Data in the DWD Tornado Database is compiled from meteorological observations, radar data, and eyewitness reports. This information is used by researchers and meteorologists to study the conditions that lead to tornado formation in Germany, enhancing forecasting models and risk assessments. The database also supports efforts to understand the potential influence of climate change on tornado occurrence and intensity in the region.

The DWD Tornado Database is vital for public safety and disaster risk reduction. It helps in developing effective preparedness and response strategies to mitigate the impact of tornadoes on communities. By providing detailed and reliable information on tornado activity, this database plays a crucial role in raising awareness about tornado risks and promoting resilience in Germany.[288]

1.3.2.17. Italian National Research Council (CNR) Tornado Data

The Italian National Research Council (CNR) Tornado Data provides a comprehensive record of tornado occurrences in Italy. This database includes essential information on tornado events, such as the date, location, intensity, and impact. Considering Italy’s varied geography and weather patterns, this resource is crucial for understanding the characteristics and behavior of tornadoes in the region.

Data is collected from various sources, including weather stations, radar observations, and public reports, ensuring an accurate and reliable record of tornado activity. Researchers use the CNR Tornado Data to study the patterns and behavior of tornadoes in Italy, aiding in the development of improved forecasting models and risk assessments. It also supports research on the potential impact of climate change on tornado activity in the region.

This database is an important tool for disaster risk management and public safety. By providing historical data on tornado occurrences, it supports the development of effective preparedness and response strategies. Enhancing our understanding of tornadoes, the CNR Tornado Data plays a key role in building resilience and reducing the impact of severe weather events in Italy.[289]

1.3.2.18. Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI) Tornado Database

The Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI) Tornado Database provides detailed records of tornado activity in Finland. This database includes information on the date, location, intensity, and impact of tornado events, which are relatively rare but can still cause significant damage in the region. Given Finland’s unique climate and weather patterns, this resource is crucial for understanding the occurrence and behavior of tornadoes in the country.

Data is collected from various sources, including weather stations, radar observations, and public reports, ensuring a comprehensive and accurate record of tornado events. Researchers and meteorologists use the FMI Tornado Database to study the conditions that lead to tornado formation in Finland, contributing to improved forecasting models and risk assessments.

This database is an essential tool for disaster risk management and public safety. By offering historical data on tornado occurrences, it aids in developing effective preparedness and response strategies, helping to build community resilience and reduce the impact of severe weather events in Finland.[290]

1.3.2.19. Norwegian Meteorological Institute (MET Norway) Tornado Data

The Norwegian Meteorological Institute (MET Norway) Tornado Data offers a detailed record of tornado occurrences in Norway. This database includes critical information such as the date, location, intensity, and impact of tornado events. Although tornadoes are infrequent in Norway, understanding their characteristics and the conditions leading to their formation is essential for the country’s unique climate.

Data is gathered from meteorological observations, radar data, and public reports, ensuring a reliable and accurate record of tornado activity. The MET Norway Tornado Data is used by researchers and meteorologists to study the patterns and behavior of tornadoes in Norway, contributing to the development of improved forecasting models and risk assessments.

The database also supports disaster risk management and public safety efforts. It provides valuable information for developing preparedness and response strategies, helping to mitigate the impact of tornadoes on communities. By enhancing our knowledge of tornadoes in Norway, the MET Norway Tornado Data plays a key role in promoting resilience and reducing the impact of severe weather events.[291]

1.3.2.20. Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI) Tornado Database

The Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI) Tornado Database is an authoritative source of information on tornado activity in Denmark. This database includes records of tornado events, covering aspects like date, location, intensity, and damage assessments. Although tornadoes are rare in Denmark, this resource is vital for understanding the conditions that lead to their occurrence and their potential impact.

Data is collected from various sources, including meteorological observations, radar data, and public reports, ensuring a comprehensive and accurate record of tornado activity. Researchers and meteorologists use the DMI Tornado Database to study the patterns and behavior of tornadoes in Denmark, contributing to the development of enhanced forecasting models and risk assessments.

The DMI Tornado Database is also a valuable tool for public safety and disaster risk reduction. By providing detailed historical data on tornado events, it supports the development of effective preparedness and response strategies. By increasing awareness of tornado risks and enhancing our understanding of severe weather phenomena, this database plays a key role in building resilience and reducing the impact of tornadoes in Denmark.[292]

1.3.2.21. Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI) Tornado Data

The Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI) Tornado Data provides a comprehensive record of tornado occurrences in Sweden. This database includes detailed information such as date, location, intensity, and impact of tornado events. Although tornadoes are uncommon in Sweden, this database is essential for understanding their characteristics and the conditions that lead to their formation in the region.

Data is gathered from a range of sources, including meteorological stations, radar observations, and public reports, ensuring a reliable and accurate record of tornado events. Researchers and meteorologists use the SMHI Tornado Data to study the patterns and behavior of tornadoes in Sweden, contributing to the development of improved forecasting models and risk assessments.

The SMHI Tornado Data is also an important tool for public safety and disaster risk management. It supports the development of effective preparedness and response strategies by providing valuable information on the historical occurrence and impact of tornadoes in Sweden. By enhancing our understanding of tornadoes in the region, this database plays a key role in building community resilience and reducing the impact of severe weather events.[293]

1.3.2.22. Spanish Meteorological Agency (AEMET) Tornado Data

The Spanish Meteorological Agency (AEMET) Tornado Data offers a detailed record of tornado occurrences in Spain. This database contains information on tornado events, including the date, location, intensity, and impact. Given Spain’s diverse climate and weather patterns, understanding tornado activity in the region is crucial.

Data is collected from a network of meteorological stations, radar observations, and public reports, ensuring an accurate and reliable record of tornado activity. AEMET Tornado Data is used by researchers and meteorologists to study the patterns and behavior of tornadoes in Spain, contributing to the development of improved forecasting models and risk assessments. It also aids in understanding the potential impact of climate change on tornado activity in the region.

This database is an important resource for disaster risk management and public safety. It supports the development of effective preparedness and response strategies by providing valuable historical data on tornado occurrences in Spain. By enhancing our understanding of tornadoes, the AEMET Tornado Data plays a key role in building resilience and reducing the impact of severe weather events.[294]

1.3.2.23. Portuguese Institute for Sea and Atmosphere (IPMA) Tornado Data

The Portuguese Institute for Sea and Atmosphere (IPMA) Tornado Data provides a comprehensive record of tornado activity in Portugal. This database includes information on the date, location, intensity, and impact of tornado events. While tornadoes are infrequent in Portugal, they can still cause significant damage, making this database essential for understanding the occurrence and behavior of these phenomena.

Data is collected from various sources, including meteorological observations, radar data, and public reports, ensuring a detailed and accurate record of tornado events. Researchers and meteorologists use the IPMA Tornado Data to study the conditions that lead to tornado formation in Portugal, contributing to improved forecasting models and risk assessments.

This database is a crucial tool for disaster risk management and public safety. By providing historical data on tornado occurrences, it supports the development of effective preparedness and response strategies, helping to build community resilience and reduce the impact of severe weather events in Portugal.[295]

1.3.2.24. Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring (Roshydromet) Tornado Data

The Russian Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring (Roshydromet) Tornado Data offers an extensive record of tornado occurrences in Russia. This database includes vital information such as the date, location, intensity, and impact of tornado events. Given Russia’s vast and diverse geographical landscape, understanding the characteristics and behavior of tornadoes across different regions is essential.

Data is gathered from a network of meteorological stations, radar observations, and public reports, ensuring a comprehensive and accurate record of tornado activity. Researchers and meteorologists use the Roshydromet Tornado Data to study the patterns and behavior of tornadoes in Russia, contributing to the development of improved forecasting models and risk assessments. It also aids in understanding the potential impact of climate change on tornado activity in the region.

The Roshydromet Tornado Data is an essential tool for disaster risk management and public safety. It supports the development of effective preparedness and response strategies by providing valuable historical data on tornadoes in Russia. By enhancing our understanding of tornadoes, this database plays a key role in building resilience and reducing the impact of severe weather events.[296]

1.3.2.25. Chinese Meteorological Administration (CMA) Tornado Database

The Chinese Meteorological Administration (CMA) Tornado Database provides a comprehensive record of tornado occurrences in China. This database includes detailed information such as the date, location, intensity, and impact of tornado events. Given China’s diverse climate and geographical features, this resource is essential for understanding the occurrence and characteristics of tornadoes in the region.

Data is collected from a network of meteorological stations, radar observations, and public reports, ensuring an accurate and reliable record of tornado activity. The CMA Tornado Database is used by researchers and meteorologists to study the patterns and behavior of tornadoes in China, contributing to the development of improved forecasting models and risk assessments. It also aids in understanding the potential impact of climate change on tornado activity in the region.

This database is a key resource for disaster risk management and public safety. By providing valuable historical data on tornado occurrences, it supports the development of effective preparedness and response strategies. By enhancing our understanding of tornadoes, the CMA Tornado Database plays a crucial role in building resilience and reducing the impact of severe weather events in China.[297]

1.3.2.26. Indonesian Meteorological, Climatological, and Geophysical Agency (BMKG) Tornado Data

The Indonesian Meteorological, Climatological, and Geophysical Agency (BMKG) Tornado Data provides a detailed record of tornado occurrences in Indonesia. This database includes information on the date, location, intensity, and impact of tornado events. Given Indonesia’s unique weather patterns and geographical features, this resource is crucial for understanding the occurrence and characteristics of tornadoes in the region.

Data is collected from various sources, including meteorological observations, radar data, and public reports, ensuring a comprehensive and accurate record of tornado activity. Researchers and meteorologists use the BMKG Tornado Data to study the conditions that lead to tornado formation in Indonesia, contributing to improved forecasting models and risk assessments.

This database is an important tool for disaster risk management and public safety. By providing historical data on tornado occurrences, it supports the development of effective preparedness and response strategies. By enhancing our understanding of tornadoes in the region, the BMKG Tornado Data plays a key role in building community resilience and reducing the impact of severe weather events.[298]

1.3.2.27. Philippines Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) Tornado Data

The Philippines Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) Tornado Data offers a comprehensive record of tornado occurrences in the Philippines. This database includes detailed information such as the date, location, intensity, and impact of tornado events. Given the Philippines’ unique geographical location and weather patterns, this resource is essential for understanding the occurrence and characteristics of tornadoes in the region.

Data is collected from various sources, including meteorological observations, radar data, and public reports, ensuring a comprehensive and accurate record of tornado activity. Researchers and meteorologists use the PAGASA Tornado Data to study the conditions that lead to tornado formation in the Philippines, contributing to the development of improved forecasting models and risk assessments.

The PAGASA Tornado Data is a vital tool for disaster risk management and public safety. By providing historical data on tornado occurrences, it supports the development of effective preparedness and response strategies, helping to build community resilience and reduce the impact of severe weather events in the Philippines.[299]

1.3.2.28. South American Severe Weather Database

The South American Severe Weather Database is a comprehensive collection of data on severe weather events, including tornadoes, across the South American continent. This database includes detailed records such as date, location, intensity, and impact of tornado events. Given the diverse climates and weather patterns across South America, this database is crucial for understanding the occurrence and characteristics of tornadoes in the region.

Data is collected from a network of meteorological services, satellite observations, and public reports, ensuring a comprehensive and accurate record of tornado activity. Researchers use this database to study the patterns and behavior of tornadoes in South America, contributing to the development of improved forecasting models and risk assessments. It also aids in understanding the potential impact of climate change on tornado activity in the region.

The South American Severe Weather Database is an important resource for disaster risk management and public safety. By providing historical data on tornado occurrences, it supports the development of effective preparedness and response strategies, helping to build community resilience and reduce the impact of severe weather events.[300]

1.3.2.29. Turkish State Meteorological Service (TSMS) Tornado Data

The Turkish State Meteorological Service (TSMS) Tornado Data provides a detailed record of tornado occurrences in Turkey. This database includes information on the date, location, intensity, and impact of tornado events. Given Turkey’s varied climate and geographical features, this resource is crucial for understanding the occurrence and characteristics of tornadoes in the region.

Data is collected from various sources, including meteorological observations, radar data, and public reports, ensuring a comprehensive and accurate record of tornado activity. Researchers and meteorologists use the TSMS Tornado Data to study the conditions that lead to tornado formation in Turkey, contributing to improved forecasting models and risk assessments.

The TSMS Tornado Data is an essential tool for disaster risk management and public safety. By providing historical data on tornado occurrences, it supports the development of effective preparedness and response strategies, helping to build community resilience and reduce the impact of severe weather events in Turkey.[301]

1.3.2.30. Mexican National Meteorological Service (SMN) Tornado Data

The Mexican National Meteorological Service (SMN) Tornado Data provides a comprehensive record of tornado occurrences in Mexico. This database includes detailed information such as the date, location, intensity, and impact of tornado events. Given Mexico’s diverse climate and weather patterns, this resource is crucial for understanding the occurrence and characteristics of tornadoes in the region.

Data is collected from various sources, including meteorological observations, radar data, and public reports, ensuring a comprehensive and accurate record of tornado activity. The SMN Tornado Data is used by researchers and meteorologists to study the patterns and behavior of tornadoes in Mexico, contributing to the development of improved forecasting models and risk assessments.

The SMN Tornado Data is an important resource for disaster risk management and public safety. By providing historical data on tornado occurrences, it supports the development of effective preparedness and response strategies, helping to build community resilience and reduce the impact of severe weather events in Mexico.[302]

1.3.2.31. Iranian Meteorological Organization (IRIMO) Tornado Database

The Iranian Meteorological Organization (IRIMO) Tornado Database offers a comprehensive record of tornado occurrences in Iran. This database includes detailed information such as the date, location, intensity, and impact of tornado events. Given Iran’s diverse geographical features and climate, this resource is essential for understanding the occurrence and characteristics of tornadoes in the region.

Data is gathered from various sources, including meteorological stations, radar observations, and public reports, ensuring a reliable and accurate record of tornado activity. Researchers and meteorologists use the IRIMO Tornado Database to study the patterns and behavior of tornadoes in Iran, contributing to the development of improved forecasting models and risk assessments.

The IRIMO Tornado Database is a valuable tool for disaster risk management and public safety. By providing historical data on tornado occurrences, it supports the development of effective preparedness and response strategies, helping to build community resilience and reduce the impact of severe weather events in Iran.[303]

1.3.2.32. Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD) Tornado Data

The Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD) Tornado Data provides a detailed record of tornado occurrences in Bangladesh. This database includes information on the date, location, intensity, and impact of tornado events, which, while less frequent than other weather phenomena, can still cause significant damage in the region. Given Bangladesh’s unique climate and weather patterns, this resource is crucial for understanding the occurrence and behavior of tornadoes in the country.

Data is collected from various sources, including meteorological observations, radar data, and public reports, ensuring a comprehensive and accurate record of tornado activity. Researchers and meteorologists use the BMD Tornado Data to study the conditions that lead to tornado formation in Bangladesh, contributing to improved forecasting models and risk assessments.

This database is an important tool for disaster risk management and public safety. By providing historical data on tornado occurrences, it supports the development of effective preparedness and response strategies, helping to build community resilience and reduce the impact of severe weather events in Bangladesh.[304]

1.3.2.33. Thailand Meteorological Department (TMD) Tornado Data

The Thailand Meteorological Department (TMD) Tornado Data provides a comprehensive record of tornado occurrences in Thailand. This database includes detailed information such as the date, location, intensity, and impact of tornado events. Although tornadoes are relatively rare in Thailand, understanding their characteristics and the conditions that lead to their formation in the country’s unique climate is crucial.

Data is collected from a variety of sources, including meteorological stations, radar observations, and public reports, ensuring a comprehensive and accurate record of tornado events. Researchers and meteorologists use the TMD Tornado Data to study the patterns and behavior of tornadoes in Thailand, contributing to the development of improved forecasting models and risk assessments.

The TMD Tornado Data is also an important tool for public safety and disaster risk management. By providing historical data on tornado occurrences, it supports the development of effective preparedness and response strategies, helping to build resilience and reduce the impact of severe weather events in Thailand.[305]

1.3.2.34. Malaysia Meteorological Department (MetMalaysia) Tornado Data

The Malaysia Meteorological Department (MetMalaysia) Tornado Data provides a detailed record of tornado occurrences in Malaysia. This database includes information on the date, location, intensity, and impact of tornado events, which are relatively rare but can still cause significant damage in the region. Given Malaysia’s unique climate and weather patterns, this resource is crucial for understanding the occurrence and behavior of tornadoes in the country.

Data is collected from various sources, including meteorological observations, radar data, and public reports, ensuring a comprehensive and accurate record of tornado events. Researchers and meteorologists use the MetMalaysia Tornado Data to study the conditions that lead to tornado formation in Malaysia, contributing to improved forecasting models and risk assessments.

This database is an important tool for disaster risk management and public safety. By providing historical data on tornado occurrences, it supports the development of effective preparedness and response strategies, helping to build community resilience and reduce the impact of severe weather events in Malaysia.[306]

1.3.2.35. Vietnam Meteorological and Hydrological Administration (VNMHA) Tornado Data

The Vietnam Meteorological and Hydrological Administration (VNMHA) Tornado Data offers a comprehensive record of tornado occurrences in Vietnam. This database includes detailed information on tornado events, including the date, location, intensity, and impact. Given Vietnam’s unique climate and geographical features, this resource is essential for understanding the occurrence and characteristics of tornadoes in the region.

Data is collected from a network of meteorological stations, radar observations, and public reports, ensuring an accurate and reliable record of tornado activity. Researchers and meteorologists use the VNMHA Tornado Data to study the patterns and behavior of tornadoes in Vietnam, contributing to the development of improved forecasting models and risk assessments. It also helps in understanding the potential impact of climate change on tornado activity in the region.

This database is an important resource for disaster risk management and public safety. By providing historical data on tornado occurrences, it supports the development of effective preparedness and response strategies, helping to build community resilience and reduce the impact of severe weather events in Vietnam.[307]

1.3.2.36. Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD) Tornado Data

The Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD) Tornado Data is a crucial resource for studying tornado activity in Pakistan. Although tornadoes are relatively rare in this region, the database offers comprehensive information on these events, including date, location, intensity, and impact. To ensure accuracy, the PMD collects data from various sources such as weather stations, radar observations, and eyewitness reports.

This database is invaluable for researchers and meteorologists who study the meteorological conditions that contribute to tornado formation in Pakistan’s diverse climate. Analyzing this data helps identify patterns and trends in tornado occurrences, which is essential for improving forecasting models and enhancing disaster risk assessments. Additionally, understanding tornado behavior in Pakistan supports the development of public safety measures and response strategies, helping to mitigate the impact of these severe weather events.

The PMD Tornado Data is also beneficial to the broader scientific community and disaster management agencies, providing valuable historical data for analysis and research. By improving our understanding of tornado dynamics in the region, this database aids in the creation of effective disaster preparedness and resilience strategies, protecting communities from the potentially devastating effects of tornadoes.[308]

1.3.2.37. Sri Lanka Department of Meteorology Tornado Data

The Sri Lanka Department of Meteorology Tornado Data serves as an important record of tornado occurrences in Sri Lanka. Tornadoes are infrequent in this tropical region, but they can have significant impacts when they do occur. This database includes detailed information on tornado events, such as date, location, intensity, and damage caused. It compiles data from multiple sources, including meteorological observations, radar data, and public reports, ensuring a thorough record of tornado activity.

This resource is crucial for understanding the unique meteorological conditions that can lead to tornado formation in Sri Lanka’s tropical climate. Researchers and meteorologists use this data to study the patterns and behavior of tornadoes, contributing to the improvement of forecasting models and enhancing our understanding of severe weather phenomena in the region.

In addition to research applications, the Sri Lanka Department of Meteorology Tornado Data is vital for disaster risk management and public safety. It aids in developing effective preparedness and response strategies by providing insights into historical tornado occurrences and their impact. By improving our knowledge of tornado risks, this database plays a critical role in building community resilience and mitigating the effects of these rare but potentially destructive events.[309]

1.3.2.38. Greece National Observatory of Athens Tornado Database

The Greece National Observatory of Athens Tornado Database is a key resource for tracking and analyzing tornado occurrences in Greece. This database contains detailed records of tornado events, including date, location, intensity, and the extent of damage. While tornadoes in Greece are not as common as in other regions, they still present a significant risk, making this database essential for understanding their characteristics and formation conditions within the Mediterranean climate.

Data is collected from various sources, such as meteorological stations, radar observations, and public reports, ensuring a comprehensive and accurate record of tornado activity. Researchers utilize this database to study the dynamics of tornado formation and identify patterns in their occurrence, which aids in the development of more accurate forecasting models and risk assessments.

The National Observatory of Athens Tornado Database also plays a critical role in supporting disaster risk management and public awareness efforts. By providing insights into historical tornado events, it helps develop preparedness and response strategies that can mitigate the impact of these severe weather phenomena. It contributes to advancing our knowledge of tornadoes and improving resilience against extreme weather conditions in Greece.[310]

1.3.2.39. Korean Meteorological Administration (KMA) Tornado Data

The Korean Meteorological Administration (KMA) Tornado Data offers a comprehensive record of tornado occurrences in South Korea. Although tornadoes are relatively infrequent in this region, the database provides essential information on events, including the date, location, intensity, and resulting damage. The KMA gathers data from an extensive network of meteorological stations, radar systems, and eyewitness reports, ensuring a detailed and accurate record of tornado activity.

This database is vital for meteorologists and researchers studying the unique meteorological conditions that lead to tornado formation in South Korea’s climate. By analyzing the data, researchers can improve forecasting models, identify patterns in tornado occurrences, and enhance risk assessments. This work contributes to better public safety measures and disaster preparedness strategies.

The KMA Tornado Data is also a valuable resource for disaster management agencies and the general public. By providing insights into the historical occurrence and impact of tornadoes, it supports the development of effective response strategies and promotes community awareness about tornado risks. Enhancing our understanding of these rare but potentially destructive events, the KMA Tornado Data plays a key role in building resilience and mitigating the impact of severe weather phenomena in South Korea.[311]

1.3.2.40. Israeli Meteorological Service Tornado Data

The Israeli Meteorological Service Tornado Data is a comprehensive resource that documents tornado occurrences in Israel. While tornadoes are relatively uncommon in this region, the database provides crucial information on events, including date, location, intensity, and the extent of damage caused. Data is collected through various methods, such as meteorological observations, radar data, and eyewitness accounts, ensuring a reliable and detailed record of tornado activity.

This database is instrumental for researchers and meteorologists aiming to understand the conditions that lead to tornado formation in Israel’s diverse climate. By analyzing these patterns, researchers contribute to the development of improved forecasting models and risk assessments, enhancing public safety and disaster preparedness.

The Israeli Meteorological Service Tornado Data is also an essential tool for disaster risk management and public awareness efforts. It supports the development of effective response strategies by providing insights into the historical occurrence and impact of tornadoes in Israel. By increasing our understanding of these rare events, the database aids in building resilience and reducing the impact of severe weather phenomena on communities in Israel.[312]

1.4. Biological Hazards and Disasters

Biological hazards and disasters are events triggered by harmful biological agents like viruses, bacteria, toxins, and invasive species. These agents can lead to widespread illness, ecological damage, and even fatalities [130, 207-212]. Such hazards can arise from natural ecosystems, human activities, or the unintentional—or intentional—release of dangerous biological materials[213-218]. These biological disasters can manifest in various forms, including epidemics, pandemics, bioterrorism, or the spread of invasive species that negatively impact agriculture, wildlife, and human health. The fallout from these events is often profound, affecting not only public health but also economies, ecosystems, and the stability of societies [174, 208, 219-222].

Among the most serious biological disasters in recent history are pandemics [223]. A pandemic is a large-scale outbreak of an infectious disease that crosses international borders and affects millions of people. A prime example is the COVID-19 pandemic, which caused widespread global disruption, killing millions and devastating economies. The virus spread quickly through respiratory droplets, moving faster due to the interconnectedness of modern travel and trade. COVID-19 overwhelmed healthcare systems worldwide, leading to lockdowns and societal disruption. This crisis underscored the vital need for global disease surveillance, rapid response measures, early detection, and international cooperation in managing biological disasters[208, 213, 224-227].

On a smaller scale, but still posing significant risks, are epidemics. An epidemic is an outbreak of a disease confined to a specific geographic region, but with a sudden rise in cases. Diseases like Ebola, Zika, and dengue fever have caused devastating epidemics in various parts of the world. For instance, the Ebola epidemic that swept through West Africa between 2014 and 2016 resulted in thousands of deaths and had long-lasting impacts on the affected communities. Stopping an epidemic requires quick identification of the disease, efficient quarantine procedures, and adequate healthcare systems to handle the surge of cases[207, 228-230].

Bioterrorism, where harmful biological agents are intentionally released to cause widespread illness or death, is another type of biological hazard. The use of biological weapons, such as anthrax or botulinum toxin, presents a unique challenge that blends public health and national security concerns. Bioterrorism can trigger widespread fear and illness, causing casualties among people, animals, or plants. Preventing such events requires robust biosecurity measures, rapid detection capabilities, and coordinated efforts between governments, law enforcement, and public health agencies[231-235].

Zoonotic diseases, or diseases transmitted from animals to humans, are another major biological threat[236]. Many of the most dangerous pathogens, including those responsible for Ebola, COVID-19, and SARS, originated in animals before jumping to humans. The risk of zoonotic diseases increases as human populations encroach on wildlife habitats through activities such as deforestation, agricultural expansion, and the wildlife trade. Addressing these risks involves better monitoring of animal health, regulating the wildlife trade, and conserving natural habitats to minimize human-wildlife contact[237].

Invasive species also pose a significant threat to ecosystems and economies[238]. When non-native plants, animals, or insects spread into new environments, they often outcompete local species, disrupt food chains, and cause severe agricultural or environmental damage. For example, the spread of the Asian long-horned beetle in North America has caused serious harm to forests and urban trees, while the introduction of the Nile perch into Lake Victoria has drastically reduced native fish populations. Combating invasive species requires vigilance in monitoring ecosystems, preventing new introductions, and implementing control measures to stop their spread.

Mitigating biological hazards and disasters requires a multi-faceted approach. Effective disease surveillance, early warning systems, strong healthcare infrastructure, and public education are essential in reducing the impact of such events. Vaccination programs and access to treatments are critical components of healthcare preparedness. Additionally, global cooperation, through organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO), is crucial for coordinating responses to these cross-border biological threats.

Biotechnology has also become increasingly important in managing biological hazards. Advances in genetic engineering and molecular biology allow scientists to develop vaccines, treatments, and diagnostic tools more quickly than ever before. For instance, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the rapid development of mRNA vaccines highlighted the potential of biotechnology in tackling global health emergencies. However, the same technologies that offer solutions can also pose risks if not properly regulated, making it essential to maintain strict oversight of biotechnology research and development to prevent misuse.

1.4.1. Epidemics and Pandemics

1.4.1.1. World Health Organization (WHO) Global Health Observatory (GHO) Data

The Global Health Observatory (GHO) Data is provided by the World Health Organisation for its Member States. It is a comprehensive data archive on priority health issues ranging from child nutrition to gender equality, risk factors and disease burden. It provides access to over 1000 indicators ranging from A for Abortion rate estimate to Z for Zero vegtable or fruit consumption. The comparability of the results across countries and years is considered a major challenge. The statistics are subject to constant adjustment, depending on whether more precise data or new measurement methods become available at a later date. The website is available in 7 languages (Russian, Chinese, Portuguese, Spanish, Arabic, English and French). The WHO principles behind this database are making data available as a public good, maintain trust in data through transparency and good coordination with Member States, manage data and health information systems capacity and close data gaps. In addition to general information, related publications and statistical releases are available.

Covering a wide range of issues—from child nutrition and gender equality to disease burdens and risk factors—the GHO features data for over 1,000 health indicators. Whether it’s information on abortion rates or dietary habits like fruit and vegetable consumption, this resource offers a clear snapshot of health trends across the globe.

The GHO Data proves to be an essential tool for health professionals, policymakers, researchers, and international organizations. It provides real-time statistics that enable users to track health conditions across different regions. What sets this database apart is its immense depth, offering users a chance to explore key global health trends in greater detail than many other platforms allow.

However, one of the primary challenges with the GHO database lies in comparing health data across countries or over time. Each country collects and reports health information in its own way, leading to discrepancies that can make it difficult to align datasets or detect consistent trends. This is further complicated by the fact that health data often undergoes revisions as improved methodologies and more accurate measurements become available. As a result, the dynamic nature of health data can introduce complexities when attempting long-term analyses or comparisons.

Despite these challenges, WHO remains committed to making this data widely accessible as a global public good. The GHO platform is openly available in seven major languages—Russian, Chinese, Portuguese, Spanish, Arabic, English, and French—ensuring that people worldwide can use it with ease. WHO places a strong emphasis on transparency, working closely with its Member States to guarantee that the data is reliable, representative, and useful for a wide range of global health stakeholders.

Additionally, the GHO goes beyond simply providing data. It actively supports Member States, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, by helping them improve their health data collection and reporting systems. This effort is crucial for reducing disparities in global health data and ensuring that health trends in all regions are accurately reflected. By strengthening local data systems, the GHO is playing a key role in addressing gaps in global health information.

The GHO platform also offers more than just raw statistics. Users have access to a variety of related resources, including research papers, reports, and publications that put the data into a broader context. This makes the GHO an indispensable resource for anyone looking to deepen their understanding of global health issues.

In summary, WHO’s Global Health Observatory (GHO) Data is a vital resource for the global health community, offering a vast array of publicly accessible health data. Its commitment to transparency, focus on bridging data gaps, and comprehensive range of health indicators make it an indispensable tool. While challenges around data comparability and constant updates do exist, the GHO remains an essential platform for anyone keeping a close eye on global health trends.[313]

1.4.1.2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) WONDER

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) WONDER (Wide-ranging Online Data for Epidemiologic Research) is an online platform that gives researchers, policymakers, and public health professionals easy access to a wealth of public health data. It’s designed to simplify complex epidemiological information, allowing users to search through datasets on a variety of health topics like mortality rates, disease patterns, environmental exposures, and healthcare statistics.

CDC WONDER is an incredible resource for analyzing trends, running statistical queries, and creating custom reports on all kinds of health-related issues. The platform helps support epidemiological research by providing timely, accurate, and comprehensive data, making it easier to base decisions on solid evidence.

One of the best things about CDC WONDER is its flexibility and the wide range of data it offers. It pulls together information from multiple CDC divisions and other public health agencies, making it a one-stop shop for public health surveillance. Users can dive deep into the data by filtering it by specific demographics like age, gender, race, location, and time period, which makes it possible to break down health trends across different populations.

That said, like many public health data systems, CDC WONDER isn’t without its challenges. One issue is that data comparability can be tricky, especially when you’re looking across different years or regions. As data collection methods and health metrics evolve, older datasets might not perfectly match up with newer ones, making long-term studies a bit more complicated. Plus, while the platform is highly accessible, its wide range of features and options can be overwhelming for users who aren’t familiar with epidemiology or public health data analysis.

Accessibility is a big priority for CDC WONDER, making sure that the data is available to a wide audience. The platform is also committed to transparency, with detailed documentation for each dataset that explains where the data comes from, how it was collected, and any limitations. This level of openness aligns with the CDC’s broader mission to improve public health through evidence-based research.

What’s also great about CDC WONDER is how it integrates various public health datasets. You can explore everything from vital statistics, like birth and death rates, to cancer incidence, vaccination data, and environmental health indicators. This lets users track specific health outcomes and even look into how different health variables might be connected, helping to paint a fuller picture of public health trends and risks.

In short, CDC WONDER is a vital tool for anyone involved in epidemiological research or public health surveillance. Its ability to provide detailed, customizable data makes it a powerful resource for understanding health trends, supporting public health efforts, and guiding policy decisions. While there are some challenges around data comparability and the platform’s complexity, it remains an essential tool for improving public health research and response.[314]

1.4.1.3. Global Health Data Exchange (GHDx)

The Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation at the University of Washington offers the Global Health Data Exchange (GHDx) data catalog. This offer is based on the fact that research submissions as well as government organizations or other data owners often do not share the data or only make it visible on their own websites. On the GHDx, this data on health and population is brought together. A dataset is a catalog entry. A dataset can contain one or more files and the data collection methodology and source reference are visible. In this database, administrative data is collected, censuses, demographic surveillance, disease registers, environmental monitoring and epi surveillance. he GHDx supports the mission of the IHME (Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation) by making the most up-to-date data sets on global health visible in one place. When using data from GHDx it is recommended to cite clearly the data contributor.^[315]

1.4.1.4. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) Surveillance Atlas

The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) Surveillance Atlas is an interactive online tool that gives users access to data on infectious diseases across Europe. It’s a key resource for public health professionals, researchers, and policymakers who need to track trends, compare disease outbreaks between countries, and evaluate the effectiveness of public health measures. The Atlas focuses on infectious diseases that are particularly important for public health in the European Union and European Economic Area (EU/EEA).

The ECDC Surveillance Atlas covers a wide range of diseases, including influenza, tuberculosis, HIV, and vaccine-preventable illnesses like measles and mumps. One of its biggest strengths is its ability to present data visually, using maps and graphs to show where diseases are spreading. This makes it easy to spot trends, see high-risk areas, and monitor how well public health responses are working over time. Users can filter the data by country, disease, and time period, giving them highly customized access to surveillance information. You can explore how diseases are changing over time or dig into specific details like incidence rates by age group or gender. This level of detail is crucial for designing targeted public health interventions and understanding what’s driving disease outbreaks.

However, like many international databases, one of the challenges the ECDC Surveillance Atlas faces is making sure data is comparable across different countries. Differences in how countries report diseases, their healthcare systems, and even diagnostic tools can affect the accuracy of the data. This means that some countries might underreport or overreport certain diseases, which can make it tough to compare data between countries.

The ECDC Surveillance Atlas is also committed to transparency and accessibility. All the data is open to the public, and users can download raw datasets for deeper analysis. This open access reflects the ECDC’s commitment to supporting evidence-based public health practice and research. The platform also provides detailed metadata, explaining where the data comes from, how it’s collected, and any limitations users should be aware of. Beyond tracking disease outbreaks, the ECDC Surveillance Atlas is an important tool for measuring progress toward public health goals, like eliminating certain infectious diseases. By giving users a clear and accessible overview of disease data, the platform helps inform decisions at both the national and EU levels, and it plays a crucial role in improving disease prevention and control across Europe.[316]

1.4.1.5. GISAID – Global Initiative on Sharing Avian Influenza Data

When global public health is threatened by the spread of infectious diseases, the personal interests of individuals and nations must not stand in the way of data sharing. However, making such current and sensitive data transparent is associated with risks, e.g. that it can be used more quickly by others for scientific publications without the data collector being named, that data evaluations and the associated loss of control or loss of national property rights lead to economic disadvantages for countries, etc. To counteract these and other challenges, an exchange agreement was developed, which eventually became known as GISAID. GISAID seeks to build trust in the database by providing regulated data access based on specific terms of use through transparency and data security. All users of the GISAID database receive personal access data only after disclosing their identity and agreeing to the terms of use, as the original publication guidelines did not build trust^[317]. This initiative is a successful illustration of how the needs and concerns of individual stakeholders can be taken into account to achieve a win-win strategy.

1.4.1.6. International Severe Acute Respiratory and Emerging Infection Consortium (ISARIC) Data

International Severe Acute Respiratory and emerging Infection Consortium is a network of networks around the world to collect data on infectious diseases. The data includes clinical data, including detailed individual patient data. In this way, standardized data variables are made available to the scientific community for use, adaptation and research into specific clinical questions. To ensure data security, specific guidelines for data use must be adhered to. Data can only be accessed after appropriate consent has been given.^[318]

1.4.1.7. HealthMap

Health map is based on information from more than 20,000 websites (from news and personal reports to official sources) and from websites in various languages. The heterogeneous data generated from this is brought together in a clear and concise manner. This enables the geographical allocation of infectious diseases worldwide in almost real time. The Health Map is operated by Boston Children’s Hospital. The user’s own location or a targeted search, e.g. for a travel destination, brings to light current information on illnesses, sorted by date, illness, place of occurrence, species, number of cases and deaths. The website serves as a guide when traveling abroad and is also an important basis for civil servants to be informed about current developments. It is a valuable source of data as an early detection system or to support risk assessment.^[319]

1.4.1.8. The Global Fund Data Explorer

The Global Fund Data Explorer is a database that makes the Global Fund’s investments and effectiveness transparent. It focuses on investments in the three infectious diseases AIDS, tuberculosis (TB) and malaria with the intention of enabling a healthier and safer future for particularly affected countries through these financial contributions. With the Global Fund, money is allocated and the countries must then be transparent about how they want to use it. This financing structure offers the recipients more independence and personal responsibility and at the same time requires a good control instrument for quality assurance. In the Global Fund Data Explorer, financial grants and impact can be viewed according to geographical allocation. The geographical overview is divided into the categories Africa, Asia, America, Europe, Oceania and World. The subcategories are subdivided into, for example, East, Central, North or Multi-countries and below this there is a list of the countries supported. The database provides a quantitative overview of the total amount of funding, the allocation for infectious diseases in percentage and US dollars and the annual results, such as the specific number of HIV tests enabled. A “Grant” category attempts to link the allocation of funds to specific objectives and to make it measurable by means of predefined impact, outcome and coverage indicators. Under the Dataset category, the allocation of funds can be traced back to 2003 in a clear country comparison.

This transparency database for the use of funds is, on the one hand, indispensable for building the confidence of donors, but also a kind of monitoring of the effectiveness of the measures. At the same time, there is a lack of in-depth analyses that provide details on the effectiveness of the measures. This would only be possible through the integration of mixed-methods approaches. At the very least, a link to further, qualitative analyses would be interesting.^[320]

1.4.1.9. World Bank Open Data – Health, Nutrition, and Population Statistics

The World Bank, which consists of 189 member countries, has a comprehensive statistical data collection on health, nutrition and population (HNP), which can be accessed by country, theme or wealth quintile. Health indicators include causes of death, education, health financing, HIV, immunization, infectious diseases, medical resources and usage, non-communicable diseases, nutrition, population dynamics, reproductive health, water and sanitation. Indicators in the Population area focus on population dynamics and in the Health by Wealth area are divided into Childhood Diseases, Mortality, nutrition, Other Determinants of Health, Sexual and Reproductive Health. Depending on the search criteria selected, it is possible to obtain visual representations in the form of tables, diagrams or maps based on the statistical data collected.^[321]

1.4.1.10. Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) Data

IHME, based at the University of Washington School of Medicine, is an independent research organization that provides primary and secondary data in an open source format to inform policy makers and contribute to a healthier society. IHME offers the Global Health Data Exchange (GHDx), a data catalog that includes health and demographic trends. The catalog also contains a variety of data from partner organizations. The Global Burden Disease 2019 dataset (primary data and codes) comes from IHME itself. GBD includes interactive data visualizations, country profiles and risk fact sheets, e.g. you can search the IHME database for censuses, surveys, disease registries, event data and scientific literature. The platform also offers video tutorials explaining how to find the data.^[322]

1.4.1.11. COVID-19 Data Repository by the Center for Systems Science and Engineering (CSSE) at Johns Hopkins University

The Center for Systems Science and Engineering (CSSE) at Johns Hopkins University offers past data on the global development of the COVID-19 pandemic. Data in the repository were collected between 2020 and 2023 and contain information on the number of infected cases reported, recoveries and deaths at the national, state and province level. Members of CSSE published the main limitation in data collection for this novel event was the difficulty of standardization. This problem was evident at all levels from documentation of infected cases, information about recoveries to documentation of deaths. Differences in when someone was considered to have tested positive (date of sample collection or date of public report) or whether someone died due to COVID-19, depending on the date of death, or the date of issuance of a death certificate or public notification). The documentation of vaccination rates also shows the difficulty of keeping an overview of the partial or full recovery rates because of the different forms of vaccines. This weaknesses need to be considered when analyzing the data or rather using the data set.^[323]

1.4.1.12. Public Health England (PHE) Health Protection Data

The Office for Health Improvement and Disparities of the United Kingdom offers the so-called Health Protection Data, data that can be searched by region. The platform serves as an information basis for health authorities. The main aim is to promote local and regional health protection. You can search specifically for predefined topics such as Sexual Productive Health Profiles etc. In the next step, all kinds of different subcategories such as data on documented sexually transmitted disease infections, vaccination rates, data on sexual violence, etc. appear and an upward or downward trend is indicated. Clicking inside takes you to health profiles in table and chart form including indicators, definitions and supporting information.^[324]

1.4.1.13. Canadian Institute for Health Information (CIHI)

The Canadian Institute for Health Information (CIHI) is an independent, not-for-profit organization that plays a key role in gathering and sharing essential data about Canada’s health care system and the health of its population. CIHI collects, manages, and publishes health-related information that’s used by governments, health care providers, researchers, and policymakers to improve the quality of care and health outcomes across the country. The organization’s main goal is to promote transparency and support evidence-based decisions in the health sector.

CIHI oversees several major databases that cover a wide range of health care areas, including hospital care, pharmaceuticals, patient safety, health workforce stats, and long-term care. These datasets give users the ability to track health care trends, evaluate how the health system is performing, and measure the impact of public health initiatives. One of CIHI’s biggest strengths is its commitment to providing accurate and comprehensive data. They work closely with federal, provincial, and territorial governments, as well as health care institutions, to collect standardized health data. This collaboration helps ensure that health statistics are consistent and reliable across the country, which is crucial for making comparisons between regions and health systems.

CIHI’s data is frequently used to monitor health care costs, access to care, patient outcomes, and equity in health services. This information helps identify areas that need improvement—whether it’s cutting down wait times, improving patient safety, or addressing disparities in health care between different populations. CIHI also regularly publishes reports and studies that offer valuable insights into the state of health care in Canada, giving policymakers and health care professionals the guidance they need to make informed decisions.

Another important role that CIHI plays is in promoting accountability within the health care system. Their data helps governments and health care providers measure performance, set goals, and track progress toward national and provincial health objectives. CIHI also supports public health research by giving researchers access to high-quality data, which can be used to analyze health trends and shape future health policies.

One of the challenges CIHI faces, like many other health data organizations, is balancing data accessibility with privacy. Health data is incredibly sensitive, and CIHI is committed to protecting personal health information while still making useful data available to the public and researchers. They follow strict privacy policies and data governance practices to ensure that the data is secure and used responsibly. CIHI’s data and reports are easy to access through their online platform, where users can find a variety of health indicators, publications, and data tables. The website is designed to be user-friendly, allowing stakeholders to explore health data with interactive tools, custom searches, and downloadable reports. By making this information readily available, CIHI ensures that decision-makers at all levels have the evidence they need to improve Canada’s health care system..^[325]

1.4.1.14. Australian Department of Health – National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System (NNDSS)

Notifiable diseases are those risks that can endanger public health and are therefore subject to regular monitoring. All reported cases are brought together via this system, which covers around 70 diseases. If than clicking on one interested disease you get general facts about the respective disease, prevention measures, information on vaccinations, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment. For this reason, the website for which the Australian government is responsible also appears to be of interest to the civilian population. New cases are reported by territorial and state health authorities. Not all data and cases are always disclosed, which limits the collection system. Nevertheless, the surveillance system helps to ensure both emergency management (e.g. quarantine measures) and long-term risk management – i.e. influence on health policy through an overview of developments. With the limitation that not all data is always disclosed exactly, there is nevertheless a standardized collection structure according to spatial and temporal allocation of the outbreak and notification of the disease, incl. disease code, information on the person affected (gender, age, indigenous status, place of residence). Data monitoring serves public health and is therefore relevant for politics and health authorities. The data records are updated annually in the case of influenza, meningococcus, pneumococcus and salmonellosis.^[326]

1.4.1.15. China CDC Weekly

Is a communication platform of the National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China, which reaches out to its readership via weekly publications of surveillance data as well as reports and recommendations. Its target audience includes multipliers such as teachers, public health doctors and the media.^[327] In some months, focal points are set that determine the topics of the weekly published reports, such as adolescent mental health issue and reports/research articles are then focusing on e.g. child and adolescent mental health, depressive symptoms in chinese adolecents etc. In addition to the scientific reports, which are presented weekly in a long and a short version, the platform does not offer data sets in the sense that they can be further processed, but mainly collections and reports, including monitoring reports. This platform is specifically used by the government to guide and influence health protection measurements or risk awareness.^[328]

1.4.1.16. India National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC)

The National Centre for Disease Control developed from the originally high malaria risk in India, until this was drastically reduced due to the national malaria eradication program, other diseases were monitored. In addition to recording current developments, research and teaching are integrated into the institute. There are now various departments in this center, AIDS and related diseases, center for arobviral and zoonotic diseases, center for bacterial diseases, drug resistance, containment of antimicrobial resistance, center for environment, occupational health, climate change and health, etc. . In fact, there are 20 sub-divisions dedicated to monitoring or researching specific public health challenges in India.^[329]

1.4.1.17. Brazil Ministry of Health – InfoGripe

InfoGripe is a crucial data platform managed by Brazil’s Ministry of Health, created to monitor trends in respiratory illnesses—especially flu-like syndromes (Síndrome Respiratória Aguda Grave – SRAG) like influenza—across the country. As part of Brazil’s broader epidemiological surveillance system, InfoGripe provides real-time data to track and prevent respiratory diseases, including influenza and more recently, COVID-19.

The platform offers weekly updates on respiratory illness trends from all regions of Brazil, pulling in data from hospitals, healthcare providers, and labs. It tracks both mild and severe cases of respiratory illness, helping officials spot patterns over time, identify outbreaks, and give early warnings when a potential epidemic is on the horizon. This is especially important for enabling public health authorities to step in with timely measures.

One of InfoGripe’s key strengths is how it pulls together data from different parts of the healthcare system. It gathers information on hospitalizations due to SRAG, confirmed cases in labs, and the spread of cases across Brazil’s vast regions. This comprehensive view allows public health officials and policymakers to quickly assess how serious an outbreak is and respond appropriately with things like vaccination campaigns, public health alerts, or even quarantine measures when needed.

InfoGripe has been especially critical during seasonal flu outbreaks and pandemics like COVID-19. During the pandemic, it played a central role in tracking severe respiratory illness and monitoring the virus’s spread, providing real-time insights into how Brazil’s health system was coping with the surge in cases. The platform also offers predictive analytics, which help officials forecast future outbreaks by analyzing current trends and past data patterns.

Like many large-scale public health surveillance systems, InfoGripe faces some challenges. One of the main issues is ensuring that all regions, particularly more remote areas with less developed healthcare infrastructure, report data on time and accurately. There can also be differences in healthcare access, reporting standards, and diagnostic capabilities between regions, making it harder to compare data across the board.

Despite these challenges, InfoGripe is committed to transparency and public access. Its online platform allows researchers, healthcare professionals, and even the general public to access data easily, with customizable reports, visual tools, and downloadable datasets. This openness makes it not only a vital tool for managing public health but also a valuable resource for research into respiratory diseases and the effectiveness of public health interventions.[330]

1.4.1.18. Russia Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Wellbeing (Rospotrebnadzor)

1.4.1.19. South African National Institute for Communicable Diseases (NICD)

1.4.1.20. Japan National Institute of Infectious Diseases (NIID)

1.4.1.21. Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (KCDC)

1.4.1.22. Singapore Ministry of Health (MOH) Disease Outbreak Data

1.4.1.23. New Zealand Ministry of Health – Notifiable Diseases

1.4.1.24. United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Data

1.4.1.25. Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) Health Data

1.4.1.26. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) Disaster Response Data

1.4.1.27. Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network (GOARN)

1.4.1.28. Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (Africa CDC)

1.4.1.29. Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) Health Data

1.4.1.30. World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) Disease Data

1.4.4.31. Our World in Data – Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19)

Our World in Data – Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19) provides a clear overview of current global developments relating to COVID-19 and makes them available in data sets. This database contains daily updated data, categorized into deaths, cases, tests, hospitalizations, vaccinations, mortality risk, excess mortality and policy measures. In the data explorer you can download the full data set on COVID-19, which contains information on the following points: metrics, source, access/update and number of countries included. The files are available in CSV, XLSX and JSON formats.^[331]

1.4.4.32.Our World in Data – Pandemics

Our world in Data is a publicly accessible platform based on a private initiative by a scientist, financed by grants and reader donations. A small team of data specialists and visual designers are working to make global problems (from health to violence, hunger and humanity’s impact on the environment) visible and comprehensible to policy makers and the general public. The web-based infrastructure needed to publish relevant data and research is being developed. The moral objective behind this is to make progress on the world’s biggest problems on the basis of the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It is not clear which specific criteria are used to select the research and data presented. The clear nature of the sources and citation recommendations as well as the clear presentation of scientific findings should be emphasized positively. The Introduction, Research & Writing and Charts subfolders can be found under the Pandemic chapter. There are reports on COVID-19 or Influenca, topics and contexts are opened up, such as the pandemic and its impact on poverty. Our world in Data formulates in simple language, e.g. “How new vaccines can help”,thus information is tailored to the general public and presented in a user-oriented way.^[332]

1.4.4.33.World Health Organization (WHO) Hub for Pandemic and Epidemic Intelligence

In response to the experience of challenges with rapid data collection of a new event, as was the case with the COVID-19 pandemic, the WHO has established the Hub for Pandemic and Epidemic Intelligence to optimize global surveillance of emerging health threats. It is part of a new Department of Health Emergency Intelligence and Surveillance Systems based in the Health Emergencies Program at WHO headquarters. All WHO member states are cooperating in this context, including cooperation with all 6 WHO regional offices. The strategic goals of this new architecture are to create a multidisciplinary, collaborative information environment that enables better coordinated and standardized data management, resulting in better analyses and a sound data basis for policy makers to derive measures. Essentially, the idea is based on linking various local, regional and global initiatives and connecting innovators, scientists and experts from a wide range of disciplines. This hub also develops guidelines that define a new global standard for contact tracing. The aim is to ensure a common level of knowledge and a standardized data collection structure at all levels, which will be adhered to based on previously established relationships of trust.^[333] This initiative is a vivid example of the effort to integrate experience into forward-looking risk management.^[334]

1.4.4.34.CDC National Outbreak Reporting System (NORS)

The Centers for Disease, Control and Prevention in the United States is a national service organization that has been providing a dynamic National Outbreak Reporting System for waterborne diseases, foodborne diseases, human-to-human diseases, animal contact diseases, pollution-related diseases and other infectious diseases since 2009. The system is voluntarily used by local, state and territorial health departments in the United States to document any outbreaks. The reporting criteria are a.) the modes of infection and b.) the occurrence of at least two or more cases of a similar disease as a result of a common exposure and c.) with an outbreak in the United States. The date of the outbreak, the location, the number of infected persons, the description of the symptoms and the pathogen responsible for the disease are reported. In addition to the outbreak documentation, NORS receives further test results, e.g. clinical and epidemiological data, which are then verified by the CDC and analyzed with regard to national trends, for example. The web-based reporting system is intended to improve the health of the population by monitoring disease outbreaks. Nevertheless, there are some limitations mentioned, because the reporting of outbreaks to CDC NORS is voluntary and it is suspected that rather too few outbreaks are reported. Only a small proportion of the cases reported each year are linked to outbreaks, so distribution and sources of infection are often not accurately identified. In addition, outbreaks on cruise ships with international ports of call and outbreaks where exposure occurred outside the US are not monitored via NORS.^[335]

1.4.4.35.CDC COVID Data Tracker

The Centers for Disease, Control and Prevention in the USA is a national service organization that offers a special COVID Data Tracker with trends and maps based on scientifically sound COVID-19 data on topics such as hospitalizations, deaths, emergency room visits, vaccination coverage and vaccine effectiveness. There is also constantly updated data on variants & genomic surveillance and wastewater surveillance. In addition, tracking focuses on key topics such as Covid-19 and pediatrics, health equity or pregnancy. The aim is to protect the health of the population through surveillance and to provide a basis for political decisions. This database also takes into account the dynamic process during the course of the pandemic and the associated regulatory measures. This means, for example, that hospitals are no longer required to report since May 2024, but data is now collected on a voluntary basis. Results are documented as trends. The website also contains updated information on possible protective measures and thus addresses the general public as well as political decision-makers and, due to the availability of data, public health researchers.^[336]

1.4.4.36.WHO COVID-19 Research Article Database

The COVID-19 Research Database of WHO is an expression of rapid situational adaptation to a newly emerging virus and disease phenomenon. In order to avoid having to wait for lengthy review processes and to make previous findings quickly available at a global level, abstracts, preprints or clinical trials were also visualized on this database. This database was available between March 2020, i.e. the start of the coronavirus pandemic, and June 2023 and therefore fulfilled an important interim purpose in order to quickly gain knowledge about the development of vaccines, symptoms and risk factors, etc. As evidence-based peer-reviewed literature is now available, this database has sensibly no longer been accessible since January 2024, only archived.^[337]

1.4.4.37.Johns Hopkins Coronavirus Resource Center

From January 2020 to March 2023, the Johns Hopkins Coronavirus Resource Center created and maintained a pandemic database that visualized the development of the pandemic in near real-time, made it public and gained global attention.

The documented data serves to inform the public and political decision-makers and became a central monitoring tool in the situation, as Johns Hopkins University was obviously able to react faster and more adaptively than the federal government was able to do in the area of pandemic data collection.

As the need for close documentation has decreased and governments have already implemented good documentation strategies, the Johns Hopkins Coronavirus Resource Center has been deactivated. Access to two repositories of past data is freely available, focusing on global cases and deaths and global vaccination data, testing information, and demographic data.^[338]

1.4.4.38.Global Health Data Explorer – Our World in Data

World in Data – a private initiative – strives to ensure that data is presented in a way that is appropriate for the target group. The data is explained and prepared for the public, multipliers (e.g. teachers) and political decision-makers in an understandable way. In principle, the topics are geared towards global problems with the aim of making backgrounds, developments and correlations understandable through data availability and thus supporting improvements. Under the Resources folder you will find the subfolder Charts and Explorers, in which the global problems are listed in subcategories such as Conflict Data Source in alphabetical order. There is visual information (diagrams) whose interrelationships are explained in an understandable way. Various topics are highlighted in so called Daily Data Insights, a platform that provides overviews of current developments and daily reports on global issues. It is unclear on what basis the content presented is selected. The website offers a Sustainable Development Goal Tracker and a Teaching Hub, which makes the data available for teaching purposes. The data presented often comes from sources such as the World Bank, the OECD or the United Nations, etc.^[339]

1.4.4.39.ECDC Surveillance Atlas of Infectious Diseases

The Surveillance Atlas of Infectious Diseases is provided by the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, an agency of the European Union. The data are collected within the framework of the European surveillance system (TESSy). The overview of the data refers to WHO European Region and the European Economic Area (EEA) which includes EU countries and also Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway. The Infectious disease topics are sorted alphabetically. They can be sorted by health topic (all forms of relevant infectious diseases), subpopulation, and indicator. Depending on the infectious disease topic, the indicator is very differently differentiated from only reported cases to separated by age, hospitalized cases, death rates, etc. Year information, e.g. all data from 2022 and geographical search function are possible to get an overview map and diagrams as well as CSV files for download. Overall, this database offers the latest data sets on the epidemiological and virological situation in the EU. The data can be downloaded and processed by the user. The database serves as a basis for political measures by the European Commission and the Member States and all organizations active in the field of public health in order to be able to react to infection developments in good time.^[340]

1.4.4.40.BEAM Dashboard – CDC

BEAM stands for Bacteria, Enterics, Amoeba and Mycotics, a dashboard that provides an overview of zoonotic infectious diseases. The database is operated by the US Center for Disease Control and Prevention at the National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases to promote public health. The data is organized by region, pathogen trends and most common serotypes, serotypes of concern in terms of disease outbreaks to burden and trajectory. The data is made available to the general public and health authorities, as well as academia and industry. An outbreak is said to occur when two or more cases fall ill due to the same cause. There are certain inaccuracies here in that where NORS (National Outbreak Reporting System) data is used, it is updated annually. The NORS data collection is also dependent on reported cases. For example, diseases contracted abroad are not documented here. Not all infections are always detected and investigated or documented. Real-time data would actually be the long-term goal.^[341]

1.4.2. Wildfires

1.4.2.1. NASA Fire Information for Resource Management System (FIRMS)

The NASA Fire Information for Resource Management System (FIRMS) is a satellite-based platform that provides near-real-time data on global fire occurrences. FIRMS was developed by NASA to support resource management and monitoring efforts, allowing users to access fire alerts, analyze fire activity, and assess fire impact. This system integrates data from satellite sensors like MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) and VIIRS (Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) to provide accurate and timely fire information.

FIRMS offers a variety of data products, including fire location, detection frequency, and intensity. The platform also provides historical data, allowing researchers to analyze fire trends over time and assess how fire patterns change in response to climate and land-use shifts. This historical data is invaluable for understanding regional fire risks and planning fire management strategies.

Users can access FIRMS data through a web-based portal, where they can set up automated email alerts for specific regions and customize data downloads based on specific timeframes and geographic areas. The system also provides visual mapping tools, enabling users to visualize fire occurrences across regions and identify patterns in fire activity.

FIRMS supports global fire monitoring efforts and is widely used by resource managers, conservationists, and policymakers to make informed decisions about fire risk and resource allocation. The platform plays a crucial role in global fire management, contributing to efforts to mitigate fire-related environmental and societal impacts.[342]

1.4.2.2. Global Fire Emissions Database (GFED)

The Global Fire Emissions Database (GFED) provides comprehensive data on fire emissions and their effects on the atmosphere, climate, and ecosystems. GFED is a collaborative effort between NASA, the European Space Agency, and other scientific institutions, focusing on quantifying the greenhouse gas emissions from fires worldwide. The database integrates satellite data with climate and land-use models to estimate emissions from fires at various scales.

GFED includes detailed information on carbon emissions, particulate matter, and other pollutants released during fires. This data is essential for understanding the impact of fire emissions on air quality, public health, and global climate systems. By providing data at regional and global scales, GFED supports researchers studying the role of fires in the carbon cycle and the climate system.

In addition to emission estimates, GFED offers tools for analyzing fire trends and their correlation with factors like temperature, rainfall, and human activity. Researchers and policymakers use GFED data to understand fire behavior in different ecosystems, assess long-term fire risks, and inform policies aimed at reducing emissions from wildfires and other burning activities.

GFED is an invaluable resource for atmospheric scientists, environmental managers, and policymakers worldwide. By providing high-quality data on fire emissions, the database supports efforts to address climate change and improve air quality through better fire management practices.[343]

1.4.2.3. European Forest Fire Information System (EFFIS)

The European Forest Fire Information System (EFFIS) is an initiative by the European Commission to provide data and tools for monitoring forest fires across Europe. EFFIS aims to support the prevention and management of forest fires through accurate and timely information, aiding national authorities in assessing fire risks and managing resources effectively. The system covers real-time fire monitoring, historical data, and predictive models to anticipate fire outbreaks.

EFFIS includes a variety of data products, such as daily fire danger maps, fire impact assessments, and long-term fire statistics. These tools help users assess fire conditions and take preventive actions in areas with high fire risk. EFFIS also offers a Fire News service, which provides regular updates on significant fire events across Europe.

Through its online portal, EFFIS provides visualizations of fire occurrences, helping users identify trends and patterns in fire activity across European landscapes. The system also supports international collaboration by sharing data with countries neighboring the EU, improving cross-border fire management.

EFFIS is widely used by environmental agencies, conservation groups, and policy-makers across Europe to improve fire prevention strategies and coordinate responses to active fires. By offering comprehensive tools and data, EFFIS supports Europe’s efforts to minimize the ecological and economic impacts of forest fires.[344]

1.4.2.4. United States Geological Survey (USGS) Wildfire Data

The United States Geological Survey (USGS) Wildfire Data provides extensive information on wildfires across the United States, offering resources for monitoring, assessing, and managing wildfire events. The USGS database includes data on fire location, size, intensity, and duration, supporting efforts to understand the impact of wildfires on natural resources and communities.

USGS Wildfire Data integrates information from various sources, including satellite imagery, ground reports, and historical fire records. This comprehensive approach enables users to analyze fire trends over time and assess the relationships between wildfire patterns and environmental factors, such as drought and climate change. The database also includes fire severity maps, which highlight areas affected by significant fires and estimate the extent of damage.

The USGS platform includes interactive mapping tools that allow users to visualize fire data and track active fires. Users can access fire perimeter data and compare it with topographical and ecological data to better understand fire behavior in specific regions. These tools are invaluable for researchers, land managers, and emergency response teams working on wildfire risk management.

USGS’s wildfire data supports research and policy development, helping to inform strategies for wildfire prevention and response. The system contributes to national fire management efforts and supports initiatives to reduce the environmental and social impacts of wildfires.[345]

1.4.2.5. National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC)

The National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC) is the United States’ leading resource for coordinating wildfire response and management. Located in Boise, Idaho, NIFC brings together federal, state, and local agencies to provide comprehensive support for wildfire suppression, including data on fire incidents, resources, and management strategies. The NIFC database provides real-time information on active fires, resource availability, and fire behavior predictions.

The NIFC platform offers extensive resources for fire management, including daily fire reports, historical fire data, and interactive fire maps. Users can track current fire activity across the United States and access data on the personnel and equipment deployed in response efforts. NIFC also offers predictive models that assess fire danger based on weather conditions and vegetation type.

Through partnerships with agencies like the US Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, and National Weather Service, NIFC ensures that its data and resources are up-to-date and reliable. The center also supports research initiatives aimed at understanding wildfire dynamics and improving response tactics.

NIFC is a critical resource for firefighting agencies, land managers, and policymakers working to mitigate wildfire risks. By providing centralized coordination and comprehensive data, NIFC enhances national wildfire response capabilities and supports efforts to protect lives, property, and ecosystems from fire-related impacts.[346]

1.4.2.6. Canadian Wildland Fire Information System (CWFIS)

The Canadian Wildland Fire Information System (CWFIS) is an advanced platform developed by the Canadian government to monitor, assess, and predict wildland fire activity across Canada. Managed by Natural Resources Canada, CWFIS provides real-time data on fire occurrences, fire danger levels, and fire behavior, supporting efforts to protect Canada’s vast forests and wilderness areas from wildfire threats.

CWFIS offers a variety of data products, including daily fire weather indices, fire danger maps, and interactive fire occurrence maps. These tools are invaluable for understanding the factors that drive fire behavior and predicting potential wildfire activity based on weather conditions, vegetation, and other environmental factors. The system also provides historical data, allowing users to analyze trends in fire occurrences and severity over time.

Users of CWFIS can track active fires across Canada and access predictive models that estimate fire spread and intensity. These tools support fire management agencies in planning effective responses and allocating resources to high-risk areas. The database also includes air quality data, helping communities assess the health impacts of wildfire smoke.

CWFIS is widely used by federal and provincial agencies, researchers, and emergency response teams, making it a critical resource for Canada’s wildfire prevention and response efforts. By providing comprehensive fire data and predictive models, CWFIS supports Canada’s goal of protecting its natural resources and communities from wildfires.[347]

1.4.2.7. Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) Fire Data

The Australian Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) Fire Data provides essential information for understanding and managing fire risks across Australia. Known for its extreme weather and fire-prone landscapes, Australia relies on BOM’s fire data to track fire danger levels and support effective wildfire management strategies. BOM integrates meteorological data, fire weather indices, and predictive models to offer insights into fire behavior and potential fire risks.

BOM provides daily fire weather forecasts and fire danger ratings, which are crucial for communities and agencies planning for fire seasons. The platform also offers real-time fire location data, helping fire response teams monitor active fires and respond swiftly to emerging threats. Historical data on weather patterns and fire occurrences enable users to analyze how climatic changes influence fire risks over time.

In addition to fire data, BOM provides resources to educate the public about fire risks and fire weather safety measures. Through its fire danger rating system, BOM helps communities understand the severity of fire risks and take appropriate precautions to safeguard lives and property.

The BOM Fire Data system is widely used by firefighters, land managers, and government agencies in Australia. Its comprehensive approach to fire data and forecasting plays a critical role in protecting Australia’s unique ecosystems and ensuring public safety during fire seasons.[348]

1.4.2.8. Global Wildfire Information System (GWIS)

The Global Wildfire Information System (GWIS) is a collaborative platform that provides comprehensive data on wildfires worldwide. Managed by the European Commission and supported by the Joint Research Centre, GWIS integrates satellite data and ground observations to offer a global perspective on fire activity, helping countries monitor fire patterns and assess fire impacts across regions.

GWIS provides a range of data products, including real-time fire monitoring, fire danger forecasting, and historical fire data. The platform’s interactive mapping tools allow users to view fire locations, track fire spread, and identify high-risk areas. GWIS also provides fire emissions data, supporting research on how wildfires contribute to atmospheric pollution and climate change.

The system is accessible to both public and private sectors, enabling governments, environmental agencies, and researchers to analyze fire trends, assess fire impacts, and develop effective fire management strategies. By offering a global perspective, GWIS facilitates international cooperation on wildfire prevention and response.

Through its open-access model, GWIS supports global fire management efforts and contributes to international climate change mitigation. It is an invaluable resource for researchers and policymakers seeking to understand and address the far-reaching effects of wildfires.[349]

1.4.2.9. Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Fire Data

The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Fire Data is a satellite-based resource that provides near-real-time data on fire occurrences globally. MODIS, an instrument on NASA’s Terra and Aqua satellites, detects fires based on thermal anomalies, enabling users to track fire locations, intensity, and spread. MODIS Fire Data is instrumental in identifying and analyzing active fires, supporting both local and global fire management efforts.

MODIS provides fire data at a resolution that allows users to monitor fire activity across large areas. The data includes daily and seasonal fire trends, enabling researchers to analyze fire behavior over time. MODIS also offers long-term fire records, supporting studies on fire frequency and changes in fire regimes due to climate and land-use changes.

The MODIS Fire Data platform includes mapping tools that visualize fire data across various geographic regions, providing a valuable perspective for monitoring and responding to fires in remote or high-risk areas. The data is widely used for assessing fire impacts on ecosystems, carbon emissions, and air quality.

MODIS Fire Data supports fire management agencies, researchers, and policymakers globally. By offering reliable fire detection capabilities and historical data, MODIS plays a critical role in understanding wildfire dynamics and addressing the environmental challenges associated with fires.[350]

1.4.2.10. Copernicus Emergency Management Service (EMS) – Fire Data

The Copernicus Emergency Management Service (EMS) – Fire Data is part of the European Union’s Copernicus Program, providing timely and reliable information on fires in Europe and around the world. The EMS Fire Data platform integrates satellite data with ground-based observations to offer real-time fire monitoring and fire danger assessments, aiding in effective fire response and prevention.

EMS provides various products, including fire detection alerts, fire risk maps, and detailed fire impact assessments. These tools help national authorities and emergency services monitor fire activity and prioritize resources for fire suppression efforts. EMS’s predictive models assess fire risks based on weather conditions, enabling users to prepare for high-risk fire periods.

The platform also includes post-fire assessment tools, which analyze the environmental impact of fires on vegetation and soil. By providing data on fire severity and burn scars, EMS supports recovery planning and helps land managers mitigate long-term environmental impacts.

The EMS Fire Data system is widely used by environmental agencies, firefighters, and policymakers across Europe. By providing high-quality fire data and forecasting, EMS contributes to Europe’s resilience against wildfires and supports global efforts to manage and mitigate fire risks.[351]

1.4.2.11. Global Observation of Forest and Land Cover Dynamics (GOFC-GOLD) Fire Mapping

The Global Observation of Forest and Land Cover Dynamics (GOFC-GOLD) Fire Mapping initiative focuses on providing satellite-based data for tracking and analyzing fire activity worldwide. GOFC-GOLD integrates data from multiple satellite sources to monitor changes in forest cover and assess fire impacts on global ecosystems. This initiative supports the sustainable management of forests and aims to improve fire-related data accessibility for scientists and decision-makers.

GOFC-GOLD offers comprehensive fire mapping tools, including near-real-time fire detection, fire impact assessments, and long-term fire activity records. These resources are crucial for understanding fire dynamics, especially in regions that experience frequent wildfires, and they aid in identifying areas that require active fire management and conservation.

Through collaborations with international space agencies, GOFC-GOLD ensures high-quality, standardized data for global users. This platform is widely used for environmental research and policy planning, helping countries address fire-related impacts on biodiversity and climate.

The GOFC-GOLD initiative is instrumental in global fire monitoring and supports sustainable development goals by providing reliable data for fire management and forest conservation.[352]

1.4.2.12. Fire and Smoke Model Evaluation Experiment (FASMEE)

The Fire and Smoke Model Evaluation Experiment (FASMEE) is a research project that focuses on improving fire and smoke modeling capabilities. Led by the US Forest Service and supported by partners like NASA and NOAA, FASMEE collects field data on wildfires to evaluate and enhance predictive models. This project helps scientists better understand how fires and smoke interact with the atmosphere, ultimately leading to more accurate fire behavior and air quality models.

FASMEE provides detailed datasets on fire intensity, fuel consumption, smoke production, and atmospheric conditions. These data are essential for validating models that predict fire spread, smoke dispersion, and potential impacts on air quality. By improving these models, FASMEE contributes to public health efforts and helps agencies develop better response strategies for wildfires.

Researchers use FASMEE data to enhance understanding of fire emissions and their climate effects. This project is particularly valuable for addressing the public health impacts of smoke and for managing air quality during fire events. FASMEE’s findings also contribute to global wildfire science, improving data accuracy for fire prediction models used worldwide.

FASMEE plays a significant role in fire research, and its datasets are invaluable for scientists, environmental managers, and policymakers working on fire management and air quality initiatives.[353]

1.4.2.13. International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) Wildfire Data

The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) Wildfire Data is part of the United Nations’ efforts to support global disaster risk reduction. UNISDR provides wildfire data and risk assessment tools that help countries develop and implement fire prevention and management policies. This data resource aims to minimize the risks associated with wildfires by promoting proactive disaster reduction strategies.

UNISDR’s wildfire data includes risk assessments, hazard maps, and policy recommendations for managing wildfire risks in vulnerable regions. By combining satellite observations with ground data, UNISDR helps countries identify areas at high risk for wildfires and provides guidance for preventive action. The platform also emphasizes community engagement, encouraging local initiatives that support wildfire preparedness.

This wildfire data is especially useful for developing countries with limited access to advanced fire management resources. UNISDR’s collaborative approach promotes international cooperation and data sharing, supporting efforts to mitigate wildfire impacts worldwide.

UNISDR’s wildfire data supports countries in meeting their disaster risk reduction goals under the Sendai Framework, helping to build resilience against fire-related disasters.[354]

1.4.2.14. Wildfire Analytics and Decision Support (WADS)

The Wildfire Analytics and Decision Support (WADS) platform is a specialized system designed to enhance wildfire response capabilities through real-time data and advanced analytics. WADS integrates satellite imagery, weather forecasts, and fire behavior models to provide actionable insights for firefighting agencies. This platform supports decision-making during active fires, helping teams allocate resources effectively.

WADS includes predictive tools that estimate fire spread, intensity, and potential impact areas. Users can access interactive maps to track fire progression and analyze the effectiveness of response strategies. The platform also offers alerts based on weather changes, enabling firefighters to anticipate and prepare for shifts in fire behavior.

By utilizing AI and machine learning, WADS continually improves its predictive accuracy, adapting to new data in real time. This platform is widely used by emergency response teams, land managers, and policymakers focused on minimizing wildfire damages.

WADS’s ability to deliver rapid insights makes it an invaluable resource for wildfire management, supporting efforts to protect communities, infrastructure, and ecosystems from fire-related risks.[355]

1.4.2.15. National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS)

The National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS) is the United States’ largest national database for tracking fire incidents. Managed by the U.S. Fire Administration (USFA), NFIRS collects detailed data on fire events, including causes, fire types, property damages, and casualties. This system is essential for analyzing fire trends and understanding fire risk across the United States.

NFIRS includes data from local fire departments and emergency services, providing a comprehensive picture of fire incidents nationwide. The platform supports research on fire prevention and enables communities to evaluate fire safety practices. Policymakers and urban planners use NFIRS data to identify high-risk areas and improve building codes, while fire departments rely on it for operational planning and resource allocation.

In addition to wildfire data, NFIRS covers structural and vehicle fires, making it a valuable resource for understanding fire patterns in both natural and urban environments. The database’s insights are also used in public safety campaigns aimed at reducing fire-related injuries and deaths.

NFIRS plays a crucial role in enhancing national fire safety and supports fire departments, researchers, and government agencies in their efforts to protect lives and property.[356]

1.4.2.16. South African National Fire Danger Rating System

The South African National Fire Danger Rating System is a government-managed resource that provides daily fire danger ratings across South Africa. The system helps communities and fire management agencies assess fire risks based on weather conditions, vegetation dryness, and other environmental factors. It is a critical tool for preparing and responding to wildfires in South Africa’s fire-prone landscapes.

The system provides fire risk ratings ranging from low to extreme, helping communities and land managers take necessary precautions during high-risk periods. Daily updates are provided to support real-time decision-making, and the system’s predictive models assess how environmental factors may increase fire hazards.

Public education is a central aspect of the system, as the ratings are broadcasted widely to inform the public of daily fire risks. This proactive approach helps reduce human-caused fire incidents and promotes fire safety awareness in high-risk areas.

By providing accurate fire danger information, the South African National Fire Danger Rating System plays a vital role in protecting South Africa’s natural resources, agricultural lands, and communities from wildfire threats.[357]

1.4.2.17. New Zealand Wildfire Data

The New Zealand Wildfire Data platform is a government-managed resource dedicated to monitoring and managing wildfire activity across New Zealand. New Zealand’s landscapes, including forests, grasslands, and coastal areas, are vulnerable to wildfires, especially during the dry summer months. This database provides data on fire occurrences, fire danger ratings, and fire weather conditions to aid in national and local fire management efforts.

New Zealand Wildfire Data includes real-time fire location updates, fire danger maps, and historical data that help assess long-term fire trends. The platform also integrates weather forecasts to predict fire risks, enabling communities and firefighting agencies to prepare accordingly. This proactive approach minimizes fire-related damages and supports effective resource allocation during fire events.

The platform supports public education on wildfire risks, providing resources that help communities understand fire danger levels and take preventive measures. Public awareness is a key component of New Zealand’s approach to wildfire management, as it reduces the number of human-caused fires.

Through collaborations with national fire services and meteorological agencies, New Zealand Wildfire Data plays an essential role in protecting the country’s unique ecosystems and ensuring community safety during fire seasons.[358]

1.4.2.18. Russian Aerial Forest Protection Service (Avialesookhrana)

The Russian Aerial Forest Protection Service (Avialesookhrana) is a specialized agency responsible for monitoring and protecting Russia’s extensive forests from wildfires. Established as a branch of the Federal Forestry Agency, Avialesookhrana uses aerial patrols, satellite data, and ground personnel to detect and respond to forest fires across Russia’s vast and often remote landscapes.

Avialesookhrana provides fire occurrence data, including fire size, location, and intensity. The agency’s aerial and satellite monitoring allows for rapid detection of new fires, enabling quicker response times. Avialesookhrana also collaborates with local fire management agencies to coordinate firefighting efforts in high-risk regions, particularly in Siberia and other heavily forested areas.

In addition to monitoring, Avialesookhrana offers fire risk assessments and forecasting tools that help communities and forest managers prepare for fire seasons. These predictive models are essential for planning fire suppression activities and for protecting Russia’s valuable forest resources from widespread fire damage.

Avialesookhrana is critical to Russia’s wildfire response infrastructure, supporting forest conservation and reducing the ecological and economic impacts of wildfires.[359]

1.4.2.19. Brazil National Institute for Space Research (INPE) Fire Data

The Brazil National Institute for Space Research (INPE) Fire Data is a satellite-based resource that monitors fire activity throughout Brazil, particularly within the Amazon rainforest. INPE’s fire data is critical for understanding the scope and impact of fires in Brazil’s tropical ecosystems, which face pressures from deforestation and agricultural expansion. INPE provides real-time fire detection and fire trend analysis to support conservation and fire management efforts.

INPE’s platform includes fire location data, fire intensity measurements, and historical records that enable researchers to track fire patterns over time. These data products help identify fire-prone regions and assess the effectiveness of fire prevention policies. The platform’s transparency allows users to view detailed fire maps, fostering public awareness of fire activity across Brazil.

INPE collaborates with national and international environmental agencies to provide high-quality fire data, supporting both research and policy initiatives aimed at reducing fire-related deforestation. This resource is essential for Brazil’s efforts to protect the Amazon and other vital ecosystems from fire damage.

INPE Fire Data is an invaluable tool for conservationists, researchers, and policymakers working to address fire-related challenges in Brazil and promote sustainable land management practices.[360]

1.4.2.20. European Space Agency (ESA) Fire Data

The European Space Agency (ESA) Fire Data provides satellite-based data on global fire occurrences, supporting monitoring and management efforts worldwide. ESA’s fire data products are derived from satellite missions such as Sentinel-3 and are used to detect, track, and analyze fire activity across various ecosystems. ESA’s fire data is particularly valuable for understanding fire patterns in remote areas where ground-based monitoring is limited.

ESA Fire Data includes near-real-time fire location information, fire intensity estimates, and emissions data. These products help researchers assess the environmental and atmospheric impacts of wildfires, contributing to climate change studies and air quality assessments. ESA’s satellite data is widely used for fire management, helping authorities monitor large-scale fires and allocate resources effectively.

In addition to fire occurrence data, ESA provides tools for analyzing fire behavior and assessing post-fire impacts on ecosystems. ESA’s open-access platform ensures that scientists, policymakers, and the public have access to reliable fire information for research and conservation efforts.

ESA’s commitment to providing high-quality fire data supports global fire management initiatives and contributes to scientific understanding of fire-related environmental impacts.[361]

1.4.2.21. Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI) Wildfire Data

The Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI) Wildfire Data provides fire risk assessments and monitoring tools tailored to Finland’s unique ecosystems. The platform combines meteorological data, vegetation dryness indices, and real-time fire location data to help communities and land managers prepare for and respond to wildfires. This resource is essential for managing fire risks in Finland’s boreal forests, which are particularly susceptible to wildfires during dry seasons.

FMI Wildfire Data includes fire weather forecasts, fire danger ratings, and historical data on fire occurrences. These tools are invaluable for assessing fire risks and for taking preventive actions during high-risk periods. FMI’s predictive models are widely used by forest managers and emergency responders to improve fire preparedness.

In addition to fire monitoring, FMI offers resources for public awareness, helping Finnish communities understand fire risks and adopt safe fire practices. The institute’s proactive approach supports national fire prevention strategies and helps minimize the impact of wildfires on ecosystems and infrastructure.

Through collaborations with national agencies and international fire monitoring programs, FMI plays a crucial role in Finland’s wildfire management framework, contributing to broader efforts in the Nordic region.[362]

1.4.2.22. Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB) Fire Data

The Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB) Fire Data provides critical information on fire risk and active wildfire monitoring across Sweden. Managed by MSB, this platform offers fire danger ratings, real-time fire updates, and predictive models to aid in wildfire prevention and response efforts. Sweden’s forests and peatlands are highly vulnerable to fires, especially during dry periods, making this data essential for safeguarding ecosystems and communities.

MSB Fire Data includes daily fire weather forecasts, fire risk assessments, and historical fire data. The platform supports fire management agencies by providing data-driven insights into fire behavior and risk factors, allowing for effective resource planning. The agency’s collaboration with the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI) ensures that fire forecasts are accurate and timely.

The MSB also promotes public awareness of wildfire risks, providing resources that educate citizens on fire safety practices and preventive measures. By encouraging community engagement, MSB supports a proactive approach to wildfire prevention and response.

The MSB Fire Data system is an essential tool for Swedish emergency services, forestry agencies, and land managers. By offering reliable fire risk assessments and monitoring tools, MSB helps minimize fire-related damages and supports national fire safety efforts.[363]

1.4.2.23. National Institute for Space Research (INPE) Fire Monitoring System

The National Institute for Space Research (INPE) Fire Monitoring System provides detailed satellite-based data on fire occurrences in Brazil and across South America. Managed by INPE, this system tracks fires in real-time and assesses fire risk levels, helping local authorities and conservation groups monitor and respond to fire activity in sensitive ecosystems like the Amazon rainforest.

The INPE Fire Monitoring System includes fire detection data, fire frequency, and intensity analysis, as well as long-term fire records. This comprehensive approach supports research on fire patterns, deforestation, and land-use changes that contribute to fire risk. The platform’s real-time mapping tools enable rapid response and effective resource allocation during fire events.

Public access to the INPE Fire Monitoring System increases transparency, allowing communities to view fire data and contribute to monitoring efforts. By supporting research and policy development, the system plays a critical role in Brazil’s fire management and conservation strategies.

INPE’s Fire Monitoring System is a vital resource for protecting biodiversity and mitigating the impacts of fires on Brazil’s unique ecosystems.[364]

1.4.2.24. Wildfire Risk Management Tool (WRMT)

The Wildfire Risk Management Tool (WRMT) is an advanced decision-support platform designed to help agencies and land managers assess wildfire risks and make informed planning decisions. WRMT integrates satellite imagery, weather data, and fire behavior models to provide accurate fire risk assessments and predictive analytics for managing wildfire-prone areas.

WRMT offers a range of tools for fire prevention, including fire spread simulations, risk mapping, and hazard assessment. These features enable users to understand potential fire behavior, allocate resources effectively, and identify high-risk areas that need preventive action. The platform also includes a public dashboard that offers real-time fire risk updates, supporting community awareness and preparedness.

By using advanced analytics, WRMT enhances wildfire management strategies, helping agencies reduce the impact of wildfires on human communities and natural resources. This platform is particularly valuable for high-risk regions where climate change and urban expansion increase fire vulnerabilities.

WRMT’s data-driven approach supports resilient land management practices and helps decision-makers implement effective wildfire prevention policies.[365]

1.4.2.25. World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Fire Data

The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Fire Data platform provides insights into fire occurrences and their impact on biodiversity and protected areas worldwide. WWF’s fire data combines satellite monitoring with ground observations to track fire activity in regions critical for wildlife conservation, including rainforests, savannas, and wetlands.

WWF Fire Data includes information on fire location, frequency, and intensity, supporting research on how fires affect habitats and endangered species. The platform’s emphasis on conservation helps users understand the ecological impacts of fires and identify areas where fire management is necessary to protect biodiversity.

WWF also promotes public awareness on the role of fires in deforestation and habitat degradation. Through campaigns and educational resources, WWF encourages sustainable land-use practices that minimize human-caused fires and support environmental resilience.

The WWF Fire Data platform is an essential tool for conservationists, environmental agencies, and local communities working to protect ecosystems from fire-related threats and enhance global biodiversity conservation.[366]

1.4.2.26. Chilean National Forestry Corporation (CONAF) Fire Data

The Chilean National Forestry Corporation (CONAF) Fire Data provides comprehensive data on wildfires across Chile, supporting efforts to manage fire risks in the country’s diverse landscapes. CONAF’s platform includes real-time fire monitoring, fire danger assessments, and predictive tools to prepare for fire seasons and allocate resources effectively.

CONAF Fire Data offers fire occurrence information, historical records, and fire behavior models that help identify high-risk areas. The platform is widely used by forestry agencies and land managers to implement targeted fire prevention measures, especially in vulnerable regions like Chile’s temperate forests and coastal ecosystems.

Public awareness is a key component of CONAF’s approach, with educational materials that inform citizens on fire safety practices and the importance of protecting Chile’s natural resources from fire damage.

CONAF Fire Data supports Chile’s national fire management strategies and contributes to conservation efforts by reducing the impact of wildfires on ecosystems and communities.[367]

1.4.2.27. Mexican National Forestry Commission (CONAFOR) Fire Data

The Mexican National Forestry Commission (CONAFOR) Fire Data platform is a comprehensive resource dedicated to monitoring and managing wildfires across Mexico. Managed by CONAFOR, this platform provides real-time fire data, fire danger ratings, and predictive models that support fire prevention and resource management across Mexico’s diverse landscapes.

CONAFOR Fire Data includes tools for tracking active fires, assessing historical fire trends, and mapping fire-prone areas. These resources enable local authorities and land managers to implement effective fire management strategies, particularly in forested regions vulnerable to seasonal fires. CONAFOR also collaborates with local communities to engage them in fire prevention efforts.

In addition to data for professional use, CONAFOR provides public educational resources to raise awareness about fire risks and safe fire practices. This outreach promotes community involvement in monitoring fire risks and helps reduce human-caused fire incidents in rural and forested areas.

The CONAFOR Fire Data platform supports national and regional fire management strategies, contributing to Mexico’s efforts to protect its forests, biodiversity, and communities from wildfire impacts.[368]

1.4.2.28. Spanish Ministry for the Ecological Transition (MITECO) Fire Data

The Spanish Ministry for the Ecological Transition (MITECO) Fire Data platform offers resources for monitoring, assessing, and preventing wildfires throughout Spain. MITECO provides real-time fire data, fire danger ratings, and fire risk maps to support national and local fire management efforts. Spain’s Mediterranean climate makes the country particularly vulnerable to wildfires, especially during the dry summer months.

MITECO Fire Data includes fire detection information, historical fire records, and predictive tools that enable fire managers to allocate resources and prepare for high-risk periods. The platform also collaborates with other European Union agencies to standardize data collection and share best practices in fire management.

Public education is a significant focus of MITECO’s approach. Through informational campaigns and fire safety resources, MITECO encourages community awareness and involvement in fire prevention. This proactive approach helps minimize human-caused fires and improves public preparedness for wildfire events.

MITECO’s Fire Data platform is widely used by firefighting agencies, conservation organizations, and policymakers, playing a vital role in protecting Spain’s natural resources and communities from wildfire damage.[369]

1.4.2.29. Italian National Research Council (CNR) Fire Data

The Italian National Research Council (CNR) Fire Data platform provides critical data for understanding and managing wildfire risks in Italy. CNR’s fire data includes real-time fire detection, fire danger ratings, and historical fire occurrence records. Italy’s varied climate and topography make certain regions, especially the Mediterranean coastal areas, highly susceptible to wildfires.

CNR Fire Data offers tools for monitoring active fires, analyzing fire behavior, and assessing long-term fire trends. These resources are essential for researchers studying fire patterns and for local authorities managing fire-prone regions. CNR also collaborates with European fire management programs, allowing Italy to share data and coordinate fire prevention strategies with neighboring countries.

The Italian National Research Council emphasizes public awareness and educational outreach. By providing citizens with information on fire safety practices and fire risks, CNR promotes a proactive approach to wildfire prevention and encourages responsible behavior during high-risk periods.

CNR Fire Data is a valuable resource for fire management professionals, land managers, and policymakers working to protect Italy’s landscapes and communities from wildfire threats.[370]

1.4.2.30. Portugal Institute for Nature Conservation and Forests (ICNF) Fire Data

The Portugal Institute for Nature Conservation and Forests (ICNF) Fire Data platform is dedicated to wildfire monitoring and prevention across Portugal’s forested and rural areas. ICNF provides real-time data on fire occurrences, fire danger ratings, and predictive models to support effective fire management strategies. Portugal’s Mediterranean climate makes it highly vulnerable to wildfires, especially during the summer months.

ICNF Fire Data includes interactive fire maps, historical fire records, and daily fire weather forecasts. These tools help firefighting agencies, land managers, and communities prepare for high-risk fire seasons and allocate resources effectively. ICNF’s collaboration with European fire monitoring networks ensures that Portugal benefits from shared data and coordinated response efforts.

ICNF also emphasizes public education, providing resources that inform Portuguese communities about fire prevention practices and fire danger levels. This outreach supports a community-based approach to fire safety, reducing the occurrence of human-caused fires.

ICNF Fire Data is crucial for protecting Portugal’s forests, biodiversity, and rural communities from wildfire impacts. The platform supports national and regional fire management initiatives and contributes to Portugal’s long-term resilience against wildfires.[371]

1.4.2.31. Greek General Secretariat for Civil Protection Fire Data

The Greek General Secretariat for Civil Protection Fire Data is an essential resource for monitoring and managing wildfire risks across Greece. This platform provides real-time fire location data, fire danger ratings, and predictive tools that support national and regional fire response efforts. Greece’s warm, dry climate and forested landscapes make it highly susceptible to wildfires, especially during summer.

The Greek General Secretariat for Civil Protection offers resources for tracking active fires, assessing fire risk, and planning preventive actions. The platform includes daily fire danger forecasts, helping local authorities and communities prepare for high-risk conditions. This proactive approach reduces fire-related damages and supports effective resource allocation during fire events.

Public education is an integral part of Greece’s wildfire prevention strategy, with the Secretariat providing resources to help citizens understand fire risks and practice fire safety. These outreach efforts encourage community involvement and foster a culture of fire awareness and prevention.

The Greek General Secretariat for Civil Protection Fire Data supports national resilience against wildfires, contributing to Greece’s efforts to protect its natural resources and communities from fire impacts.[372]

1.4.2.32. Turkish General Directorate of Forestry (OGM) Fire Data

The Turkish General Directorate of Forestry (OGM) Fire Data platform is dedicated to monitoring and managing wildfire risks throughout Turkey. Managed by the General Directorate of Forestry, OGM provides real-time fire data, fire danger ratings, and predictive tools to support wildfire prevention and response strategies across Turkey’s fire-prone regions.

OGM Fire Data includes tools for tracking active fires, analyzing fire trends, and assessing fire danger based on weather and environmental conditions. This information is crucial for fire management agencies and local authorities who work to protect Turkey’s forests and rural communities from wildfire threats, especially during the dry summer months.

In addition to providing data for professionals, OGM emphasizes public awareness and fire prevention through educational resources. These materials help communities understand fire safety practices and the importance of minimizing fire risks, particularly in rural and forested areas where human activity can lead to fire outbreaks.

The Turkish General Directorate of Forestry’s fire data system is a valuable resource for national and local fire management efforts, contributing to Turkey’s broader goal of safeguarding its natural landscapes and enhancing community resilience to wildfires.[373]

1.4.2.33. Indonesian Meteorology, Climatology, and Geophysical Agency (BMKG) Fire Data

The Indonesian Meteorology, Climatology, and Geophysical Agency (BMKG) Fire Data provides critical information on fire risks and active fire monitoring across Indonesia. Indonesia’s forests, especially in peatland areas, are highly susceptible to wildfires, which are exacerbated by dry conditions and agricultural practices. BMKG’s fire data platform integrates meteorological data with fire detection tools to help manage and mitigate these risks.

BMKG Fire Data includes daily fire danger assessments, fire occurrence records, and weather forecasts tailored to wildfire risk management. The agency uses satellite data to monitor active fires and predict fire-prone conditions, providing insights that are vital for local authorities, land managers, and emergency responders.

Public awareness is a significant focus of BMKG’s strategy, with the agency promoting fire safety and preventive measures, particularly in areas affected by seasonal burning. This approach helps to reduce the frequency of human-caused fires and supports national efforts to minimize the environmental and health impacts of wildfires.

BMKG’s comprehensive fire monitoring and forecasting capabilities play a critical role in Indonesia’s wildfire management, supporting sustainable land practices and protecting communities from fire-related hazards.[374]

1.4.2.34. Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) Fire Data

The Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) Fire Data provides essential tools for monitoring and managing wildfire risks throughout the Philippines. The platform integrates meteorological data, fire danger ratings, and predictive models to help authorities prepare for and respond to fire events, particularly in rural and agricultural areas vulnerable to seasonal fires.

PAGASA Fire Data includes daily fire danger assessments, real-time monitoring of active fires, and predictive tools that enable users to anticipate high-risk fire periods. This proactive approach supports resource planning and enhances the readiness of emergency responders across the country.

The agency emphasizes public education, promoting fire safety practices and raising awareness about the environmental and economic impacts of wildfires. By involving communities in wildfire prevention, PAGASA helps to reduce human-caused fires and improves the overall effectiveness of fire management strategies.

PAGASA’s fire data platform is an invaluable resource for fire managers, landowners, and policymakers working to protect the Philippines’ natural resources and ensure public safety during fire-prone seasons.[375]

1.4.2.35. Thailand Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Fire Data

The Thailand Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Fire Data is a government-managed resource dedicated to monitoring and preventing wildfires across Thailand. This platform provides fire danger ratings, real-time fire updates, and predictive tools that help communities and fire management agencies respond effectively to fire risks in forested and rural regions.

The Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation (DDPM) offers tools for tracking active fires, analyzing fire behavior, and assessing long-term fire trends. These data resources help local authorities plan for high-risk periods and allocate resources effectively to mitigate wildfire impacts. DDPM also collaborates with regional agencies to improve cross-border fire management strategies.

Public education is a key component of DDPM’s approach. The agency provides resources that inform citizens about fire risks, fire safety, and the importance of preventive measures, particularly in regions vulnerable to seasonal burning.

Thailand’s DDPM Fire Data platform is widely used by firefighting agencies, environmental organizations, and local communities, playing an essential role in protecting Thailand’s landscapes and communities from wildfire damage.[376]

1.4.2.36. Malaysian Meteorological Department (MetMalaysia) Fire Data

The Malaysian Meteorological Department (MetMalaysia) Fire Data platform provides critical information on fire risk and monitoring across Malaysia’s fire-prone regions. This platform integrates meteorological data, fire danger assessments, and real-time monitoring to support effective fire management and response efforts throughout the country.

MetMalaysia Fire Data includes daily fire danger ratings, weather forecasts, and tools for tracking active fires. This data is essential for fire management agencies and local authorities, allowing them to anticipate high-risk conditions and allocate resources accordingly. The platform’s predictive models help prevent fires, especially during dry spells and seasonal burning periods.

Public awareness and education are integral to MetMalaysia’s approach, with the department promoting fire safety practices and encouraging responsible land-use management. These efforts help reduce the likelihood of human-caused fires and enhance public preparedness.

MetMalaysia’s fire data platform supports Malaysia’s national fire prevention strategies, contributing to the protection of natural resources and improving community resilience against fire-related hazards.[377]

1.4.2.37. Indian Forest Fire Danger Rating System (FFDRS)

The Indian Forest Fire Danger Rating System (FFDRS) is a specialized tool designed to assess and predict fire risks in India’s forested regions. Managed by the Forest Survey of India, FFDRS provides real-time fire danger ratings and fire behavior predictions that support fire prevention and response efforts across the country’s diverse ecosystems.

FFDRS includes data on fire weather conditions, vegetation dryness, and fire danger indices. The system uses this data to predict fire-prone areas, helping forest managers and emergency responders allocate resources and plan for fire suppression activities. The FFDRS is especially valuable for protecting India’s dense forests, where fires can cause significant ecological damage.

Public awareness is an essential component of the FFDRS strategy. The system offers resources to inform communities about fire risks and promote safe practices, particularly in areas vulnerable to forest fires. This outreach helps to reduce human-caused fires and strengthens community involvement in fire prevention.

The Indian Forest Fire Danger Rating System supports India’s national fire management strategies and contributes to the protection of biodiversity and rural communities from wildfire threats.[378]

1.4.2.38. Korean Forest Service (KFS) Fire Data

The Korean Forest Service (KFS) Fire Data platform provides comprehensive data on wildfire risks and occurrences across South Korea. KFS monitors fire danger levels, provides real-time fire updates, and offers predictive models to support fire management efforts. South Korea’s forests and mountains are susceptible to seasonal wildfires, especially during dry conditions, making this data essential for effective response strategies.

KFS Fire Data includes tools for tracking active fires, analyzing fire risk, and assessing fire danger based on weather and vegetation conditions. The platform’s predictive models help local authorities prepare for high-risk periods, allowing for timely deployment of firefighting resources. KFS also collaborates with other government agencies to coordinate response efforts across regions.

In addition to professional resources, KFS promotes fire safety awareness through educational materials. These resources inform citizens about fire risks and encourage responsible behavior in fire-prone areas, reducing the likelihood of human-caused fires.

The Korean Forest Service Fire Data platform is widely used by fire management agencies, conservation groups, and local communities, contributing to South Korea’s efforts to protect its natural resources from wildfire impacts.[379]

1.4.2.39. Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) Fire Data

The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) Fire Data platform is a vital resource for monitoring and managing wildfire risks across Japan. JMA provides fire danger ratings, real-time fire updates, and predictive models that support national and regional fire response efforts. Japan’s diverse geography, including its mountainous and forested regions, is prone to seasonal wildfires, making JMA’s data essential for effective fire management.

JMA Fire Data includes fire weather forecasts, fire danger assessments, and historical records on fire occurrences. The agency’s predictive tools help identify areas at high risk of fire, enabling local authorities to prepare for and respond to fire events more efficiently. JMA collaborates with other governmental agencies to ensure a coordinated and rapid response to active fires.

Public outreach is a core component of JMA’s fire prevention strategy, with resources provided to educate communities on fire risks and safety practices. By promoting public awareness, JMA helps reduce human-caused fires and strengthens community preparedness.

The Japan Meteorological Agency’s fire data platform is widely used by firefighting agencies, conservation organizations, and policymakers, playing an essential role in protecting Japan’s ecosystems and communities from wildfire threats.[380]

1.4.2.40. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Global Fire Data

The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Global Fire Data platform provides comprehensive information on global fire occurrences and their impacts on ecosystems, agriculture, and biodiversity. FAO’s fire data integrates satellite monitoring with ground observations to track fire activity worldwide, supporting global fire management and environmental conservation efforts.

FAO Global Fire Data includes tools for monitoring active fires, analyzing long-term fire trends, and assessing fire impacts on food security and rural livelihoods. The platform’s fire impact assessments are crucial for developing strategies to protect agricultural lands and natural resources from fire damage, particularly in vulnerable regions.

In addition to professional data resources, FAO promotes public awareness and education on sustainable fire management practices. Through its outreach initiatives, FAO encourages responsible land-use practices that minimize fire risks and support resilient ecosystems.

FAO’s Global Fire Data platform is widely used by environmental organizations, policymakers, and researchers. By offering reliable data on fire occurrences and impacts, FAO supports international efforts to mitigate fire-related challenges and promote sustainable land management.[381]

1.4.3. Invasive Species

1.4.3.1. Global Invasive Species Database (GISD)

The Global Invasive Species Database (GISD), managed by the Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) under the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), is a comprehensive resource dedicated to invasive species worldwide. GISD contains information on over 800 species, covering various taxonomic groups, including plants, animals, and microbes that impact ecosystems outside their native range. This resource aims to raise awareness about the ecological and economic dangers posed by invasive species and offers essential data to support control and management initiatives.

The database features detailed species profiles, providing users with information on species biology, distribution, ecological impacts, and management strategies. Each profile includes specific descriptions of the habitats invaded, the mechanisms by which the species spread, and the particular vulnerabilities of ecosystems affected by these invasions. This focus on ecology and management strategies makes GISD particularly valuable for conservationists, researchers, and policymakers.

Additionally, GISD provides visual resources like distribution maps and impact images to help users visualize the extent and severity of invasive species spread. These tools are valuable for developing targeted control measures and for public awareness campaigns aimed at reducing the unintentional spread of invasive organisms. Users can access case studies that illustrate the successful management or eradication of specific invasive species, providing a real-world perspective on effective practices.

GISD continuously updates its entries with the latest research findings and collaborates with international organizations and local institutions. By maintaining high standards for information quality, the database remains a leading global reference for invasive species management, contributing significantly to biodiversity conservation.[382]

1.4.3.2. National Invasive Species Information Center (NISIC)

The National Invasive Species Information Center (NI-SIC), operated by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), serves as a national hub for invasive species information specific to the United States. The center provides access to a variety of resources, including information on invasive species affecting local biodiversity, human health, and agricultural productivity. The mission of NI-SIC is to facilitate collaboration and knowledge sharing among federal and state agencies, researchers, and the general public.

NI-SIC includes a broad range of species profiles, covering invasive plants, animals, and pathogens that impact the environment and economy. It offers links to regional resources, including state laws, management programs, and educational materials, aimed at preventing the spread of invasive species. This feature is particularly valuable for local stakeholders who need guidance on legal and regulatory frameworks surrounding invasive species control.

In addition to species data, NI-SIC provides educational resources designed to promote public awareness and community involvement. These resources cover identification techniques, best practices for managing invasive species, and contact information for local authorities in case of sightings. NI-SIC also includes a toolkit for educators, providing lesson plans and informational materials to help spread awareness of invasive species issues among students.

NI-SIC’s integration with other databases ensures that users can access a comprehensive array of invasive species information. The center’s dedication to fostering collaboration across federal, state, and community levels makes it a key asset in the fight against invasive species in the United States.[383]

1.4.3.3. Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) Database

The Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) Database is a specialized resource curated by ISSG, a global network of scientists and conservationists committed to addressing the threats posed by invasive species. The database focuses on providing in-depth profiles of invasive species worldwide, documenting their biology, ecological impacts, and potential management techniques. ISSG plays a key role in global conservation efforts by facilitating data-sharing and providing expert guidance on invasive species control.

Each species profile within the ISSG Database includes extensive details, from habitat preferences and distribution patterns to known impacts on ecosystems and human activities. This comprehensive approach enables users to assess the risks posed by specific invasive species and to develop targeted management strategies. The database also includes sections on the economic costs associated with invasions, helping policymakers understand the broader implications of invasive species.

The ISSG Database also supports global initiatives by providing assessment tools for prioritizing invasive species management efforts. These tools allow countries to evaluate the likelihood of new invasions, assess current ecosystem vulnerabilities, and allocate resources more effectively. Additionally, ISSG partners with academic institutions, non-governmental organizations, and governments worldwide to ensure that the database remains an accurate and up-to-date source of information.

Accessibility is a key feature of the ISSG Database, as it is open to researchers, conservationists, and the public alike. Its widespread use across multiple sectors underscores its importance in biodiversity conservation and invasive species management, making it a valuable resource for global ecological sustainability.[384]

1.4.3.4. European Network on Invasive Alien Species (NOBANIS)

The European Network on Invasive Alien Species (NOBANIS) is a collaborative initiative providing information and resources related to invasive species across Europe. NOBANIS acts as a gateway to data on invasive alien species affecting European ecosystems, including details on their distribution, impact, and management. The network is designed to assist European countries in meeting their biodiversity conservation goals by offering coordinated access to regional data and management practices.

NOBANIS includes a range of species profiles that document invasive plants, animals, and microorganisms within the region. Each profile provides data on the organism’s characteristics, ecological impacts, and status across different European countries. This information is invaluable for regional policy development, allowing countries to coordinate their efforts and develop unified strategies to prevent the spread of invasive species.

Through a dedicated portal, NOBANIS connects users to national databases, research centers, and regulatory agencies, ensuring that they have access to the most relevant and up-to-date information. This network also supports knowledge exchange and capacity-building initiatives, fostering collaboration between member countries. NOBANIS’s emphasis on cross-border coordination makes it a model for regional approaches to invasive species management.

NOBANIS also offers resources for public awareness campaigns, encouraging citizens to report sightings and engage in invasive species monitoring efforts. By promoting collaboration and community engagement, NOBANIS plays a vital role in protecting European biodiversity from invasive species threats.[385]

1.4.3.5. Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (CABI) Invasive Species Compendium

The Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (CABI) Invasive Species Compendium is a detailed resource that offers extensive data on invasive species affecting agriculture, forestry, and the environment. This compendium covers invasive plants, animals, and pathogens, with information aimed at supporting pest management and biosecurity measures worldwide. CABI’s database provides users with access to species profiles, distribution maps, risk assessments, and management techniques, making it a valuable tool for agricultural and environmental sustainability.

Each entry in the Invasive Species Compendium includes information on the species’ biology, habitat, distribution, and ecological impacts, with a strong focus on the challenges these species pose to agricultural productivity. The compendium also offers guidance on identifying invasive species and implementing control measures, supporting efforts to safeguard food security and biodiversity. CABI’s collaboration with governments, NGOs, and research institutions enhances the database’s credibility and ensures data accuracy.

In addition to species data, the CABI Compendium includes resources on regulatory frameworks, offering insights into laws and guidelines for invasive species management across different countries. This feature makes the database especially useful for policymakers and regulatory bodies tasked with creating and enforcing biosecurity policies. CABI’s emphasis on agricultural impacts sets it apart from other databases, addressing the specific needs of the farming and forestry sectors.

CABI also offers educational resources, including training materials and workshops on invasive species identification and management. By fostering knowledge-sharing and capacity-building, the Invasive Species Compendium contributes to global efforts to control the spread of invasive species and mitigate their impact on agriculture and natural ecosystems.[386]

1.4.3.6. Global Register of Introduced and Invasive Species (GRIIS)

The Global Register of Introduced and Invasive Species (GRIIS) is a resource dedicated to cataloging introduced and invasive species across various countries. Developed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in collaboration with partners worldwide, GRIIS provides a standardized and globally consistent record of invasive species data. It aims to support research, policy-making, and conservation efforts by supplying reliable data for assessing and managing invasive species risks.

GRIIS compiles data at the national level, offering insights into the species that have been introduced to each country and those that pose particular risks to local biodiversity and ecosystems. Each record includes information on species’ distribution, pathways of introduction, and documented impacts on ecosystems. This localized approach helps countries prioritize their response strategies based on the unique characteristics of their ecosystems and the specific invasive threats they face.

An important feature of GRIIS is its commitment to transparency and data quality. The database sources information from scientific literature, government reports, and expert assessments, ensuring that each entry reflects accurate and up-to-date information. GRIIS encourages participation from national institutions and local experts, fostering a collaborative approach to monitoring and managing invasive species globally.

GRIIS is a vital resource for global conservation initiatives, helping countries track progress towards international biodiversity targets. By facilitating access to consistent and credible data on invasive species, GRIIS enables countries to develop informed policies and contribute to global efforts aimed at preserving biodiversity.[387]

1.4.3.7. Invasive Species Compendium (ISC)

The Invasive Species Compendium (ISC), managed by the Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (CABI), is a free-to-access database providing extensive information on invasive species that impact agriculture, the environment, and natural resources. The compendium includes data on invasive plants, animals, and microorganisms, emphasizing their economic, social, and ecological impacts. ISC serves as a critical resource for researchers, agriculturalists, and environmental managers working to prevent and control invasive species.

Each species profile in the ISC covers a range of information, including taxonomy, biology, habitat, impacts, and control methods. Profiles also provide risk assessment information, helping stakeholders understand the potential threats invasive species pose to local ecosystems and economies. ISC’s focus on agricultural impacts makes it particularly valuable for countries and organizations working to protect food security and natural resources.

ISC collaborates with a global network of experts and institutions, ensuring that the database remains comprehensive and up-to-date. The compendium’s data is sourced from scientific research, government publications, and verified case studies, allowing users to rely on it as a reputable source of information. Additionally, ISC’s open-access model promotes widespread access to data, supporting global efforts to combat invasive species through knowledge-sharing.

In addition to its extensive profiles, ISC provides resources like educational materials, toolkits, and guidelines for invasive species management. These tools enable users to implement effective control strategies and make informed decisions on managing invasive species in various contexts.[388]

1.4.3.8. Marine Invasive Species Monitoring Program (MIMS)

The Marine Invasive Species Monitoring Program (MIMS) focuses on tracking and controlling invasive species within marine and coastal ecosystems. Established in response to the increasing threat of marine invasives, MIMS provides data on species that disrupt ocean biodiversity and impact fisheries, coastal industries, and marine habitats. MIMS is designed to assist marine biologists, policymakers, and environmental organizations in understanding and managing marine invasive species.

MIMS includes detailed profiles on marine species, documenting their biological characteristics, distribution patterns, and impacts on native marine life. The database also includes information on the pathways through which these species are introduced, such as ballast water from ships and aquaculture activities. This information helps users understand how human activities contribute to the spread of invasive species in marine environments and informs the development of preventive measures.

One of MIMS’s critical functions is supporting monitoring and early detection efforts. By providing tools for identifying and reporting invasive species sightings, MIMS encourages community involvement and rapid response to new invasions. Early detection is especially important in marine ecosystems, where invasive species can spread quickly and become difficult to control once established.

Through collaboration with marine research institutions and government agencies, MIMS continues to evolve as a valuable resource for managing invasive species in the marine environment. The program also contributes to international marine conservation goals, helping to protect marine biodiversity and ensure the sustainability of coastal and ocean ecosystems.[389]

1.4.3.9. United States Geological Survey (USGS) Nonindigenous Aquatic Species (NAS) Database

The United States Geological Survey (USGS) Nonindigenous Aquatic Species (NAS) Database is a specialized resource that tracks the presence and spread of nonindigenous aquatic species in the United States. The NAS Database focuses on aquatic ecosystems, including rivers, lakes, and coastal waters, and provides data on invasive fish, invertebrates, and plants that disrupt native biodiversity and water resource management.

Each entry in the NAS Database includes comprehensive information on species biology, pathways of introduction, and ecological impacts. Profiles are supported by distribution maps that display the current range and spread of each species, which is particularly useful for scientists and environmental managers monitoring the expansion of invasive species. By documenting species occurrences, the NAS Database helps predict areas at risk and informs regional control efforts.

The NAS Database is supported by an online reporting system, allowing researchers, anglers, and the public to report sightings of invasive aquatic species. This crowdsourced data collection enhances the database’s accuracy and allows for rapid response to new invasions. The reporting system is also a valuable educational tool, promoting public awareness about the environmental risks posed by nonindigenous aquatic species.

USGS works closely with federal, state, and local agencies to ensure the NAS Database is a robust resource for aquatic invasive species management. By integrating real-time data and scientific insights, the NAS Database plays a significant role in national efforts to protect aquatic ecosystems from the impacts of invasive species.[390]

1.4.3.10. European Alien Species Information Network (EASIN)

The European Alien Species Information Network (EASIN) is an initiative led by the European Commission to support the implementation of EU policies on invasive species. EASIN provides information on alien species in Europe, focusing on their distribution, pathways of introduction, and ecological impacts. The network aims to help EU member states coordinate their efforts to control invasive species and prevent their spread.

EASIN includes a comprehensive database of invasive species profiles, detailing the biology, environmental impact, and distribution patterns of each species. By aggregating data from multiple sources, EASIN offers users a complete view of invasive species across Europe, which is essential for managing risks and developing control strategies. The database also includes interactive mapping tools that visualize species’ spread across various regions.

Beyond data sharing, EASIN promotes collaboration among European countries through workshops, publications, and training programs. These initiatives help member states develop and implement effective biosecurity measures. EASIN’s focus on collaboration aligns with EU biodiversity goals, providing a foundation for cohesive, continent-wide invasive species management.

EASIN’s resources are accessible to the public, ensuring that researchers, conservationists, and policymakers have the tools needed to understand and mitigate the impacts of invasive species in Europe. By facilitating information exchange and fostering cooperation, EASIN strengthens the collective response to invasive species challenges across the European Union.[391]

1.4.3.11. Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment Invasive Species Database

The Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment Invasive Species Database focuses on invasive species management within Australia, a country highly susceptible to biodiversity loss due to invasive species. The database provides detailed information on invasive plants, animals, and pathogens that threaten Australia’s unique ecosystems and agriculture.

Each species entry includes details on biology, distribution, pathways of introduction, and control measures. The database also includes resources on the legal frameworks for invasive species management, helping stakeholders understand regulatory requirements and compliance standards. This feature is particularly valuable for land managers and agricultural professionals who need to align with national biosecurity laws.

The database offers resources for public awareness, encouraging community participation in identifying and reporting invasive species. Educational materials provide guidance on recognizing invasive species and understanding their ecological impacts. This approach aligns with the government’s strategy to engage the public as active participants in biosecurity efforts.

The Australian Invasive Species Database supports collaboration between federal, state, and local agencies, ensuring a coordinated approach to invasive species control. By promoting shared responsibility, the database helps protect Australia’s biodiversity and supports sustainable environmental practices.[392]

1.4.3.12. New Zealand Ministry for Primary Industries (MPI) Biosecurity Database

The New Zealand Ministry for Primary Industries (MPI) Biosecurity Database is a critical resource for managing biosecurity risks posed by invasive species in New Zealand. Known for its unique flora and fauna, New Zealand faces significant threats from invasive species, which makes MPI’s work essential for the country’s biodiversity conservation efforts.

The MPI Biosecurity Database provides profiles on various invasive plants, animals, and pathogens, detailing their characteristics, impact on local ecosystems, and management practices. The database also offers data on the pathways of introduction, helping policymakers implement preventive measures. This information is crucial for early detection and rapid response efforts aimed at minimizing the impacts of new invasive species.

In addition to its database functionalities, MPI leads public awareness campaigns and educational programs, promoting community involvement in biosecurity. These efforts include guidelines for identifying and reporting invasive species, as well as resources for landowners and agricultural professionals on implementing biosecurity measures.

MPI’s database is integrated with New Zealand’s national biosecurity strategy, which emphasizes a collaborative approach involving government agencies, local authorities, and the public. By supporting a comprehensive, nationwide approach, the MPI Biosecurity Database plays a key role in protecting New Zealand’s unique ecosystems.[393]

1.4.3.13. Canadian Council on Invasive Species (CCIS) Database

The Canadian Council on Invasive Species (CCIS) Database serves as a national resource for addressing the threats of invasive species in Canada. CCIS collaborates with government agencies, non-profits, and community groups to develop and implement strategies for invasive species control, focusing on environmental conservation and public engagement.

The CCIS Database offers detailed profiles of invasive species affecting Canadian ecosystems, including information on their biology, distribution, and environmental impacts. Each profile includes management practices that are suitable for Canada’s diverse ecosystems, from coastal regions to forests and agricultural areas. This database is a vital resource for land managers, researchers, and policymakers working to prevent and mitigate invasive species impacts.

CCIS promotes community involvement through educational resources and volunteer programs. These initiatives encourage Canadians to participate in monitoring and reporting invasive species, which enhances the database’s data quality and supports early detection efforts. CCIS also collaborates with educational institutions to integrate invasive species awareness into curricula.

As part of Canada’s broader conservation efforts, the CCIS Database contributes to national biodiversity goals by providing essential data and fostering public awareness. Through collaboration and knowledge-sharing, CCIS strengthens Canada’s resilience against invasive species and supports sustainable environmental practices.[394]

1.4.3.14. South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) Invasive Species Programme

The South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) Invasive Species Programme is a vital resource for managing invasive species that threaten South Africa’s biodiversity. SANBI’s database includes profiles on invasive species that impact local flora, fauna, and ecosystems, providing essential data for researchers and conservationists focused on biodiversity preservation.

SANBI’s database provides detailed descriptions of invasive species, covering their biological characteristics, pathways of introduction, and ecological impacts. Each profile highlights the species’ effects on native biodiversity and the environment, as well as recommended control methods. SANBI’s approach integrates scientific research and local knowledge to develop effective management strategies suited to South Africa’s unique ecosystems.

SANBI also supports public awareness initiatives that encourage South Africans to participate in invasive species monitoring and reporting. The database includes resources on recognizing and managing invasive species, which supports community engagement in biodiversity conservation. SANBI’s outreach programs promote understanding of how invasive species threaten ecosystems and encourage active involvement in conservation efforts.

SANBI collaborates with government agencies, NGOs, and local communities, ensuring that its database remains a reliable and comprehensive resource. By facilitating information-sharing and fostering a collective response, SANBI’s Invasive Species Programme strengthens South Africa’s ability to protect its biodiversity from invasive species threats.[395]

1.4.3.15. Japanese National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES) Invasive Species Database

The Japanese National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES) Invasive Species Database is a critical resource dedicated to monitoring and managing invasive species in Japan. Japan’s unique ecosystems and island biodiversity are highly susceptible to invasions, making this database essential for preserving native species and maintaining ecological balance. NIES provides comprehensive profiles of invasive species that affect Japan’s terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

Each species profile in the NIES Database includes detailed information on biology, distribution, ecological impacts, and recommended management strategies. By documenting the pathways of introduction, such as trade, transportation, and human activity, the database aids in identifying high-risk areas and prioritizing biosecurity measures. The NIES also supports research efforts to understand how invasive species interact with Japan’s endemic species.

Public engagement is a cornerstone of the NIES approach, with resources designed to educate Japanese citizens on identifying and reporting invasive species. Educational materials are available to schools, communities, and local organizations, helping raise awareness and promoting active involvement in invasive species monitoring.

The NIES collaborates with government agencies, academic institutions, and environmental organizations, ensuring its database reflects the latest research and ecological data. By supporting informed decision-making and fostering a nationwide response, the NIES Invasive Species Database strengthens Japan’s capacity to manage invasive species threats.[396]

1.4.3.16. Mexican National Commission for the Knowledge and Use of Biodiversity (CONABIO) Invasive Species Database

The Mexican National Commission for the Knowledge and Use of Biodiversity (CONABIO) Invasive Species Database is an essential tool for managing invasive species in Mexico. CONABIO’s mission is to provide comprehensive data on species that threaten Mexico’s biodiversity and to support conservation initiatives aimed at protecting native ecosystems.

The CONABIO Database includes species profiles that document invasive plants, animals, and pathogens, covering their biological traits, distribution, and environmental impacts. Each profile includes information on pathways of introduction and spread, which is valuable for designing preventive measures and controlling established populations. The database also offers insights into the economic impacts of invasive species, especially concerning agriculture and natural resources.

CONABIO promotes public awareness through its educational programs and community outreach initiatives. Resources are provided to help citizens recognize invasive species and understand their effects on local ecosystems. Through collaborations with local communities, CONABIO encourages participation in monitoring efforts, making the database a dynamic resource supported by on-the-ground data.

By collaborating with government agencies, academic institutions, and non-profit organizations, CONABIO ensures that its invasive species data remains accurate and relevant. The CONABIO Database plays a key role in Mexico’s biodiversity conservation efforts, helping to mitigate the impacts of invasive species through informed action.[397]

1.4.3.17. Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA) Invasive Species Database

The Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (IBAMA) Invasive Species Database is a critical resource for managing invasive species that impact Brazil’s diverse ecosystems. With its vast rainforests, coastal areas, and wetlands, Brazil is highly vulnerable to invasive species that threaten its rich biodiversity and natural resources. The IBAMA Database provides data on invasive species affecting these environments, supporting conservation and biosecurity efforts.

The IBAMA Database includes profiles of invasive species, detailing their biological characteristics, distribution, and ecological impacts. Each entry highlights management practices suited to Brazil’s varied ecosystems, addressing the specific needs of rainforest, savanna, and coastal regions. This tailored approach is essential for effectively controlling invasive species in Brazil’s complex ecological landscape.

Public engagement is a key component of IBAMA’s strategy. The database offers educational resources designed to increase public awareness of invasive species and their impacts. By encouraging citizen participation in monitoring and reporting efforts, IBAMA enhances its data quality and promotes a community-based approach to invasive species control.

IBAMA collaborates with federal and local agencies, NGOs, and research institutions to ensure that the database remains accurate and up-to-date. The database supports Brazil’s national conservation goals and contributes to international efforts to protect biodiversity, making it an essential resource for invasive species management in South America.[398]

1.4.3.18. Indian National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) Invasive Species Database

The Indian National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) Invasive Species Database is an essential resource for monitoring and managing invasive species that threaten India’s biodiversity. India’s rich and diverse ecosystems are at risk from invasive plants, animals, and pathogens that impact agriculture, human health, and natural resources. The NBA Database provides a foundation for conservation efforts aimed at preserving native biodiversity.

Each species profile in the NBA Database includes information on biology, distribution, ecological impact, and control measures. The database highlights the pathways through which invasive species are introduced, providing insights into preventive measures that can reduce the likelihood of new invasions. The NBA’s emphasis on pathways is particularly valuable for agricultural stakeholders and environmental managers.

Public awareness is a major focus for the NBA, which provides educational materials and outreach programs to help Indian citizens understand the importance of invasive species management. By fostering community involvement, the NBA promotes a proactive approach to biodiversity conservation, encouraging citizens to report sightings and engage in local monitoring efforts.

The NBA collaborates with government agencies, research institutions, and community organizations to maintain a comprehensive and current database. This collaborative approach enables India to address invasive species threats effectively, supporting the country’s biodiversity goals and contributing to global conservation initiatives.[399]

1.4.3.19. Chinese Academy of Sciences Invasive Species Database

The Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) Invasive Species Database is a significant resource for tracking and managing invasive species in China. With its diverse climates and ecosystems, China faces numerous challenges from invasive species that threaten native flora and fauna, agriculture, and biodiversity. The CAS database compiles information on various invasive plants, animals, and microorganisms affecting China’s environments.

Each profile in the CAS Database provides detailed information on species biology, distribution, ecological impacts, and recommended control strategies. By including data on pathways of introduction, the database supports preventative strategies to reduce invasive species spread. The CAS also emphasizes the importance of understanding ecosystem vulnerability, helping to prioritize resources for the most threatened regions.

Public engagement is a critical part of CAS’s efforts, with resources that educate communities on identifying and reporting invasive species. Educational materials are widely distributed, and the CAS promotes public participation in biodiversity conservation by encouraging citizens to take part in invasive species monitoring programs.

The CAS collaborates with government agencies, academic institutions, and international partners to maintain a comprehensive and up-to-date database. By integrating local knowledge with scientific research, the CAS Invasive Species Database plays a crucial role in protecting China’s biodiversity and natural resources.[400]

1.4.3.20. Russian Academy of Sciences Invasive Species Database

The Russian Academy of Sciences Invasive Species Database provides extensive information on invasive species impacting ecosystems across Russia’s vast and diverse landscapes. From arctic tundra to temperate forests, Russia’s varied climates are vulnerable to invasive species that threaten native biodiversity, agricultural productivity, and natural resources. This database supports conservation and biosecurity efforts by offering data on species affecting different regions.

Each species profile includes data on biological characteristics, habitat preferences, and ecological impacts, along with management practices suitable for Russia’s distinct ecosystems. The database also details pathways of introduction, helping to prevent further spread of invasive species through effective regulatory measures and public awareness.

The Russian Academy of Sciences emphasizes community involvement in invasive species monitoring. By providing educational materials and encouraging citizen reporting, the Academy fosters a proactive approach to invasive species management, ensuring that data remains current and reflective of regional challenges.

This database is an invaluable tool for researchers, policymakers, and environmental managers working to protect Russia’s ecosystems. By collaborating with national and international conservation organizations, the Russian Academy of Sciences supports global biodiversity goals and helps mitigate invasive species threats in diverse environments.[401]

1.4.3.21. International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Invasive Species Database

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Invasive Species Database is a globally recognized resource managed by the IUCN’s Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG). This database provides comprehensive profiles on invasive species worldwide, covering their ecological impacts, distribution, and management strategies. It serves as a key tool for international conservation efforts aimed at preserving biodiversity and ecosystem health.

The IUCN Database includes species profiles that detail the biology, habitats, and impacts of each invasive species, along with suggested management practices. These profiles are valuable for policymakers and conservationists looking to understand and mitigate the impacts of invasive species in various ecosystems. By incorporating case studies, the IUCN Database provides real-world examples of effective management strategies.

The IUCN encourages public awareness through its educational resources, helping communities understand the significance of invasive species and their effects on ecosystems. Resources include identification guides, public reports, and informational campaigns that encourage citizen participation in invasive species management.

With contributions from conservation organizations, governments, and scientists, the IUCN Database is continuously updated to reflect the latest research and data. It remains a leading resource for global conservation initiatives, supporting biodiversity protection efforts across multiple regions.[402]

1.4.3.22. International Maritime Organization (IMO) Global Invasive Species Information System (GISIS)

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) Global Invasive Species Information System (GISIS) focuses on tracking and managing invasive species spread through maritime pathways. This database addresses the issue of invasive species transferred through ballast water, hull fouling, and other marine activities, which is a significant concern for coastal ecosystems and global biodiversity.

GISIS provides profiles on invasive marine species, including their biological characteristics, habitats, and impacts on native species and ecosystems. It also includes data on species spread and pathways, offering insights for policymakers to develop preventive and mitigation measures. The IMO’s focus on maritime pathways is particularly valuable for coastal communities and shipping industries.

Public education and international cooperation are fundamental aspects of the IMO’s approach. Through GISIS, the IMO promotes awareness of how shipping practices impact ecosystems and provides resources for sustainable shipping practices. GISIS also encourages countries to adopt biosecurity regulations and protocols for maritime activities.

The IMO collaborates with various stakeholders, including international organizations and maritime industries, to support sustainable shipping and protect marine ecosystems. GISIS remains an essential resource for managing the impacts of maritime activities on global biodiversity.[403]

1.4.3.23. Philippines Biodiversity Management Bureau (BMB) Invasive Species Database

The Philippines Biodiversity Management Bureau (BMB) Invasive Species Database is a critical tool for managing invasive species that threaten the Philippines’ unique ecosystems. As an archipelago with rich biodiversity, the Philippines is particularly vulnerable to invasive species that impact its natural resources and biodiversity.

The BMB Database includes profiles on invasive species that document their biology, distribution, ecological impact, and management options. Each entry provides information on species spread pathways, aiding in the development of preventive measures to protect the country’s native species. BMB also collaborates with local governments and communities to enhance conservation efforts.

Public engagement is encouraged through BMB’s educational programs, which offer resources for identifying and reporting invasive species. By fostering community involvement, BMB ensures that data remains current and reflective of local challenges. Resources also help communities understand how invasive species affect their livelihoods and ecosystem health.

The BMB collaborates with international and national organizations to ensure its database is comprehensive and accurate. This collective approach strengthens the Philippines’ response to invasive species threats and contributes to broader biodiversity conservation efforts.[404]

1.4.3.24. Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Invasive Species Database

The Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Invasive Species Database is a vital resource for tracking and managing invasive species that affect Indonesia’s diverse ecosystems. With a vast archipelago of tropical islands, Indonesia’s ecosystems are highly sensitive to invasive species that threaten biodiversity and natural resources. The LIPI Database provides profiles on invasive plants, animals, and microorganisms that impact Indonesia.

Each entry in the LIPI Database includes detailed information on species biology, habitat preferences, distribution, and ecological impacts. LIPI places a strong emphasis on pathways of introduction, which helps inform strategies to prevent new invasions. Data on species spread supports regulatory and management measures across different Indonesian regions.

LIPI promotes public awareness through educational materials and community outreach programs that encourage citizens to report sightings of invasive species. This public engagement ensures data accuracy and fosters a proactive approach to biodiversity conservation. Educational programs aim to equip communities with knowledge on identifying and managing invasive species.

The LIPI Database is maintained in collaboration with Indonesian government agencies, academic institutions, and international conservation organizations. This integrated approach supports Indonesia’s biodiversity conservation efforts and strengthens the country’s capacity to mitigate invasive species threats.[405]

1.4.3.25. Thailand Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation (DNP) Invasive Species Database

The Thailand Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation (DNP) Invasive Species Database is an important tool for managing invasive species in Thailand. Thailand’s diverse ecosystems, including forests, rivers, and coastal areas, are highly vulnerable to invasive species that impact native biodiversity and environmental health. The DNP Database offers species profiles and resources to support invasive species management.

Each profile in the DNP Database includes information on species biology, distribution, environmental impacts, and recommended management strategies. By detailing pathways of introduction, the database helps Thailand’s policymakers and conservationists design preventive measures that protect ecosystems from further invasions.

DNP also promotes public awareness through educational materials, aiming to involve communities in identifying and reporting invasive species. Public engagement strengthens data accuracy and fosters a collaborative approach to managing invasive species. Educational resources help citizens understand the ecological and economic impacts of invasive species on Thailand’s environment.

The DNP collaborates with international organizations, local governments, and research institutions to maintain a comprehensive and up-to-date database. This collaborative approach supports Thailand’s conservation goals and strengthens the national response to invasive species threats.[406]

1.4.3.26. Malaysian Department of Agriculture Invasive Species Database

The Malaysian Department of Agriculture Invasive Species Database is dedicated to managing invasive species that impact Malaysia’s diverse ecosystems and agricultural sectors. Malaysia’s tropical climate and unique biodiversity make it susceptible to invasive species that threaten crops, native species, and overall ecosystem health. This database serves as a resource for policymakers, conservationists, and agricultural professionals working to mitigate these threats.

Each entry in the Malaysian database includes information on species biology, distribution, pathways of introduction, and control strategies. The database emphasizes the economic impacts of invasive species, particularly focusing on agricultural losses and biosecurity risks. By including pathway data, the database supports preventive measures that help reduce the likelihood of future invasions.

Public outreach and education are key components of the Department of Agriculture’s strategy. The database offers materials to help citizens identify and report invasive species, supporting early detection and rapid response. Community involvement is encouraged to improve data accuracy and foster a sense of shared responsibility for protecting Malaysia’s ecosystems.

Collaboration with regional and international organizations ensures that the Malaysian Invasive Species Database remains current and scientifically robust. This resource supports Malaysia’s conservation efforts and contributes to regional biodiversity protection initiatives across Southeast Asia.[407]

1.4.3.27. Singapore National Parks Board (NParks) Invasive Species Database

The Singapore National Parks Board (NParks) Invasive Species Database is a specialized resource focused on managing invasive species within Singapore’s highly urbanized landscape. Singapore’s commitment to green spaces and biodiversity conservation makes invasive species management crucial for protecting local flora and fauna. The NParks Database provides data on species that affect Singapore’s parks, natural reserves, and marine environments.

Each profile in the NParks Database includes information on species biology, distribution, pathways of introduction, and ecological impacts. The database also details the specific threats invasive species pose to urban biodiversity and green infrastructure. NParks places a strong emphasis on prevention and rapid response, helping to control species before they become established.

NParks actively engages the public through educational programs, workshops, and volunteer opportunities. By fostering community involvement, NParks promotes awareness of invasive species and encourages citizens to report sightings. This public engagement ensures data accuracy and supports conservation efforts within Singapore’s limited natural spaces.

Collaborations with regional conservation organizations and local institutions ensure that the NParks Database remains comprehensive and effective. NParks’ commitment to urban biodiversity makes this database a model for invasive species management in densely populated areas.[408]

1.4.3.28. Vietnam Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources (IEBR) Invasive Species Database

The Vietnam Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources (IEBR) Invasive Species Database is a comprehensive tool for tracking and managing invasive species in Vietnam. With diverse ecosystems, including tropical rainforests, rivers, and coastal areas, Vietnam faces significant challenges from invasive species that impact biodiversity and agriculture. IEBR provides detailed species profiles that support conservation and biosecurity efforts across the country.

The IEBR Database includes profiles on invasive plants, animals, and pathogens, covering information on biology, distribution, pathways of introduction, and management practices. By offering data on species’ ecological impacts, the database aids in the prioritization of control efforts and resource allocation. IEBR’s focus on pathways supports preventive measures to limit new introductions.

Public awareness is central to IEBR’s approach, with resources aimed at educating Vietnamese communities about invasive species. IEBR encourages community reporting and involvement in monitoring programs, enhancing data accuracy and supporting early detection efforts.

Through partnerships with national and international organizations, IEBR maintains a robust and current database that supports Vietnam’s biodiversity goals. The database plays a vital role in protecting Vietnam’s ecosystems and contributes to regional conservation initiatives across Southeast Asia.[409]

1.4.3.29. Argentine Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development Invasive Species Database

The Argentine Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development Invasive Species Database is a key resource for managing invasive species that threaten Argentina’s diverse ecosystems. Argentina’s extensive landscapes, from grasslands to mountains, are vulnerable to invasive species that disrupt local biodiversity, agriculture, and natural resources. This database provides detailed information on species affecting various regions of the country.

Each species profile includes biological characteristics, distribution, ecological impacts, and control measures, with a particular focus on the economic impacts of invasions. By detailing pathways of introduction, the database supports preventive measures that aim to minimize the arrival and spread of new invasive species.

The Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development actively promotes public awareness and engagement, encouraging communities to participate in invasive species monitoring. Educational materials are available to inform citizens about the risks invasive species pose to Argentina’s natural heritage.

By collaborating with national research institutions and international organizations, the Ministry ensures that its database remains accurate and up-to-date. This resource supports Argentina’s conservation goals and contributes to broader biodiversity protection efforts across Latin America.[410]

1.4.3.30. Chilean Ministry of the Environment Invasive Species Database

The Chilean Ministry of the Environment Invasive Species Database is a critical resource for addressing invasive species that impact Chile’s unique ecosystems, from deserts to coastal zones. With a range of ecosystems that are vulnerable to invasions, Chile relies on this database to support conservation and biosecurity measures.

The database provides profiles on invasive species, detailing their biology, distribution, and ecological impacts, along with control strategies tailored to Chile’s specific environments. The Ministry emphasizes the importance of understanding species pathways, supporting preventive strategies that reduce invasive species spread.

Public outreach is a major focus, with the Ministry promoting awareness through educational programs and resources that encourage citizen involvement in monitoring invasive species. By fostering community engagement, the database contributes to data accuracy and supports early detection efforts.

The Chilean Ministry of the Environment collaborates with research institutions, NGOs, and international partners, ensuring that the database remains comprehensive and current. This resource supports Chile’s biodiversity goals and plays a key role in protecting the country’s unique ecosystems.[411]

1.4.3.31. Peruvian National Forest and Wildlife Service (SERFOR) Invasive Species Database

The Peruvian National Forest and Wildlife Service (SERFOR) Invasive Species Database focuses on invasive species affecting Peru’s rich biodiversity. With ecosystems ranging from Amazon rainforests to Andean mountains, Peru faces unique challenges in managing invasive species. SERFOR’s database provides a comprehensive resource for conservationists, researchers, and policymakers.

SERFOR includes profiles on invasive plants, animals, and microorganisms, detailing their biology, distribution, pathways of introduction, and ecological impacts. By offering data on specific threats to Peru’s ecosystems, the database supports targeted control efforts and resource allocation. SERFOR emphasizes preventive measures, including biosecurity practices that protect natural resources.

Public involvement is encouraged through educational initiatives and reporting programs. SERFOR promotes awareness of invasive species impacts and encourages communities to participate in monitoring efforts, enhancing data accuracy and supporting early detection.

Collaboration with local communities, national agencies, and international organizations ensures that the SERFOR database remains robust and up-to-date. This resource supports Peru’s conservation goals and contributes to broader biodiversity protection efforts across South America.[412]

1.4.3.32. Colombian Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development Invasive Species Database

The Colombian Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development Invasive Species Database serves as a critical tool for managing invasive species in Colombia. Colombia’s rich ecosystems, including rainforests, mountains, and coastal areas, are susceptible to invasions that threaten native biodiversity. This database provides profiles on species impacting Colombia’s environments.

Each profile includes information on biology, distribution, ecological impacts, and control practices, emphasizing pathways of introduction. The database helps inform preventive measures, supporting Colombia’s conservation efforts to minimize the spread of invasive species.

The Ministry actively promotes community involvement through educational campaigns that raise awareness about invasive species and their effects on Colombia’s ecosystems. Public engagement helps improve data quality and supports early detection of invasive species across the country.

Through partnerships with national and international conservation organizations, the Ministry maintains a comprehensive and reliable database that supports Colombia’s biodiversity goals and contributes to regional conservation efforts.[413]

1.4.3.33. Ecuadorian Ministry of the Environment, Water and Ecological Transition Invasive Species Database

The Ecuadorian Ministry of the Environment, Water and Ecological Transition Invasive Species Database is dedicated to tracking and managing invasive species that threaten Ecuador’s unique biodiversity. Ecuador’s varied ecosystems, from the Amazon rainforest to the Galápagos Islands, are vulnerable to invasive species that disrupt local flora and fauna. This database serves as a critical resource for Ecuador’s conservation efforts, helping to protect native ecosystems and species.

The database includes species profiles with detailed information on biology, distribution, ecological impacts, and control strategies. By documenting pathways of introduction, the database supports efforts to prevent new invasions, focusing on ecosystems such as the Galápagos that are particularly sensitive to species introductions. Each profile highlights the specific threats invasive species pose to Ecuador’s ecosystems and economy.

Public awareness is promoted through the Ministry’s educational programs, encouraging Ecuadorians to report sightings and engage in monitoring activities. By involving local communities, the database enhances early detection and rapid response capabilities. Educational resources also help citizens understand the ecological and economic impacts of invasive species.

The Ministry collaborates with international and national organizations, ensuring the database reflects the latest research and conservation needs. This comprehensive resource supports Ecuador’s biodiversity goals and contributes to regional and global conservation efforts.[414]

1.4.3.34. Venezuelan Ministry of Ecosocialism Invasive Species Database

The Venezuelan Ministry of Ecosocialism Invasive Species Database is an essential tool for managing invasive species that threaten Venezuela’s biodiversity. Venezuela’s ecosystems, including tropical forests, savannas, and coastal areas, are susceptible to invasive species that impact native biodiversity and environmental health. The Ministry’s database provides data on invasive species across the country, supporting conservation and biosecurity efforts.

The database includes profiles detailing species biology, distribution, ecological impacts, and control methods tailored to Venezuela’s ecosystems. The focus on pathways of introduction aids in the development of preventive strategies, reducing the chances of future invasions. The Ministry also emphasizes the economic impacts of invasive species, especially on agriculture and natural resources.

The Ministry of Ecosocialism promotes community involvement through public awareness campaigns and educational resources. By fostering citizen engagement, the database improves early detection and enhances Venezuela’s ability to respond quickly to new invasions. Educational materials help communities understand the ecological and economic effects of invasive species.

Collaboration with local communities, conservation organizations, and academic institutions ensures the database remains current and relevant. This resource supports Venezuela’s conservation goals and contributes to broader biodiversity protection initiatives in Latin America.[415]

1.4.3.35. Turkish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Invasive Species Database

The Turkish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Invasive Species Database is a comprehensive resource focused on managing invasive species that threaten Turkey’s biodiversity and agricultural sectors. Turkey’s diverse landscapes, from coastal areas to mountainous regions, are impacted by invasive species that disrupt native flora and fauna. This database supports conservation efforts by providing data on species affecting various regions in Turkey.

Each entry includes information on species biology, distribution, ecological impacts, and management strategies, with a particular focus on the economic implications for agriculture and forestry. The database highlights pathways of introduction, helping to prevent the spread of new invasive species through targeted biosecurity measures.

Public engagement is a key component of the Ministry’s strategy, with educational programs aimed at raising awareness about invasive species. By encouraging community involvement in reporting and monitoring, the Ministry enhances its early detection capabilities, ensuring timely responses to new invasions.

The Ministry collaborates with international organizations and local agencies, ensuring the database remains up-to-date and scientifically rigorous. This resource plays a crucial role in Turkey’s biodiversity conservation efforts and supports the country’s national and international biosecurity goals.[416]

1.4.3.36. Iranian Department of Environment Invasive Species Database

The Iranian Department of Environment Invasive Species Database serves as a vital tool for managing invasive species that impact Iran’s diverse ecosystems. Iran’s landscapes, including deserts, mountains, and wetlands, face threats from invasive species that disrupt local biodiversity and natural resources. This database provides comprehensive profiles on invasive plants, animals, and pathogens that affect Iran’s environment and agriculture.

Each species profile details biology, distribution, ecological impacts, and control methods. By highlighting pathways of introduction, the database helps inform strategies for preventing further spread, particularly within sensitive ecosystems. The Department of Environment emphasizes the economic impacts of invasive species, particularly in relation to agriculture and water resources.

Public outreach is an essential part of the Department’s strategy, with educational initiatives that promote community involvement in identifying and reporting invasive species. These programs help improve data accuracy and enhance early detection and response efforts across Iran.

Through collaborations with national and international organizations, the Department ensures that its database remains a reliable and up-to-date resource. This initiative supports Iran’s biodiversity conservation goals and contributes to broader regional efforts to combat invasive species.[417]

1.4.3.37. Pakistani Ministry of Climate Change Invasive Species Database

The Pakistani Ministry of Climate Change Invasive Species Database is an essential resource for managing invasive species in Pakistan’s ecosystems. Pakistan’s diverse environments, including mountains, rivers, and arid regions, are vulnerable to invasive species that threaten biodiversity, agriculture, and water resources. This database offers detailed profiles on species impacting Pakistan’s ecosystems, supporting conservation and biosecurity efforts.

Each profile includes information on species biology, distribution, ecological impacts, and control measures. By focusing on pathways of introduction, the Ministry helps prevent new invasions and manage existing ones more effectively. The database also emphasizes the economic implications of invasive species, particularly for agriculture and water management.

Public engagement is encouraged through educational programs that raise awareness about invasive species and their impacts. The Ministry promotes citizen involvement in monitoring and reporting invasive species, supporting data collection and early detection efforts.

Through partnerships with international and regional organizations, the Ministry maintains a robust database that supports Pakistan’s conservation goals. This initiative contributes to national and global efforts to manage invasive species and protect biodiversity.[418]

1.4.3.38. Sri Lankan Department of Wildlife Conservation Invasive Species Database

The Sri Lankan Department of Wildlife Conservation Invasive Species Database is a key tool for managing invasive species that impact Sri Lanka’s ecosystems. Sri Lanka’s diverse landscapes, including rainforests, dry zones, and coastal areas, are susceptible to invasions that threaten biodiversity and agriculture. This database provides comprehensive profiles on species affecting these environments, supporting conservation and biosecurity efforts.

Each entry includes information on species biology, distribution, ecological impacts, and control strategies, with an emphasis on the unique challenges invasive species pose to Sri Lanka’s biodiversity. By detailing pathways of introduction, the database aids in the prevention of new invasions.

Public involvement is encouraged through educational initiatives and community-based monitoring programs. The Department of Wildlife Conservation promotes awareness about invasive species and encourages citizens to participate in conservation efforts, enhancing the country’s early detection and rapid response capabilities.

Collaborations with national and international organizations ensure that the database remains comprehensive and scientifically reliable. This resource plays an important role in Sri Lanka’s conservation efforts and supports regional biodiversity protection initiatives.[419]

1.4.3.39. Nepalese Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Invasive Species Database

The Nepalese Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Invasive Species Database is dedicated to protecting Nepal’s unique biodiversity from invasive species threats. Nepal’s ecosystems, including the Himalayas, grasslands, and rivers, are impacted by invasive species that disrupt local flora, fauna, and agriculture. This database provides data on species affecting various regions across the country.

The database includes detailed species profiles that document biology, distribution, ecological impacts, and control practices. Each entry focuses on the specific threats invasive species pose to Nepal’s ecosystems and economy, supporting targeted conservation efforts. The database also emphasizes the importance of understanding pathways of introduction, helping prevent the spread of new invasive species.

Public awareness is promoted through educational resources that encourage communities to participate in monitoring efforts. By involving local communities, the Department enhances data accuracy and supports early detection, ensuring a rapid response to invasive threats.

Collaboration with national and international organizations keeps the database comprehensive and updated. This resource is essential for Nepal’s biodiversity conservation goals and contributes to broader regional efforts in South Asia.[420]

1.4.3.40. South Korean National Institute of Ecology (NIE) Invasive Species Database

The South Korean National Institute of Ecology (NIE) Invasive Species Database is a comprehensive tool for managing invasive species that impact South Korea’s ecosystems. With diverse landscapes, including forests, mountains, and coastal areas, South Korea is vulnerable to invasive species that threaten native biodiversity, agriculture, and environmental stability. The NIE Database supports biosecurity and conservation efforts by providing detailed data on invasive plants, animals, and microorganisms across the country.

Each profile in the NIE Database includes information on species biology, distribution, ecological impacts, and management strategies. By highlighting pathways of introduction, the database aids in developing preventive strategies that help limit new invasions. The database also emphasizes the economic impacts of invasive species, particularly on agriculture and natural resources, supporting the development of targeted control measures.

The NIE promotes community involvement through educational programs and resources that encourage public participation in monitoring and reporting invasive species. This public engagement enhances data quality, supports early detection, and raises awareness of the importance of invasive species management. Educational initiatives also help communities understand the impacts of invasive species on South Korea’s ecosystems and economy.

In collaboration with regional and international conservation organizations, the NIE ensures that its database is comprehensive, scientifically rigorous, and up-to-date. This initiative supports South Korea’s biodiversity conservation goals and strengthens the country’s capacity to address invasive species threats on a national scale.[421]

II. Man-made Hazards and Disasters

2.1. Technological Hazards and Disasters

Technological hazards and disasters occur when human-made systems, infrastructure, or industrial processes fail or malfunction, often leading to widespread harm to people, property, and the environment. Unlike natural disasters, these events are typically the result of human error, negligence, or unforeseen accidents [239-242]. Technological disasters can take many forms, from industrial accidents and nuclear plant failures to chemical spills and transportation mishaps. Their impacts can be severe, with long-term consequences for public health, the economy, and ecosystems. As technology continues to evolve, the risk of such hazards increases, highlighting the need for strict safety measures, effective management, and preparedness for emergencies [243].

One of the most infamous technological disasters in history is the Chernobyl nuclear disaster, which occurred in 1986 in present-day Ukraine. A reactor at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant exploded, releasing massive amounts of radioactive material into the atmosphere. This catastrophe led to immediate deaths and caused long-term health problems such as cancer and radiation sickness for those exposed. The environmental damage was also extensive, with entire regions becoming uninhabitable, forcing the permanent evacuation of many communities. The Chernobyl disaster served as a stark reminder of the potential dangers of nuclear power and reinforced the need for stringent safety regulations and oversight in nuclear facilities [243-245].

In a similar vein, the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in 2011, triggered by a massive tsunami, resulted in the release of radioactive materials into the environment. Although the initial cause was a natural event, the disaster exposed vulnerabilities in the plant’s design and safety protocols. Thousands of residents were displaced, and the environmental impact was devastating. This event reignited global debates over the safety of nuclear energy and highlighted the critical importance of disaster-resilience planning for nuclear facilities, especially those in disaster-prone areas [145, 146, 246-248].

Chemical accidents represent another serious form of technological disaster [249, 250]. These incidents often occur when hazardous chemicals are accidentally released into the environment, either through industrial mishaps or transportation accidents. One of the most devastating chemical disasters took place in Bhopal, India, in 1984, when a gas leak from a pesticide plant exposed thousands to toxic methyl isocyanate. The immediate death toll was over 3,000, with tens of thousands more suffering long-term health effects like respiratory problems and birth defects. This tragedy underscored the need for strict safety protocols, better handling of hazardous materials, and more effective emergency response systems in chemical industries [243].

Transportation disasters, such as those involving planes, ships, or trains, are also classified as technological hazards. These accidents can cause extensive loss of life and property damage. For instance, the 1987 sinking of the MV Doña Paz ferry in the Philippines, which collided with an oil tanker, led to over 4,000 deaths, making it one of the deadliest maritime disasters in history. Similarly, aviation disasters like the 1977 collision between two Boeing 747s on the runway at Tenerife airport, which resulted in 583 deaths, highlight the devastating consequences of human error, technical failure, or miscommunication in transportation systems.

Oil spills, often caused by tanker accidents or pipeline leaks, represent another form of technological hazard with far-reaching environmental consequences. One of the largest in history was the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico, which caused catastrophic damage to marine ecosystems and severely impacted local fishing industries. Millions of barrels of oil were released into the ocean, leading to widespread contamination and long-term environmental degradation. Oil spills illustrate the dangers associated with energy production and transportation, reinforcing the need for better safety standards, advanced spill prevention technologies, and more effective environmental protections.

Industrial explosions and fires, often caused by improper handling or storage of hazardous materials, are another significant technological hazard. One notable example is the 2015 explosions in Tianjin, China, where a series of blasts at a chemical warehouse killed more than 170 people and caused massive damage to the surrounding area. This incident raised concerns about the enforcement of safety regulations in industrial zones and highlighted the risks of storing dangerous materials near densely populated areas [243].

As societies become increasingly dependent on digital technology, cyber-attacks and technological failures in critical infrastructure have emerged as new threats[251]. A major cyber-attack on essential systems such as power grids, water supplies, or communication networks could lead to widespread chaos, economic loss, and even fatalities. With the growing reliance on interconnected systems like the Internet of Things (IoT) and artificial intelligence (AI), the risk of cyber-attacks increases, exposing vulnerabilities in the very technologies that power modern life. Protecting critical infrastructure from cyber threats requires stronger cybersecurity measures, government oversight, and cooperation between private and public sectors [252].

Reducing the risks associated with technological hazards and disasters requires a comprehensive approach that includes strict regulatory oversight, rigorous safety standards, effective emergency preparedness, and public education. Governments and industries must enforce safety protocols in high-risk sectors such as nuclear energy, chemical production, and transportation. Emergency response plans need to be in place to deal with accidents swiftly and effectively, while industries must implement solid risk management strategies to minimize the likelihood of disasters occurring. Technological advancements can also help reduce the risk of these disasters. For instance, modern safety systems in nuclear reactors, improved transportation designs, and advanced spill detection technologies in the oil industry have greatly enhanced safety and reduced the chances of catastrophic failures. Additionally, the growing use of automation, real-time monitoring, and artificial intelligence in high-risk industries can help identify potential hazards before they escalate into full-blown disasters [243].

2.1.1. Industrial Accidents

2.1.1.1. European Major Accident Reporting System (eMARS)

The European Major Accident Reporting System (eMARS) is a database maintained by the European Commission to record incidents involving hazardous chemicals in the EU. eMARS collects data on major industrial accidents, focusing on their causes, effects, and the lessons learned from each event. This information is crucial for enhancing safety regulations and improving chemical safety standards across Europe.

The eMARS database includes details about each accident, such as the substances involved, accident scenarios, preventive measures, and emergency response actions taken. The data aids European regulatory bodies, industries, and safety experts in identifying common risk factors and trends in chemical safety.

eMARS promotes transparency and supports research on accident prevention by making anonymized data publicly accessible. Its findings are also used to inform updates to the Seveso Directive, which regulates major accident hazards involving dangerous substances in Europe. This database is a vital resource for understanding chemical accident risks, aiding policymakers, industry professionals, and researchers in efforts to improve chemical safety and accident prevention across Europe.[422]

2.1.1.2. United States Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board (CSB) Incident Database

The United States Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board (CSB) Incident Database provides detailed information on chemical accidents in the United States. CSB is an independent federal agency that investigates significant chemical accidents, focusing on identifying root causes and making safety recommendations to prevent future incidents.

The CSB Incident Database includes information on accident scenarios, causal factors, and emergency response actions, as well as video resources and detailed reports. By sharing these findings, the CSB aims to promote chemical safety in industries, raise awareness about potential hazards, and encourage regulatory improvements.

The database is widely used by industry professionals, safety inspectors, and researchers to enhance their understanding of chemical accident prevention. CSB’s commitment to transparency and safety education makes this database a critical resource for improving safety standards in U.S. chemical industries.[423]

2.1.1.3. Major Hazard Incident Data Service (MHIDAS)

The Major Hazard Incident Data Service (MHIDAS) is an international database that collects information on major industrial accidents involving hazardous materials. Managed by the UK Health and Safety Executive (HSE), MHIDAS provides data on incidents worldwide, including the substances involved, accident causes, consequences, and preventive measures.

MHIDAS supports industry professionals and safety regulators in identifying trends and improving safety practices in facilities handling hazardous materials. The database includes extensive data on fire, explosion, and toxic release incidents, which is invaluable for risk assessment, safety planning, and regulatory compliance.

Users of MHIDAS include government agencies, researchers, and industry experts who analyze the data to improve process safety and develop preventive strategies. The database contributes to global efforts in reducing the impact of industrial accidents on workers, communities, and the environment.[424]

2.1.1.4. National Response Center (NRC) Database

The National Response Center (NRC) Database is the United States’ primary system