Vladimir M. Cvetković
Criminalistic-Police Academy, Belgrade, vladimir.cvetkovic@kpa.edu.rs
Abstract
Hazardous materials are an inevitable companion of modern times, and their diversity is particularly evident when analyzing their potential use in terrorism, which could trigger a serious emergency situation. Naturally, radioactive, explosive, flammable, toxic substances, and biological agents, by their very nature, constitute hazardous materials that can be easily utilized for such purposes. The effective elimination of the consequences in such emergency situations largely depends on the mutual cooperation and coordination of emergency response services, as well as support from the broader community. Generally speaking, there is no single emergency response service that can, independently and solely with its own capacities and resources, provide an adequate response. It is, therefore, necessary to establish an efficient operational structure, i.e., an emergency management system that will adequately respond to all needs on-site. In terrorist emergencies, there will be a need to establish strategic, tactical, and operational levels of organization. This paper does not analyze the strategic level but focuses on the tactical and operational levels of emergency response services.
Accordingly, the author describes the organization and mutual coordination of emergency response services, following the “8-step procedure”:
- Management and control of the affected area;
- Problem identification;
- Hazard and risk assessment;
- Selection of personal protective clothing and equipment;
- Information flow control and resource coordination;
- Implementation of priority actions;
- Decontamination and cleanup of the site;
- Conclusion of the emergency situation.
Finally, the paper highlights potential risks to the lives and health of emergency responders during the mitigation of the consequences, with a special focus on protective measures.
Keywords: management, hazardous materials, operational organization, terrorist acts, 8-step procedure, emergency situations, safety.
Introduction
One of the most serious security scenarios is an emergency situation caused by the use of hazardous materials for terrorist purposes (Cvetković, 2012a, p. 58). Terrorism, as a negative social phenomenon and contemporary security threat, has always been a challenging issue for states and the international system as a whole (Bajagić, 2007, p. 54). In professional literature, terrorism (Latin terror – intense fear, horror; French terroriser – sowing fear) is defined as: “a method of deliberate and systematic use of violence aimed at instilling fear in people and government representatives to achieve personal, political, and other ideological goals” (Emergency Response to Terrorism, 2000, p. 101).
Terrorism itself induces fear, particularly when terrorist groups, driven by the goal of maximizing casualties, resort to the use of hazardous materials. Radioactive, explosive, flammable, toxic substances, and biological agents, by their very nature, are hazardous materials that can be misused (Cvetković, 2013, p. 123).
Emergency situations caused by hazardous materials require the implementation of specific measures by one or more emergency response services and generally involve the participation of a large number of responders (Cvetković, 2012b, p. 47). Given the characteristics of such emergencies, all emergency response services share common objectives (Mlađan & Cvetković, 2012, p. 535), including:
- Rescue and protection of human lives;
- Alleviation of suffering;
- Containment of the situation to prevent escalation;
- Public warning and information dissemination;
- Protection of the health and safety of emergency responders;
- Preservation of the environment;
- Protection of material assets (property) as much as possible;
- Maintenance or restoration of critical activities;
- Continuation of essential services at an appropriate level.
In such terrorist emergencies, adherence to standardized procedures ensures consistency in tactical operations, regardless of the emergency response services involved (Cvetković, 2013a, p. 31). Establishing and implementing key steps in organizing operations can significantly ease the burden on emergency responders. Therefore, the fundamental algorithm for mitigating the consequences of such emergencies could include the following critical points (Kramer, 2009, p. 74):
- The operational organization must be established by the first emergency response service arriving at the scene, maintaining it to ensure coordination among all available resources with necessary instructions for participants.
- A unified organizational structure for key services should be established, highlighting the leading service based on the nature of the emergency.
- A centralized command post should be set up.
- Any security breach can result in casualties.
- Basic strategic objectives and priorities should be defined.
- Emphasis should be placed on triaging patients, locating and identifying all victims, and prioritizing treatment and transportation.
- Control over victims, facilities, and responsible services should be maintained using standardized methods.
- No single service can effectively manage an emergency situation alone; therefore, regional and broader training programs should be implemented.
- Operational organization and control should be maintained not only in emergencies but also in daily operations (FEMA, 2004, p. 29).
The 8-step procedure ensures a flexible tactical management system that provides consistent operational structures regardless of the type of hazardous material. Essentially, eight fundamental steps must be taken, typically following the timeline of a terrorist emergency. These steps include (Cvetković, 2013a, p. 13):
- Management and control of the emergency area;
- Problem identification;
- Hazard and risk assessment;
- Selection of protective clothing and equipment;
- Management of information flow and response resources;
- Implementation of response strategies;
- Decontamination and cleanup operations;
- Conclusion of the emergency situation.
Accordingly, the author provides a detailed description of the emergency management procedure in terrorist incidents involving hazardous materials. Given the formal constraints of the paper, the focus will be placed on the tactical and operational levels of emergency response organization rather than the strategic level.
Potential Misuse of Hazardous Materials for Terrorist Purposes
Hazardous materials are a regular and inevitable part of modern life. Some of them have been known for centuries, while others have been discovered relatively recently. With the advancement of science and technology, their number is increasing daily, and to date, around 14 million hazardous substances have been identified (Radić, 2011, p. 47). Their production, application, trade, storage, and transportation are regulated by specific laws, guidelines, and regimes, and handling these substances is permitted only for trained and qualified specialists (Cvetković & Popović, 2011, p. 161; Lesak, 1999).
Hazardous materials refer to substances that, during production, transportation, processing, storage, or use in technological processes, emit or create infectious, irritating, flammable, explosive, corrosive, suffocating, toxic, or other dangerous dust, fumes, gases, mists, vapors, or fibers, as well as harmful radiation, in quantities that can endanger human life and health, material resources, and the environment at varying distances from the locations where they are present (Guide for Incident Response, 2008).
According to international classification, hazardous materials are categorized into the following classes (Cvetković, 2012, p. 123):
- Explosive substances
- Gases under pressure, in liquid state, or dissolved under pressure
- Flammable liquids
- Flammable solid materials
- Oxidizing substances
- Toxic (poisonous) and infectious substances
- Radioactive substances
- Corrosive (erosive) substances
- Miscellaneous hazardous substances
There is significant evidence that terrorists seek potential methods for using various hazardous materials to cause mass casualties, with more than 25 recorded terrorist attacks involving nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons to date (Cvetković, 2013a, p. 13).
It is undeniable that obtaining hazardous materials is a prerequisite for carrying out any terrorist attack. The execution of a terrorist attack involving such substances involves three steps:
- Acquisition of lethal material – Terrorist groups must obtain deadly substances that enable them to create weapons of mass destruction.
- Weaponization – The hazardous material must be turned into a functional weapon. Such devices can be created in the simplest manner, such as a plastic bag filled with sarin punctured by an umbrella in the Tokyo subway attack by the Aum Shinrikyo group, or in more dramatic ways, such as detonating a train transporting chlorine in a sleeping city.
- Deployment – The methods used vary depending on the type of lethal material, requiring individual study of each category of weapon (William, 2007, p. 101).
The use of biological hazardous materials by terrorists is facilitated by their availability, particularly in clinical and microbiological laboratories, government institutions, and certain schools. Additionally, biological agents are attractive due to their low-cost production, concealed and effective application, specific effects, ability to cause mass infections, widespread panic, operational difficulties, lack of full control, dependency on various conditions and specialists, and lack of information (Čobeljić et al., 2003, p. 9).
The unique characteristics of biological agents include:
- Contamination duration can last from a few hours to several weeks.
- Delayed effects and symptoms, leading to incapacitation or death long after exposure.
- Rapid breakdown of liquid agents, making them harder to detect.
- Unpredictable effects, as they are influenced by temperature and weather conditions.
- The ability to spread – even a small amount of biological weaponry can infect individuals who then become secondary sources of infection (Mauer, 2009, p. 12).
Terrorist groups can acquire biological agents in various ways:
- Theft from official institutions.
- Purchase on the black market.
- Assistance from sympathetic governments.
- Self-production in equipped or improvised laboratories (Clarke, 1970, p. 85).
Chemical weapons are often referred to as the “silent and invisible killer” because they may be colorless and odorless, making them difficult to detect before causing large-scale consequences. Some hazardous chemical substances have longer incubation periods, meaning infected individuals may leave the attack site and unknowingly spread contamination. Furthermore, many commercial chemicals pose risks as they can be used as potential improvised chemical devices.
For example:
- Phosgene, used as a chemical weapon in World War I, is also utilized in commercial plastic production.
- Cyanide salts are widely used in metal ore extraction.
- Chlorine is commonly transported in large quantities through major urban areas (Bowman, 2007, p. 16).
Terrorist groups are particularly drawn to chemical weapons due to:
- Their ability to cause mass casualties without causing structural damage.
- Their effectiveness in open and enclosed spaces (vehicles, buildings, shelters).
- Their ability to overwhelm healthcare systems by generating large numbers of victims requiring immediate treatment.
- Their predictable duration of action, which helps strategize attacks.
- The lack of need for large-scale decontamination after the effects wear off.
Documents seized from Al-Qaeda residences in Afghanistan illustrate efforts to use chemical weapons. Detailed plans included instructions on how to produce vast quantities of chemical agents and how to deploy them to maximize casualties (Cindy, 2003, p. 272).
Another serious concern is the use of radiological dispersion devices (RDDs), commonly known as “dirty bombs.” Fear of such attacks increased significantly after the September 2001 World Trade Center attacks. A dirty bomb contains radioactive material combined with explosives. Upon detonation, the radioactive material disperses, with lower heat intensity and radiation levels than a nuclear weapon. The effects depend on the type and quantity of radioactive material used, wind direction, and intensity.
A suitcase containing radioactive material, left in a subway, on a street, or in a building, can expose passersby to radiation without their knowledge. Once its presence is detected, mass panic can ensue, causing indirect damage beyond the initial impact (Byman, 2008, p. 12).
Terrorist organizations select hazardous materials based on factors such as:
- Financial resources – Some materials are expensive to acquire or develop.
- Technical expertise and technology – Some require advanced knowledge.
- Time constraints – Some take longer to produce.
- Attack consequences – The intended scale of destruction.
- Terrorist objectives – Whether they aim to cause mass casualties or economic damage.
- Availability of personnel and infrastructure – Skilled personnel are needed for sophisticated weapons.
The growing extremism of terrorist groups and subversive activities of certain states contribute to the increasing risk of hazardous material attacks. In the past, terrorists used violence against small groups of civilians to instill fear in a larger audience. However, many contemporary terrorist organizations have expressed interest in acquiring hazardous materials for large-scale attacks (Cannisttraro, 2007, p. 23).
After the arrival of emergency response services at the scene of a terrorist incident, it is necessary to determine the physical extent of the emergency, as experience shows this is crucial for preventing further deterioration of the security situation. This stage is known as “management and control of the emergency area.” An affected area cannot be managed safely and effectively without control over the location itself (Hawley, Noll & Hildebrand, 2001, p. 113).
Additionally, experience has shown that emergency situations that are not properly managed in the early stages become increasingly difficult to control as they progress in both time and complexity (Mlađan, Veličković & Cvetković, 2012, p. 90). Managing and controlling the location is a critical starting point, forming the foundation for all subsequent emergency response functions and tactical decisions.
During this phase, the following steps should be taken (Cvetković, 2012a, p. 58):
- Approaching the emergency location and positioning response teams appropriately.
- Establishing control and activating the emergency management system (initiated by the first responding unit).
- Coordinating additional emergency response teams.
- Defining danger zones (inner, outer, and traffic cordons). If the emergency area is not isolated, security risks will increase.
- Implementing protective measures for civilians, such as evacuation or shelter-in-place directives.
The goal of emergency area management is to quickly establish control and separate people from the problem, which is subsequently identified and assessed. This is achieved through the formation of security cordons.
Formation of Security Cordons and Zones
In such emergency situations, three cordons and zones are established:
- Inner Cordon (Hot Zone) – The area immediately surrounding the hazardous materials release, where only fully equipped emergency personnel may enter. This zone is marked with red and white tapes, and personnel movements are carefully documented.
- Restricted Access Zone (Warm Zone) – The area adjacent to the hot zone, where contamination is not immediately present, but personnel and equipment exiting the hot zone may still be contaminated.
- Safe Zone (Cold Zone) – The area beyond the restricted access zone, where there is no contamination, and emergency command and logistics are established.
Police must inspect all suspicious individuals and objects in all three zones. Officers entering the inner cordon must register at an assembly point to ensure accountability in case of an evacuation.
In addition to the three zones, three security cordons are established (Cvetković, 2012b, p. 67):
- The Inner Cordon secures the immediate danger zone.
- The Outer Cordon surrounds a broader area to prevent unauthorized access.
- The Traffic Cordon prevents unauthorized vehicle entry near the incident area.
Identification of the Hazardous Material (Problem Identification Phase)
Once the emergency area is secured, it is essential to identify the hazardous materials involved. This is crucial for determining the appropriate response measures. Identification involves:
- Detecting the presence of hazardous substances.
- Confirming the type of material involved.
- Classifying the material if precise identification is not possible (e.g., corrosive, toxic gas, radioactive material).
- Verifying initial information from transport documents, labels, and emergency databases.
Common methods of identifying hazardous materials include:
- The location and spread of the incident.
- The shape and type of containers storing the material.
- Labels, color codes, and placards.
- Documentation and transport records.
- Detection instruments and environmental sampling.
- Symptoms of exposure observed in victims.
Hazard and Risk Assessment
Assessing hazards and risks is the most critical function of emergency response teams. The primary goal is to determine whether to take offensive, defensive, or non-intervention actions. Poor risk assessment can lead to further casualties and property damage.
Key factors in risk assessment include (Heyer, 2006, p. 42):
- The type and quantity of hazardous material involved.
- Exposure risks, including chemical dispersion and contamination.
- Available resources for mitigation and response.
Selection of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
The safety of responders is a top priority. The selection of personal protective clothing and equipment (PPE) depends on the nature of the hazardous material and the planned tactical response. Responders must wear:
- Respiratory protection (e.g., gas masks or self-contained breathing apparatus).
- Chemical-resistant suits for exposure to toxic substances.
- Gloves, boots, and goggles for additional protection.
Information Flow Control and Resource Coordination
Controlling the flow of information and coordinating resources is essential for a timely and effective response. This includes:
- Ensuring clear communication among emergency services.
- Coordinating rescue and medical efforts.
- Documenting all actions and decisions.
- Establishing a unified command structure.
Proper information management ensures that all responding units operate in sync, reducing confusion and improving overall effectiveness (Cashman, 2008, p. 54).
Implementation of Priority Actions
After securing the area, identifying the hazard, and coordinating efforts, response teams must implement priority actions, such as:
- Rescuing victims.
- Managing fires and chemical leaks.
- Containing and neutralizing hazardous substances.
- Preventing further contamination.
The emergency response approach can follow one of three models (Combs, 2003, p. 76):
- Offensive approach (attack strategy) – Aimed at stopping the hazard at its source and preventing further spread.
- Defensive approach (containment strategy) – Focuses on limiting the spread of hazardous substances and ensuring public safety.
- Non-intervention approach – Involves monitoring the situation without immediate action until conditions allow for safe intervention.
Decontamination and Cleanup Operations
Decontamination is a crucial phase aimed at removing hazardous substances from responders, victims, and the environment. Methods include:
- Physical decontamination – Removing clothing (eliminates 80% of contaminants) and washing exposed areas with water.
- Chemical decontamination – Using neutralizing agents, solvents, or disinfectants.
- Isolation and disposal – Contaminated equipment and materials may need special disposal protocols to prevent secondary exposure (Bellany, 2007, p. 101).
Conclusion of the Emergency Situation
At this stage, control of the site is transferred to the appropriate agency responsible for post-incident operations. This phase includes:
- Incident reporting – A summary of actions taken and key findings.
- Incident analysis – Evaluating response effectiveness.
- Debriefing and critique – Identifying strengths and areas for improvement (Levy, 2010, p. 111).
The final report should include (Cvetković, 2013a, p. 51):
- Health-related information for responders.
- Identification of procedural failures.
- Recognition of effective tactics.
- Recommendations for future training and preparedness.
Conclusion
The widespread availability of hazardous materials means they can be exploited for terrorist purposes in numerous ways. Therefore, preparedness measures at the strategic, tactical, and operational levels are essential.
Key measures include:
- Training and equipping emergency responders.
- Establishing an emergency management system.
- Ensuring effective coordination among response agencies.
Managing terrorist emergencies involving hazardous materials is extremely complex, requiring rapid interagency coordination, while also prioritizing responder safety. Leaders in such crises must be highly trained and prepared for challenging and stressful operations.
The ability to recognize the signs of a terrorist event is critical. Protection of civilians from terrorist-induced hazardous material emergencies will be one of the greatest challenges for emergency services in the future.
Effective planning, training, and specialized command structures will help ensure the highest level of safety for both responders and the general public.
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