Cvetković, V. (2022). Taktika zaštite i spasavanja u katastrofama [Essential Tactics for Disaster Protection and Rescue]. Beograd: Naučno-stručno društvo za upravljanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama.
SCIENTIFIC-EXPERT SOCIETY FOR DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT, BELGRADE
Library
TEXTBOOK
Belgrade, 2022.
Prof. Dr. Vladimir M. CVETKOVIĆ
ESSENTIAL TACTICS FOR DISASTER PROTECTION AND RESCUE
Publisher
Scientific and Professional Society for Disaster Risk Management
For the publisher
Professor Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković
Editor
Prof. Dr. Dragana Mlađan
Prof. Dr. Želimir Kešetović
Prof. Dr. Zoran Keković
Reviewers
Prof. Dr. Vladimir Jakovljević
Prof. Dr. Bojan Janković
Prof. Dr. Slavoljub Dragićević
Prof. Dr. Srđan Milašinović
Prof. Dr. Hatidža Beriša
Translated by
Vanja Šišović
Graphic design and covers
Miloš Ivković
Print run
1000 copies
Printing
Невен д.о.о. Belgrade
ISBN: 978-86-81424-09-4
Professor Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković
ESSENTIAL TACTICS FOR DISASTER PROTECTION AND RESCUE
Belgrade, 2022
| I dedicate the textbook “Essential Tactics for Disaster Protection and Rescue” to my students at the Faculty of Security, University of Belgrade, the Criminalistic-Police University, the Faculty of Law in Novi Sad, collaborators of the Scientific-Expert Society for Risk Management in Emergencies and the International Institute for Disaster Research, as well as to all employees in various entities and forces involved in reducing the risk of disasters: Ministry of Internal Affairs, Police, Sector for Emergency Situations, Ministry of Defense, Serbian Armed Forces, Ministry of Environmental Protection, emergency headquarters, civil defense units, fire and rescue units, 112 Service, Red Cross of Serbia, Mountain Rescue Service, Firefighting Association of Serbia, Radio Amateurs Association of Serbia, commissioners, or deputy commissioners of civil defense, citizens, citizen associations, and organizations whose activities are of particular interest for the development and functioning of the disaster protection and rescue system.
|
I – INTRODUCTION TO TACTICS OF DISASTER PROTECTION AND RESCUE
1.1. Protection and rescue tactics in disasters as an academic discipline
1.2. The subject of tactics for disaster protection and rescue
1.3. Challenges and opportunities for the development of tactics for disaster protection and rescue.
1.4. Sources of data on tactics for protection and rescue in disasters.
II MEASURES OF PROTECTION AND RESCUE IN DISASTERS
2.1. Conceptual definition of disaster protection and rescue measures
2.2. Historical aspects of the development of disaster protection and rescue
2.3. Types of measures for disaster protection and rescue
2.3.1. Early warning, notification, and alerting system for citizens
2.3.5. Disaster risk insurance
2.3.7. Protective structures (shelters)
2.3.8. Protection of critical infrastructure from disasters
2.4. Natural and technological-technological hazards as causes of disasters
III MANAGEMENT OF DISASTER PROTECTION AND RESCUE MEASURES
3.1. Conceptual definition of disaster management measures
3.2. The organization of management measures for protection and rescue
3.2.1. Strategic level of management of protection and rescue measures
3.2.2. The tactical level of managing protection and rescue measures
3.2.3. Operational level of management of protection and rescue measures
3.3. Planning measures for disaster protection and rescue
IV ROLE AND TASKS OF EMERGENCY RESCUE SERVICES IN DISASTERS
4.1. Organization and tasks of emergency rescue services
4.1.1. Role and tasks of the police in disasters
4.1.2. The role and tasks of firefighting and rescue units in disasters
4.1.3. The role and tasks of the emergency medical service in disasters
4.1.4. The role and tasks of the military in disasters
4.2. Protection of personnel of emergency rescue services in disasters
4.3. Equipment of emergency rescue services.
4.4. Training of members of intervention-rescue services
4.5. Communication in disasters
4.6. Decontamination and sanitation operations
4.6.1. Emergency decontamination
V TACTICS OF PROTECTION AND RESCUE IN DISASTERS CAUSED BY LITHOSPHERIC HAZARDS
5.1. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by earthquakes
5.1.2. Organization and protective measures in disasters caused by earthquakes
5.1.3. Organization of rescue activities in earthquakes-induced disasters
5.2. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by landslides and avalanches
5.2.2. Organization and measures for protection in disasters caused by landslides and rockfalls
5.2.3. Organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by landslides and rockfalls
5.3. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by volcanic eruptions
5.3.2. Organization and measures of protection in disasters caused by volcanic eruptions
5.3.3. Organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by volcanic eruptions
VI Tactics for Defense and Rescue in Disasters Caused by Hydrospheric Hazards
6.1. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by floods and flash floods
6.1.2. Organization and protective measures in disasters caused by floods and flash floods
6.1.3. Organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by floods and torrents
6.2. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by avalanches
6.2.2. Organization and measures of protection in disasters caused by avalanches
6.2.3. Organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by avalanches
6.3. Protection and Rescue in Tsunami-induced Disasters
6.3.1. The concept and characteristics of tsunamis relevant for protection and rescue
6.3.2. Organization and measures for protection in disasters caused by tsunamis
6.3.3. Organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by tsunamis
VII TACTICS FOR PROTECTION AND RESCUE IN DISASTERS CAUSED BY ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS
7.1. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by storm winds
7.1.2. Organization and protective measures in disasters caused by storm winds
7.1.3. Organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by storm winds
7.2. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by droughts
7.2.2. Organization and measures for protection in disasters caused by droughts
7.2.3. Organization of rescue activities in drought-induced disasters
7.3. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by extreme snowfall, blizzards, and snowstorms
VIII TACTICS FOR PROTECTION AND RESCUE IN DISASTERS CAUSED BY BIOSPHERIC HAZARDS
8.1. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by epidemics
8.2. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by forest fires
8.2.2. Organization and measures of protection in disasters caused by forest fires
8.2.3. Organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by forest fires
IX TACTICS OF PROTECTION AND RESCUE IN DISASTERS CAUSED BY TECHNICAL-TECHNOLOGICAL HAZARDS
9.1. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by nuclear and radiological disasters
9.2. Protection and Rescue in Disasters Caused by Industrial Accidents
9.2.2. Organization and Measures of Protection in Industrial Disasters
9.2.3. Organization of rescue activities in industrial disasters
9.3. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by traffic accidents
If everyone does as much as they are capable of, the nation will not perish. – Vuk Karadžić
9.3.2. Organization and measures for protection in disasters caused by traffic accidents
9.3.3. Organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by traffic accidents
9.4. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by hazardous materials
9.4.2. Organization and measures of protection in disasters caused by hazardous materials
9.4.3. Organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by hazardous materials
9.5. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by war devastation
9.5.2. Organization and measures of protection in disasters caused by war destruction
9.5.3. The organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by war destruction
X TACTICS FOR PROTECTION AND RESCUE IN DISASTERS CAUSED BY TERRORIST ATTACKS
10.1. Organization and measures for protection and rescue in disasters caused by terrorist attacks
10.2. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by chemical terrorist attacks
10.2.1. Conceptual definition of chemical weapons
10.2.2. Types and characteristics of chemical weapons
10.2.3. Possibilities of Chemical Weapons Misuse for Terrorist Purposes
10.2.4. Measures for protection and rescue in disasters caused by chemical terrorist attacks
10.3. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by biological terrorist attacks
10.3.1. Conceptual definition of biological weapons
10.3.2. Types and characteristics of biological weapons
10.3.3. The possibilities of misuse of biological weapons for terrorist purposes
10.3.4. Measures for protection and rescue in disasters caused by biological terrorist attacks
10.4. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by nuclear or radiological terrorist attacks
10.4.1. Conceptual definition and types of radiological weapons
10.4.2. Abuse potentials of radiological weapons for terrorist purposes
10.4.3. Conceptual definition and types of nuclear weapons
10.4.4. Possibilities of Nuclear Weapons Misuse for Terrorist Purposes
10.5. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by terrorist attacks using high-powered explosives
10.5.1. Conceptual definition and types of explosive materials
10.5.2. Possibilities of misuse of explosive materials for terrorist purposes
10.5.3. Measures for protection and rescue in disasters caused by the misuse of explosive materials
XI TACTICS FOR PROTECTION AND RESCUE IN DISASTERS CAUSED BY MAJOR FIRES
11.1. Conceptual definition, characteristics, and types of fires
11.2. The basic characteristics of the combustion and extinguishing process
11.2.1. Burning of solid materials
11.2.2. Burning of liquid materials
11.3. Preventive measures for fire protection
11.3.1. Fire protection structural measures
11.3.2. Technological measures for fire protection
11.3.3. Fire protection measures on electrical installations
11.3.4. Wildfire protection measures
11.3.5. Fire protection measures for hazardous materials
11.4. Fire extinguishing means
11.4.1. Water as a fire extinguishing agent
11.4.2. Powder as a fire extinguishing agent
11.4.3. Carbon dioxide as a fire extinguishing agent
11.4.4. Foam as a fire extinguishing agent
11.5. Basic tactical firefighting actions
11.5.1. Fire extinguishing in tall buildings and basement spaces
11.5.2. Fire extinguishing on vehicles
11.5.3. Fire extinguishing in industrial facilities
11.7. Technical-rescue interventions
It is up to us which path we will take and what consequences of our decisions we will face in the future. God has given us the freedom of choice, and it is up to us to make the right decisions. We must not sit with folded arms; we must tackle the preparations for the worst-case scenarios threatening the safety of people caused by natural or technological disasters.
Prof. Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković
The book “Essential Tactics for Disaster Protection and Rescue” represents a pioneering, original, and comprehensive work that systematically and very simply describes the operational, tactical, and strategic aspects of designing, implementing, and applying measures for protection and rescue in various disasters caused by natural (earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, floods, storms, tsunamis, forest fires, epidemics, epiphytotics, epizootics, volcanic eruptions, droughts, extreme snowfall, blizzards, etc.) and technological hazards (nuclear and radiological, transportation and industrial hazards, hazardous materials, war destruction, and terrorist attacks).
The textbook on tactics of disaster protection and rescue is primarily intended for students of undergraduate, master’s, and doctoral studies at the Faculty of Security, University of Belgrade, and the Criminalistic-Police University, but also for the wider scientific and professional community interested in the most contemporary solutions, methods, and principles for protecting people and property in disasters caused by natural and technological hazards. The author has endeavored to ensure that the content of the textbook is in line with the curriculum and program of the subject “Protection from Natural and Technological Disasters,” which is studied in the fourth year of undergraduate academic studies at the Faculty of Security. For these reasons, the author has made serious efforts to align the textbook standards with basic scientific and professional, pedagogical, and didactic, methodological requirements and standards.
Unfortunately, in our region, there was no textbook based on which a comprehensive picture could be seen and basic information could be obtained about tactical procedures and recommendations for action in various disasters. In domestic scientific literature, the area of tactics for protecting and rescuing people in disasters is insufficiently researched, comprehensive, and systematic, and especially not content-structured in one comprehensive textbook. Scientists from various fields and spheres of interest have sporadically approached this subject of study in various scientific disciplines. However, the uniqueness of this book lies in the author’s serious efforts to comprehensively supplement the modest and insufficiently grounded body of scientific knowledge about the diversity of tactical approaches in phenomenologically and etiologically different disasters that threaten individuals and society.
The book before you is fully aligned with the specific approaches that the author employs in discussing the issues of tactics for protecting and rescuing people in disasters. The author presents numerous examples from practice upon which he bases his elaborations regarding the recommended and correct actions of all members of the competent services in disasters. Additionally, the author constructs theoretical principles, concepts, and suggestions based on his rich personal scientific research experience and works, which he extensively utilized in writing the textbook. The book synthesizes the results of numerous own scientific research published in the last decade, which represent a rich theoretical and empirical data repository created in the last decade of his scientific research work. The quality of the textbook is reflected in aligning the text with the most contemporary theoretical achievements and funds of theoretical and empirical knowledge in the field of protection and rescue of people in disasters in the Russian Federation, the United States, China, Germany, and other countries.
During the work on the book, the author faced numerous challenges and obstacles that he had to overcome in order for the book to gain its scientific and pragmatic value. Selecting the most significant tactical solutions in different national systems for protection and rescue in disasters was a real challenge. It required a lot of thought in adapting tactical recommendations to socio-economic and other circumstances in Serbia. Adapting the rich scientific and professional terminology from different language areas and socio-political and socio-economic ambitions, especially in the context of tactics for protection and rescue in disasters, necessitated proposing new terms applicable to the Serbian language area. Translations of many specialist terms from the field of disaster studies are not uniquely established, neither in theory nor in practice. The aspiration towards universal terms, especially in joint operations to prevent the occurrence or spread of the consequences of disasters, simply imposes itself as a kind of imperative.
The conceptual creation, organization, and the text of the textbook were accompanied by serious challenges already mentioned, and it was difficult to meet all the demands that arose during the writing process. Limitations regarding the number of pages, as well as requirements for meeting scientific and professional needs, laying the groundwork for further progress and development of the theoretical and empirical fund of scientific knowledge, and various perspectives of numerous scientific disciplines, influenced the quality, organization, and comprehensiveness of the book. For these reasons, the author believes that all suggestions, critiques, debates, observations, and comments will be of great importance for improving the textbook text in subsequent editions that will mature with the development of the scientific discipline of tactics for protection and rescue in disasters.
Table of Contents
The book is organized and systematized into several chapters, such as: I – Introduction to Tactics of Disaster Protection and Rescue; II – Measures of Disaster Protection and Rescue; III – Management of Measures for Disaster Protection and Rescue; IV – Role and Tasks of Intervention-Rescue Services in Disasters; V – Tactics of Disaster Protection and Rescue caused by Lithospheric Hazards; VI – Tactics of Disaster Protection and Rescue caused by Hydrospheric Hazards; VII – Tactics of Disaster Protection and Rescue caused by Atmospheric Hazards; VIII – Tactics of Disaster Protection caused by Biospheric Hazards; IX – Tactics of Disaster Protection and Rescue caused by Technological Hazards; X – Tactics of Disaster Protection and Rescue caused by Terrorist Attacks; XI – Tactics of Disaster Protection and Rescue caused by Major Fires.
In an interesting and informative manner, the organization of measures for protection and rescue in disasters caused by natural and technological hazards is described. The content organization is done according to the importance and needs of future disaster risk managers, as well as others who will directly or indirectly participate in protection and rescue activities in disasters.
In the first chapter of the textbook, the conceptual definition of tactics for protection and rescue in disasters is discussed, with a special focus on the theoretical evolution of its content and scope. The subject of tactics for protection and rescue in disasters is thoroughly examined, emphasizing its main etiological and phenomenological dimensions. In addition, the challenges and possibilities of developing tactics for protection and rescue in disasters are discussed, particularly emphasizing its connection with the development of disaster studies in the broadest sense. It is emphasized that despite the rich treasury of scientific knowledge about the causes and consequences of natural hazards, they continue to cause disasters, especially in developing countries. The sources of data on tactics for protection and rescue in disasters obtained through collection and analysis from various existing and generated databases are described. It is emphasized that various research organizations have a large number of databases containing direct or indirect sources on tactics for protection and rescue. Finally, an overview of the main data sources is provided, along with a description of their characteristics and significance for theory development.
In the second chapter of the textbook, the conceptual definition of measures for protection and rescue in disasters is discussed, and the historical aspects of the development of such measures from the period after World War II to the present day are examined. Different periods of the emergence and application of measures for protection and rescue in practice are explained. Various types of measures for protection and rescue in disasters are elaborated on systematically and comprehensively: early warning systems, citizen notification and alerting, evacuation, search and rescue measures, terrain sanitation, organization of burials, disaster risk insurance, mobilization and protection of critical infrastructure from disasters. Within the section on the evacuation of people in disasters, the organization of evacuation implementation and the planning process for the implementation of evacuation measures are explained. In the context of terrain sanitation, special attention is given to the organization of burials after a disaster. Finally, an overview of the basic characteristics of natural and technological hazards as causes of disasters is provided.
In the third chapter of the textbook, the conceptual foundations of managing measures for disaster protection and rescue are presented. Characteristics and specifics of the organization of managing measures for protection and rescue at different levels—strategic, tactical, and operational—are examined. Within the tactical level, the responsibilities and procedures of command centers for managing measures for protection and rescue are discussed. Then, within the operational level of managing measures for protection and rescue, the responsibilities of intervention leaders, risk assessment, area management and control, information and resource management, and post-disaster reporting are elaborated upon in detail. Special attention is given to the logistical aspects of supporting the management of measures for protection and rescue. Tasks and activities of various departments important for logistical support are considered: planning department, material supply department, operations department, administrative-legal affairs and finance department, as well as the role of information systems in the disaster protection process. Starting from the necessity of understanding different disaster protection and rescue systems, an overview of the characteristics of the organization and functioning of such systems in Russia, the United States, Serbia, Germany, and China is provided. Without neglecting the significant importance of various aspects of planning measures for protection and rescue, different dimensions of past disasters are examined to draw all lessons and improve the disaster protection and rescue systems to prevent such consequences from recurring.
In the fourth chapter of the textbook, a comprehensive, logical, and systematic examination of the various roles and tasks of intervention-rescue services in disasters, such as the police, fire and rescue units, emergency medical services, military, civil defence units, and other subjects of disaster risk reduction systems, is provided. Special attention is given to considering all direct and indirect measures taken to protect the personnel of intervention-rescue services during the implementation of activities within their jurisdiction. In addition, the equipment that members of these services can use to prevent or mitigate the consequences of natural or technological hazards is described in detail. Without neglecting the importance of specific training, various activities and methods of training members of the mentioned services are described. Taking into account the importance of communication functioning in disasters, the author describes the functioning of various communication networks in disasters. Finally, an overview of various procedures for implementing decontamination and terrain sanitation operations is provided. Activities of emergency and mass decontamination are discussed in the context of various disasters.
From the fifth to the tenth chapter of the textbook, an overview of the most significant tactical principles and recommendations regarding protection and rescue, or the implementation of specific operational, tactical, and technical measures and actions in various disasters caused by natural and technological hazards, is provided. Tactical principles of protecting and rescuing people in different mentioned hazards are described and analyzed in detail. Moreover, special attention is paid to the conceptual definition and characteristics of such hazards relevant to protection and rescue. In addition, the organization and specific protection measures in disasters are reviewed, described, and studied. The organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, and volcanic eruptions is comprehensively and in detail described and explained. Consequently, for each of the mentioned hazards, the characteristics of the hazards themselves, organization and protection measures, as well as the organization of rescue activities, are examined.
Gratitude
During several years of work on creating a substantial theoretical and empirical foundation of scientific knowledge in the field of disaster studies, especially in the areas of disaster risk management and tactics for disaster protection and rescue, numerous professors, experts, and practitioners in the field of disasters have inspired me. Professors from the Criminalistic-Police University, the Faculty of Security, the Faculty of Geography, the Faculty of Forestry, and the Faculty of Law in Novi Sad have encouraged me, provided new ideas, strength, and support during turbulent periods of my career. I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to the following professors whose words have strengthened me, guided me, and provided me with support, always being there to listen, advise, and assist in every situation: Prof. Dr. Goran Milošević, Prof. Dr. Dragan Mlađan, Prof. Dr. Vladimir Jakovljević, Prof. Dr. Boban Milojković, Prof. Dr. Slavoljub Dragićević, Prof. Dr. Srđan Milašinović, Prof. Dr. Tatjana Bugarski, Prof. Dr. Stanimir Kostadinov, Prof. Dr. Želimir Kešetović, Prof. Dr. Zoran Keković, Prof. Dr. Bojan Janković, Prof. Dr. Jasmina Gačić, Prof. Dr. Hatidža Beriša, and Prof. Dr. Neda Nikolić.
Additionally, I would like to extend special thanks to the members of the Scientific-Professional Society for Risk Management in Emergencies and the International Institute for Disaster Research for their selfless support and assistance: Jovana Martinović, Nemanji Miljković, Sofija Radojković, Nemanji Danković, Milici Vlajković, Vanji Šišović, Milici Stefanović, Tamari Mančić, Zoranu Planojeviću, Jeleni Planić, Tamari Ivković, Marku Nikoliću, Darku Protiću, Vladimiru Aksentijeviću, Milošu Ivoviću, Milošu Veličkoviću, to my family, to my mother Slavica Cvetković, and to my brother Aleksandar Cvetković, as well as to others whom I would not explicitly mention here.
Sincere and selfless gratitude is owed to my students at the Faculty of Security, University of Belgrade, and the Criminalistic-Police University, who during the teaching process provided me with motivation and support to invest years of effort and write the textbook in front of you. Special thanks for great support on the road to success are also owed to the Secretary of the Faculty of Security, University of Belgrade, Nevena Nastić.
In the process of reviewing, professional comments, suggestions, and proposals have been of immeasurable help in giving this work its unique and authentic character, characterized by specific organizational aspects and content. In that sense, I received great support from Prof. Dr. Vladimir Jakovljević from the Faculty of Security, University of Belgrade, Prof. Dr. Bojan Janković from the Criminalistic-Police University, Prof. Dr. Slavoljub Dragićević from the Faculty of Geography, University of Belgrade, Prof. Dr. Srđan Milašinović from the Criminalistic-Police University, and Prof. Dr. Hatidža Beriša from the University of Defense, Military Academy.
The author also expresses immense support to the Scientific-Professional Society for Risk Management in Emergencies and the International Institute for Disaster Research, without whose comprehensive scientific, logistical, and financial support this book would not have seen the light of day. At this moment, I would also like to express great gratitude to God’s power and prayers that selflessly guided me on the path to success in creative activities.
Belgrade, 2022.
Prof. Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković
University of Belgrade, Faculty of Security
Scientific and Professional Society for Risk Management in Emergency Situations; International Institute for Disaster Research
I INTRODUCTION TO TACTICS OF DISASTER PROTECTION AND RESCUE
Chapter Summary
First chapte of the textbook examines the conceptual definition of tactics for disaster protection and rescue, with a special focus on the theoretical evolution of its content and scope. It thoroughly discusses the subject of tactics for disaster protection and rescue, highlighting its main etiological and phenomenological dimensions. Additionally, it explains the challenges and opportunities in the development of tactics for disaster protection and rescue, emphasizing their connection with the broader field of disaster studies. Despite the wealth of scientific knowledge on the causes and consequences of natural hazards, disasters continue to occur, especially in developing countries. The chapter describes the sources of data on tactics for disaster protection and rescue obtained through collection and analysis from various existing and generated databases. It emphasizes the existence of different research organizations with numerous databases containing direct or indirect sources on disaster protection and rescue tactics. Finally, an overview of the main data sources on tactics for disaster protection and rescue is provided, including descriptions of their characteristics and significance for theory development.
Keywords: introduction to tactics of protection and rescue; academic discipline; subject; challenges and development opportunities; data sources; functions of protection and rescue; content of tactics of protection and rescue; development; quantitative data; qualitative data.
Learning Objectives
v Understanding tactics of protection and rescue as an academic discipline;
v Familiarization with the conceptual definition of protection and rescue tactics in disasters;
v Explanation of the subject matter of protection and rescue tactics in disasters;
v Understanding the challenges and opportunities for the development of protection and rescue tactics in disasters;
v Acquiring knowledge about the sources of data on protection and rescue tactics in disasters;
v Introduction to the basic characteristics of protection and rescue tactics in disasters as an academic discipline.
1.1. Protection and rescue tactics in disasters as an academic discipline
We live in this world that we call a multi-hazard world (with many dangers), and that shows that we really need to invest more in reducing and preventing the risks of disasters.
Mami Mizutori
In military terminology, the concepts of tactics and strategy have long been in use. In theory, tactics have various meanings: deliberate forms and methods of operation; the skill of effective command; a set of diverse procedures, methods, and means of operation; the skill of action, etc. (Ninić, 1995, p. 118). The term “tactics” originates from the Greek word “taktike – taktikos” (to arrange, to order) and implies the skill of arranging a battle formation (Vujaklija, 2014).
It can also be defined as the synthesis of methods, procedures, and means by which set work objectives can be most easily and efficiently achieved. Hence, tactics deal with the study of phenomena, laws, and principles related to the actions of various services in the execution of regular, emergency, and special security tasks (Milojević and Janković, 2017, p. 1). Unlike tactics (short-term objectives), strategy pertains to decisions made to achieve long-term goals.
In the terminology of disaster studies, the concept of tactics for disaster protection and rescue is increasingly being used to denote the methods, procedures, and sequence of specific professional interventions by rescue services when taking measures for protection and rescue in disasters caused by natural or technological hazards. It can be regarded as the science and skill of organizing the actions of rescue services when taking measures for protection and rescue activities in various phases before, during, and after a disaster.
Considering the National Strategy for Disaster Protection and Rescue (2011), tactics for disaster protection and rescue would represent the specification of the mentioned strategy and the invention or application of methods, techniques, and means to achieve the goals of the given strategy. In disasters that commonly disrupt the normal functioning of societal units and lead to the paralysis of entire systems, a large number of personnel and equipment will be engaged in the implementation of complex protection and rescue operations for people, their property, and the environment.
For these reasons, tactics for disaster protection and rescue study the etiology and phenomenology of endangerment to people, the environment, and other property in disasters caused by natural and technological hazards, with the aim of identifying the specifics of harmful actions and finding appropriate methods for protecting and rescuing people in such circumstances. Additionally, it examines ways to implement various structural and non-structural hazard protection measures to prevent the occurrence or spread of disaster consequences. Moreover, tactics deal with the study of operational-tactical and technical procedures of rescue operations in unsafe environments caused by natural or technological hazards.
Judging from the aforementioned, it can undoubtedly be emphasized that the significance of the scientific discipline of tactics for disaster protection and rescue is immeasurable, considering that it represents a synthesis of theoretical knowledge and practical procedures applied by members of the mentioned services, specialized units, and Staffs in concrete situations of preventing and combating disaster consequences. Within this scientific discipline, quantitative and qualitative research is conducted aimed at identifying ways or possibilities to improve tactics for disaster protection and rescue. Furthermore, comparative studies analyze tactical procedures in specific situations with the aim of finding the best practical solutions regarding the organization, preparation, and application of various operational-tactical and technical measures for protecting and rescuing people and their property.
Tactics for disaster protection and rescue is a very young scientific discipline in our region, considering the overall development of disaster studies. It began to develop at the Faculty of Security at the University of Belgrade with the introduction of the course “Protection and Rescue in Natural and Technological Disasters” in 2021. As an independent teaching and scientific discipline, its research field is continuously expanding and improving due to the great interest of domestic and foreign scientists in this area.
1.2. The subject of tactics for disaster protection and rescue
If you know your enemy and if you know yourself – you should not fear the results of a hundred battles.
Sun Tzu
The subject of the independent academic discipline of tactics for disaster protection and rescue encompasses areas of scientific knowledge related to:
- a) etiology and phenomenology of natural and technological hazards (earthquakes, floods, droughts, epidemics, landslides, volcanic eruptions, nuclear and radiological hazards, transportation hazards, hazardous materials, etc.) causing disasters and thereby endangering human beings, the environment, and material goods;
- b) studying harmful effects (impact, thermal, radiological, electromagnetic) of hazards and disasters with the aim of understanding mechanisms endangering human beings, necessary for devising, designing, implementing, and applying specific measures for protecting people from disasters;
- c) operational-tactical and technical measures and actions undertaken directly by emergency rescue services (police, fire and rescue units, emergency medical services, civil defense units of general and special purpose) and other competent entities with the aim of eliminating or mitigating the consequences for people, the environment, and material goods caused by natural or technological disasters;
- d) basic functions of protection and rescue measures, which include hazard elimination, achievement and protection of safety, i.e., saving human lives, removal or reduction of negative health impacts;
- e) main functions of protection and rescue measures: warning of dangers arising from human activities or natural processes; evacuation of people, material, and cultural valuesto safe zones; provision of public shelters and personal protective equipment; implementation of rescue operations in hazardous situations; normal functioning of the population, including medical care, first aid, housing, and other necessary measures; firefighting and rescue activities; detection and identification of areas exposed to nuclear, chemical, biological, and other contaminations; decontamination of people, vehicles, facilities, spaces, and performing other necessary activities; establishment and maintenance of order in disaster-affected areas; restoration of the functioning of public services during peacetime and wartime disasters; emergency burial of bodies; development and implementation of measures aimed at preserving facilities necessary for sustainable economic operation and population survival during wartime; ensuring continuous readiness; management of protection and rescue measures in disasters at strategic, tactical, and operational levels;
- g) management of rescue operations in disasters: analysis and collection of data on the status and progress of rescue operations; analysis and assessment of the situation and flow of rescue operations; preparation of conclusions and proposals on the composition of emergency rescue services and procedures for their use; communication of tasks to subordinate management bodies; organization of interaction of formations and ensuring their activities.
1.3. Challenges and opportunities for the development of tactics for disaster protection and rescue.
Plan what is difficult while it is still easy, do what is great while it is still small. The hardest things in the world must be done while they are still easy, the greatest things in the world must be done while they are still small.
Sun Tzu
The development opportunities of disaster protection and rescue tactics are conditioned by the development of disaster studies themselves. Despite the rich repository of scientific knowledge on the causes and consequences of natural and technological hazards, as well as the correct procedures for intervention and rescue services in such situations, these hazards continue to cause disasters, especially in developing countries. Additionally, there are other factors contributing to increased damages in disasters: lack of political will; lack of coordination between local and state authorities; uncontrolled urban and settlement growth; inadequate supervision of construction processes; lack of enforcement of land use regulations; shortage of qualified technical personnel in less developed cities; financial constraints (Sengezer & Koç, 2005).
Disaster protection and rescue tactics partly rely on and are grounded within the framework of disaster studies aimed at examining the social and behavioral aspects of sudden collective stressful situations, commonly referred to as disasters. These studies focus on examining the impact of such situations on different levels of social units, from individuals, households, to the state. They encompass all aspects of hazard and vulnerability analysis, as well as planning and implementation of mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery measures and activities (Cvetković, 2019).
Providing the first scientific and professional comments on social sciences after the Lisbon earthquake in 1755 marked the starting point of the evolution of disaster studies and thus, the tactics of protecting and rescuing people. At that time, it was emphasized by the mentioned scientists that population density and inadequate evacuation contributed to the destruction of over 85% of structures and the death of over 40,000 people (Cvetković, 2019). Immanuel Kant, one of the greatest philosophers of all time, dedicated an essay to this earthquake, interpreting the tragic and direct encounter between natural forces and humans in a very interesting way.
Considering the multidisciplinary nature of disaster studies, it can be noted that the field of research is characterized by complexity. In 1917, the first empirical study of one of the greatest explosions in history, involving the detonation of over 2,300,000 kilograms of explosives, was published. Over 2000 people died as a result of the explosion, due to the shockwave, building collapses, and the resulting tsunami with waves over 18 meters high. Approximately 1,600 houses were destroyed, and around 12,000 were damaged. These disasters sparked greater interest in social sciences, leading to more frequent quantitative and qualitative research (Cvetković, 2019). Despite numerous efforts to reduce disaster risks, they continue to occur, causing serious consequences for people and their property. People have never been passive in facing disasters but have constantly found various ways to limit the negative impacts of events such as disasters.
Disaster protection and rescue systems are part of the national security system of the Republic of Serbia and represent an integrated form of organization and management of entities in implementing preventive and operational measures, as well as executing tasks of protecting and rescuing people and property from the consequences of disasters, including measures for recovery from these consequences. The mentioned system includes all measures and activities aimed at saving lives, minimizing material damage, and increasing the recovery rate in the shortest possible time. These measures include: warning, evacuation, sheltering, care for the endangered and affected, radiological, chemical, and biological protection, flood and water accidents protection and rescue, protection and rescue from rubble, in inaccessible terrains, first aid, terrain sanitation, etc. When a disaster occurs, various operational and tactical measures and actions are taken: search, finding, and rescue of the injured; triage of the injured and provision of medical assistance, including psychological support; organization of temporary shelter for people; identification and burial of the deceased; creating a safe environment (Cvetković, 2019).
With the current level of scientific development, the functioning of disaster protection and rescue systems is inconceivable without the use of information technologies that help decision-makers collect, analyze, display, and understand spatial and temporal information. The lack of absolute prediction of hazards, their intensity, and destructive power significantly emphasizes the need for more efficient decision-making processes. The mentioned decision-making process in risk management processes, while leaving human errors aside, can be greatly enhanced by using fast information systems.
Geographic information systems improve disaster risk management processes in various ways. Before the disaster occurs, the system can be used for planning activities, while during the disaster, it can be used as significant logistical support in decision-making processes. The advantages of using information systems in the disaster risk management process are numerous and include: efficient and timely assessment of the overall situation in the field; decision-making based on highly professional-operational information; improved coordination of short-term and long-term mitigation or elimination activities in the disaster-affected area; enhanced communication in the field; better allocation of resources and assistance to affected citizens. However, it is necessary to continue the development of information systems, as this can greatly prevent and mitigate catastrophic consequences caused by unprofessional and untimely decisions (Cvetković & Filipović, 2017a).
Judging by the presented facts, and through a detailed analysis of disaster studies and the very tactics of protection and rescue, the following challenges for its further development can be emphasized:
- a) Inaccessibility of detailed reports on the tactics of various services in disasters, based on which new theoretical and empirical perspectives would be generated and the fund of scientific knowledge advanced;
- b) Underdevelopment and lack of procedures for the intervention and rescue services (police, fire and rescue units, emergency medical services, military, and others) in disasters caused by natural or technical-technological hazards;
- c) Unfoundedness of legal and sublegal solutions and their inconsistency with the latest standards and innovations in the field of protection and rescue tactics in disasters;
- d) Insufficient representation and implementation of conducted scientific research on methods of protecting people and rescue activities in disasters;
- e) Lack of systematic collection and analysis of data in the field of protection and rescue tactics in disasters;
- f) Insufficient implementation of practical exercises and training of specialized services aimed at identifying and addressing deficiencies in their actions in disasters.
1.4. Sources of data on tactics for protection and rescue in disasters.
Tactics consist of knowing what to do when there is something to do, strategy consists of knowing what to do when there is nothing to do.
Saveli Tartakover
Sources of data on tactics for disaster protection and rescue are grounded in various existing and generated databases. Across the globe, different research organizations possess a larger number of databases containing direct or indirect data on various dimensions, phases, and principles of tactics for disaster protection and rescue. Certainly, the wide range of available data varies in terms of quality, reliability, accessibility, and relevance to the development of the instructional-scientific discipline.
In practice, primary sources of data obtained through research within the quantitative or qualitative research tradition are used. In addition to such data, secondary sources of data are also used, representing data existing in various electronic or printed publications, reports, analyses, etc. Data on tactics for disaster protection and rescue can be categorized as follows:
- a) Regulations (national and international) in the field of disaster studies that directly or indirectly regulate issues relevant to tactics for disaster protection and rescue;
- b) Scientific and professional literature (scientific monographs, textbooks, scientific and professional articles) examining the organization of intervention-rescue services when taking measures for disaster protection and rescue;
- c) Various institutional data related to reports on the actions of competent services in disasters;
- d) International and national databases containing data on the methods of action of competent services;
- e) Archival documentation of various relevant organizations in the field of disaster studies;
- f) Reports and analyses of various interventions in disasters prepared by competent authorities and services.
One of the valuable sources of data based on which it is possible to improve the actions of intervention-rescue services in disasters are reports from interventions by various services. In such reports, analyses of all the advantages and disadvantages of specific measures taken in a given situation are usually conducted. The task of future research in the field of tactics for disaster protection and rescue is detailed analyses of such reports and the generation of the most important theoretical principles, concepts, and postulates. In this way, the theoretical foundation of scientific knowledge will be improved, as well as the concrete actions of members of various services.
Discussion questions
¤ Explain the conceptual definition of tactics for disaster protection and rescue.
¤ What is the relationship between civil protection and disaster protection and rescue measures?
¤ Explain the basic characteristics of the subject of tactics for disaster protection and rescue.
¤ Explain the challenges of developing tactics for disaster protection and rescue.
¤ Explain the opportunities for developing tactics for disaster protection and rescue.
¤ Explain the primary sources of data on tactics for disaster protection and rescue.
¤ Explain the secondary sources of data on tactics for disaster protection and rescue.
¤ What would you suggest as a potential data source for improving theory and practice in the field of tactics for disaster protection and rescue?
Recommendations for further reading
¨ Кусаinov A.B. (2013). Taktika spasatelьnыh rabot i likvidaciя črezvыčaйnыh situaciй. Kokšetauskiй tehničeskiй institut
¨ Lašmanova, E., & Antonov, S. (2020). Deйstviя naseleniя pri izverženii vulkana i pervaя medicinskaя pomoщь postradavšim.
¨ Lipkovič, I., Petrenko, N., & Oriщenko, I. (2014). Organizaciя i vedenie avariйno-spasatelьnыh rabot. Zernograd: Azovo-Černomorskiй inženernый institut FGBOU VPO DGAU.
¨ Voronoй, S., Darmenko, A., Korяžin, S., Mažuhovskiй, Z., Nikonova, N., Paramonov, V.,.Čičerina, V. (1995). Spravočnik spasatelя. Kniga 2. Spasatelьnыe rabotы pri likvidacii posledstviй zemletrяseniй, vzrыvov, burь, smerčeй i taйfunov. VNII GOČS.
¨ Cvetković, V. (2020). Upravlјanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama. Naučno-stručno društvo za upravlјanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama, Beograd.
¨ Coppola, D. P. (2006). Introduction to international disaster management. New York: Elsevier.
¨ Coppola, D. P. (2015). Introduction to International Disaster Management: Butterworth-Heinemann.
¨ Jakovlјević, V. (2011). Civilna zaštita Republike Srbije: Univerzitet u Beogradu, Fakultet bezbednosti.
¨ Abramov, Ю., Voronoй, S., Voblikova, M., Zaйcev, M., Isaev, B. C., Ivanteeva, N., Silos, V. (1995). Spasatelьnыe rabotы po likvidacii posledstviй himičeskogo zaraženiя.
¨ Aleksić, P. & Janičić, G. (2011). Zaštita šuma od šumskih požara u Javnom preduzeću ,,Srbijašume”. Beograd.
II MEASURES OF PROTECTION AND RESCUE IN DISASTERS
Chapter Summary
The second chapter of the textbook delves into the conceptual definition of measures for disaster protection and rescue operations, exploring historical aspects of the development of such measures from the period following World War II to the present day. It particularly elucidates various periods in the emergence and application of disaster protection and rescue measures in practice. Various types of disaster protection and rescue measures are systematically and comprehensively elaborated upon, including early warning systems, citizen notification and alerting, evacuation, search and rescue measures, terrain sanitation, organization of burials, disaster risk management, mobilization, and protection of critical infrastructure.
Within the section addressing the evacuation of individuals in disasters, methods for organizing and implementing evacuations and the planning process for evacuation implementation are explained. Special attention is devoted to the organization of burials following disasters within the context of terrain sanitation. Finally, an overview of the basic characteristics of natural and technical-technological hazards as causes of disasters is provided.
Keywords: disaster protection and rescue measures; conceptual definition; types; historical aspects; early warning system, citizen notification and alerting; evacuation; search and rescue; terrain sanitation; organization of burials; disaster risk management; mobilization; protection of critical infrastructure; natural and technical-technological hazards.
Learning objectives
v Understanding the conceptual definition of disaster protection and rescue measures;
v Explaining the evolution of disaster protection and rescue measures development across various historical periods;
v Familiarizing with the characteristics of different types of disaster protection and rescue measures;
v Acquiring knowledge about early warning, notification, and alerting systems for citizens before, during, and after disasters;
v Gaining an understanding of the conceptual definition, characteristics, organization, and implementation methods of evacuation in disasters;
v Acquiring knowledge about methods and characteristics of search and rescue operations in disasters;
v Understanding the organizational and planning measures of terrain sanitation and corpse disposal organization;
v Familiarizing with the importance and types of risk insurance against disasters;
v Comprehensive understanding of mobilization in disasters;
v Acquiring knowledge about various aspects of critical infrastructure protection from the consequences of natural and technological hazards;
v Understanding the differences between natural and technological hazards as causes of disasters.
2.1. Conceptual definition of disaster protection and rescue measures
Whoever saves one life saves the world entirely; whoever destroys one life destroys the world entirely.
Erich Fromm
Protection of the population from the consequences of disasters represents one of the most important functions of the state, local communities, and is also an integral part of preserving its national security. Measures for protection and rescue represent a system of operational-tactical and technical measures and actions undertaken directly by intervention-rescue services (police, fire and rescue units, emergency medical services, civil protection units of general and special purpose) and other competent subjects with the aim of eliminating or mitigating the consequences for people, the environment, and material goods caused by natural or technical-technological disasters. As a general rule, disaster preparedness procedures are implemented in a timely manner and intensified during periods of greatest danger. The scope, content, and deadlines for implementing protective measures are determined in accordance with projections of potential hazards.
It can be said that protection of the population and territory in disasters implies a set of legal, organizational, engineering, and other measures taken to eliminate or reduce, to an acceptable level, dangers to human life and health, as well as damages caused in affected areas (Matveyev & Kovalenko, 2007, p. 24). They can also be defined as actions to rescue people, material and cultural values, protection of the natural environment in hazardous zones, localization of emergency consequences, suppression or reduction to the minimum possible level of exposure of people and objects to characteristic hazardous factors (Lipkovich, Petrenko, & Orishenko, 2014a). It should be particularly noted that every citizen should be able to protect themselves and their families, help others, and accordingly be familiar with the basic principles and procedures of self-rescue and self-defence.
Measures for protection and rescue in disasters, both in terms of content and structure, are equated with civil defense, and the term itself is derived from the concept of “civil defense,” i.e., it began to be gradually used worldwide to describe activities that protect civilian populations from disasters (Alexander, 2002). Economic, defense, administrative-political region, population education, and economic infrastructure are taken into account when planning and implementing these measures. They vary depending on the nature and severity of potential hazards. Such measures must be taken in accordance with the interests of people exposed to risks.
Measures for protection and rescue have evolved from civil defense as a result of increasing recognition that traditional methods of responding to disasters caused by natural hazards are insufficiently effective. On the other hand, the advantages of military forces in the field include a high degree of autonomy, specialized equipment (such as field vehicles), clear command structures, reliable field communications, and a wide range of useful skills. However, military forces have a reputation for being rigid and authoritarian systems and are not suitable for certain natural disasters (Alexander, 2002).
The success of measures to mitigate the consequences of disasters, conducting rescue and other interventions, is achieved (Bulanenkov et al., 2001, p. 397) if there is advance and purposeful preparation of protection and rescue subjects and forces for conducting actions in the event of natural and technical-technological hazards; efficient and timely response to the occurrence of disasters; organization of efficient reconnaissance, activation of command and control bodies, forces, and means and their timely deployment to the disaster zone; deployment of command and control systems, necessary forces and means; making well-founded decisions on disaster mitigation and their consistent implementation; continuous, firm, and sustainable management of various protection operations (their planning, coordination, control), and close interactions of participants during work; continuous implementation of rescue activities regardless of day or night and other complicating factors until their complete completion, using methods and technologies that ensure the fullest utilization of rescue team capabilities; unwavering fulfillment, by participants in the work, of established work regimes and safety measures; timely changes in formations to restore their operability; organization of uninterrupted and comprehensive material-technical support for work, maintenance of the population and participants in the work; provision of timely and appropriate psychological assistance.
The basic functions of protection and rescue measures are reflected in the elimination of dangers to reference values, achieving and protecting safety, i.e., saving human lives, as well as eliminating or reducing negative impacts on health. In addition, protection goals are also reflected in preventing the occurrence of natural or technical-technological disasters (risk reduction); as well as in reducing human and material losses from harmful actions of disasters and providing first aid to affected populations, but also in ensuring a high degree of survival during wartime operations.
The main tasks of protection and rescue measures are (Kopylov & Fedyanin, 2005): training people on how to protect themselves from the hazards they face; warning about dangers arising from the implementation of various protection and rescue measures or resulting from these actions; evacuation of people, material, and cultural assets to protected areas; provision of public shelters and personal protective equipment; conducting rescue operations in case of danger to people in natural or technical-technological disasters; prioritizing the provision of normal functioning for the population in altered living conditions, including medical care, first aid, housing reorganization, and other necessary measures; firefighting and rescue activities; detection and identification of areas exposed to nuclear, chemical, biological, or other types of contamination; decontamination of people, vehicles, objects, spaces, and other necessary activities; establishment and maintenance of order in areas affected by natural or technical-technological disasters; restoration of public services functioning during disasters; emergency burial of corpses; development and implementation of measures aimed at preserving facilities necessary for sustainable economic functioning and population survival during wartime; ensuring continuous readiness of protection and rescue subjects and forces.
Some aspects of protection and rescue relate to a) timely and accurate informing of the population about the characteristics of imminent natural or technical-technological hazards; b) planned and organized relocation of people, animals, and material goods; c) planning and use of shelters; d) provision of suitable accommodation, searching for missing persons, and family reunification; e) health care and provision of psychosocial assistance; f) provision of basic food supplies; g) organization of sanitary and hygiene measures; h) prevention and mitigation of consequences of chemical, biological, and radiological hazards; i) prevention of accidents and limitation of the impact of technical-technological hazards; j) rescue of people from depths, rubble, tall structures; k) rescue of people in inaccessible terrain, on water, and underwater; l) provision of first aid and medical assistance; m) finding, identification, and burial of victims.
In general, protection and rescue measures consist of actions to manage and control various consequences and minimise human and property losses. The main functions are evacuation, care, medical protection, search and rescue, property protection, and damage control. Initial response to natural disasters aims to address immediate consequences. Cooperation, coordination, and communication are of paramount importance. In the case of sudden disasters, the initial response usually comes from intervention and rescue services and, as necessary, from relevant local authorities and possible volunteer organizations. When assessing and planning frameworks for an appropriate response to disasters characterized by gradual onset and development, it is crucial to identify trigger points that will prompt organizations to activate their disaster mechanisms (Cvetković & Petrović, 2015).
Mechanisms governing initial and long-term protection and rescue measures must assess the hazard flow and try to anticipate its consequences. The goal should be to mitigate the consequences of natural and technical-technological disasters by implementing measures that provide necessary resources for a long-term response and ensure continuity in the work of intervention and rescue services. In the event of a disaster, timely response is a fundamental prerequisite for the success of all operational actions. Disaster response involves implementing activities outlined in the Natural Disaster Protection and Rescue Plan, as well as responses from protection and rescue forces aimed at reducing hazards. Such measures involve ensuring peace and order in the affected territory, and activities in agricultural and health supervision. They entail informing and providing care to citizens in case of need. Providing care for endangered, injured, displaced, and evacuated individuals in natural disasters includes emergency shelter, healthcare, food and water supply, family reunification, psychological support, and creating other conditions for life. In such cases, the affected population is evacuated to a safe location that provides conditions for life and protection (Cvetković & Petrović, 2015).
The successful implementation of protection and rescue measures in disasters depends on the following factors: a) pre-developed and rehearsed response procedures for natural and technical-technological disasters; b) speed of response, organization of work, forces, and resources; c) pre-developed operational procedures for all phases and circumstances of response; d) high level of established control; e) organization of continuous material-technical support for rescuers; f) previously conducted training at the strategic, tactical, and operational levels of management; g) level of equipment with state-of-the-art technical means and tools; h) planning and developed protection and rescue plans; i) maintenance of readiness, etc.
After implementing protection and rescue activities during disasters, a series of measures are taken to return people’s lives to normalcy and partially reverse the negative effects of disasters. In addition to protection and rescue measures, disaster studies also emphasize that recovery usually involves: rebuilding, reconstruction, restoration, rehabilitation, and post-disaster redevelopment. In a narrower sense, recovery at the individual level also implies healing, considering the psychological dimension that necessitates psychosocial assistance (Cvetković, 2019). Such a process of returning to normalcy requires the participation of the entire state and private sector in implementing a larger number of activities that can be planned in the short or long term.
It is crucial in the long-term recovery process to seize all opportunities to improve the resilience of local communities to reduce the negative impacts of future disasters. The time of recovery of local communities is influenced by a larger number of factors, among which the following are significant: the magnitude of the disaster and the level of development of the local community; the degree of physical damage and available resources; existing rehabilitation plans. However, it is impossible to precisely determine the recovery period, considering the large number of socio-economic and cultural differences (e.g., between developed and developing countries). Additional financial resources can be utilized to implement planned projects to reduce the risk of future disasters (Cvetković, 2019).
2.2. Historical aspects of the development of disaster protection and rescue
We ought to live life looking forward, but we only understand it looking backward.
Søren Kierkegaard
The historical development of human protection and rescue in disasters was institutionally and legally initiated with the adoption of the Geneva Conventions. For the first time, their adoption regulated certain aspects of protection and rescue, laying the groundwork for civil defense. The first Geneva Convention, focusing on improving the treatment of the wounded and sick in armed forces during wartime, was adopted in 1949. It stipulated that individuals not actively engaged in hostilities, including armed forces personnel who have surrendered or are incapacitated due to illness, injury, captivity, or any other cause, should be treated humanely without adverse discrimination based on race, skin color, religion, gender, birth, or any similar criteria. It prohibited acts such as murder, mutilation, cruelty, and torture; taking hostages; and degrading treatment, among others.
The second Geneva Convention, adopted the same year, improved the treatment of wounded, sick, and shipwrecked members of armed forces at sea. While the first Convention regulated and expanded protection for land-based wounded and sick, the second significantly enhanced protection for those at sea. However, the definitions in these conventions were not precise, making their practical application challenging, primarily focusing on protection for wounded, sick, and shipwrecked members of armed forces.
The third Geneva Convention of 1949 addressed the proper treatment of prisoners of war, while the fourth focused on the protection of civilians during wartime. Supplementary protocols were later adopted, including those concerning victims of international and non-international armed conflicts and the adoption of an additional distinctive emblem. These instruments comprehensively regulated various issues relevant to disasters resulting from armed conflicts.
Turning to Serbia, the first provisions regarding the systematic organization and definition of certain measures for protection and rescue were enacted in 1948. This marked the beginning of legislative efforts in this field, with the adoption of the Civil Defense Act, implementing and elaborating on various protection and rescue measures. The same year, the Regulation on the Organization and Action of the newly formed Department for Air Defense was enacted, functionally linked to the Ministry of Interior at the time, aiming to protect people and their property from aerial attacks.
The key law significantly regulating the organization and functioning of civil defense was the Law on National Defense of 1955. Established civil defense for the protection of people during wartime led to the establishment of the Civil Defense Service, which gained responsibilities for human protection and rescue in disasters. The organization and management of such services were the responsibility of the district people’s committees, with supervision under the Ministry of Interior. Initially, civil defense operated within the defense framework, and until 1961, there was no separate entity. Later, an assistant to the state secretary was introduced to coordinate civil defense affairs.
Civil defense is mentioned for the first time in the 1963 Constitution and regulated by the Law on National Defense of 1965 (Official Military Gazette of the Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia, No. 17/1965), which normalized and regulated the organization of population protection and rescue. Subsequently, the 1974 Constitution introduced self-protection as an element of civil defense, establishing measures for personal and mutual collective protection. The Law on General Defense of 1982 (Official Gazette of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, No. 21) prescribed that civil defense represents the most massive form of organization, preparation, and participation in protecting and rescuing people and their property from war destruction, disasters, and other hazards in peace and war. It is organized and implemented as part of general defense and social self-protection. Importantly, the later Law on Defense of 1993 (Official Gazette of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, No. 67) contained specific legal provisions on civil defense and civil protection.
During 1994, the Regulation on the Organization and Capacity Building of Civil Defense Units and Measures for the Protection and Rescue of the Civil Population and Property was enacted (Official Gazette of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, No. 54/1994), defining measures for protection and rescue.
In 2009, the Sector for Emergency Situations was formed by merging the Sector for Protection and Rescue of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Administration for Emergency Situations of the Ministry of Defense into a unified service. The main tasks of the Sector include: a) prevention; b) supervision; c) citizen preparedness for response; d) training of operational units – procurement of equipment for operational units; e) rescue activities; f) emergency management; g) coordination of activities of the republican administration and local governments with other organizations at the national, regional, and local levels; h) implementation of measures to mitigate the consequences of disasters; i) information exchange; j) international cooperation (Cvetković, 2020).
2.3. Types of measures for disaster protection and rescue
Be careful not to dissipate your strength: always strive to direct it towards one goal. The mind thinks it can do everything it sees others doing, but it will surely regret every thoughtless calculation.
Johann Goethe
The types of measures for protection and rescue in disasters can be classified in various ways. In terms of their duration, they can be short-term (such as setting up temporary protective embankments) or long-term (like constructing levees). Considering the timing of their implementation, they can be proactive (strengthening structures) or reactive (halting the spread of hazardous materials using water curtains, etc.). Depending on the area of application, they can be local (protective masks in buildings), regional, or national in nature (mandatory disaster insurance, etc.). Additionally, there are general measures for protection and rescue applicable to a wide range of situations and specialized measures closely linked to the harmful effects of specific disasters.
According to the Law on Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 87/2018, Article), the following protection and rescue measures are to be implemented for the purpose of safeguarding people, material, and cultural assets from disaster-induced hazards: a) alerting; b) evacuation; c) sheltering; d) caring for the endangered and injured; e) radiological, chemical, and biological protection; f) protection from technological accidents; g) rubble and water rescues; h) flood and underwater rescues; i) protection in inaccessible terrains; j) fire and explosion protection; k) protection from war explosive remnants; l) first aid and medical assistance; m) terrain sanitation.
Before implementing specific protection and rescue measures, the intervention leader must carefully consider: a) tasks to be realized in the short and long term; b) available safety and informational data regarding the causes, status, and development of the threatening situation; c) conclusions drawn from vulnerability assessments; d) results of specialized unit assessments and the availability of their general and specialized equipment; e) deployment of forces and resources in the affected area (Lipković et al., 2014a). Therefore, it is necessary to emphasize that the training of intervention and rescue unit members and the readiness of various units for task execution are indispensable factors contributing to the effective and efficient utilization of protection and rescue measures.
Implementing protection and rescue measures requires comprehensive logistical, tactical, and technical support such as engineering support (engineering reconnaissance of objects and terrain in the operational zone, equipping work areas, arranging and maintaining supply and evacuation routes, bridging water obstacles, introducing forces into prohibited zones, engineering measures for overcoming destruction, floods, water supply points), chemical support (measures to create conditions for the operation of intervention and rescue services in hazardous environments caused by radioactive, chemical, and biological contamination), and medical support for all involved personnel, aimed at maintaining and controlling rescuers’ health (Lipković et al., 2014a).
In addition to medical support, technical support is undoubtedly significant, involving equipment maintenance, proper use, maintenance, and repairs. Transport support aims to evacuate endangered people, transport unit members and equipment efficiently and timely. To make appropriate and timely decisions, all hydro-meteorological indicators must be carefully examined. Consequently, hydro-meteorological support is organized for general and specific situation assessments, observations, etc. Lastly, material support consists of continuous supply with material resources (Lipković et al., 2014a). To ensure the functionality of all mentioned levels and types of support, the importance of command and operational services should be highlighted, coordinating all types of support and undertaking specific protection and rescue measures in various disasters.
2.3.1. Early warning, notification, and alerting system for citizens
In various parts of the world, decision-makers and disaster risk managers employ specific and intricate early warning systems to alert populations to disasters. Utilizing such systems enables timely, efficient, and appropriate protection of people and their property from the harmful effects of various catastrophes. Furthermore, depending on the scientific, technological, and economic development level of individual countries, these systems may vary in characteristics, enhancing their effectiveness in such situations (Cvetković, 2021b).
The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction defines warning systems as a set of capacities and necessary abilities for timely and meaningful generation and dissemination of warning information to individuals, communities, and organizations about hazards, aiming to improve preparedness levels and appropriate responses (International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, 2004). Some authors (Basher, 2006) define early warning systems as a linear set of connections from observation through generation of warnings and transmission to the end-user. They highlight that high rates of false alarms are a significant issue in these systems’ operation, as they can undermine public trust, foster distrust, and diminish warning effectiveness, and credibility of future warnings. Therefore, failures in early warning systems often occur in communication and preparatory aspects of disaster management processes.
Establishing and maintaining early warning systems for population alertness from hazards demand progress in various technologies and knowledge fields, including: designing, installing, and technically maintaining sensor equipment in protection systems; intermediary software for integrating sensor data, analytical tools, and modelling software; information systems for transmission, filtering, and analysis of sensor data; stability analysis of embankments, predicting embankment failures, modelling potential hazards dynamics, and optimizing evacuation methods; advanced interactive visualization technologies; creating decision support systems for assisting public officials and individuals in selecting the best disaster prevention strategies; remote access to early warning systems and decision support via the Internet or specialized remote access (Cvetković, 2021a; Krzhizhanovskaya et al., 2011, p. 107).
Decision-makers usually face challenges in making decisions, considering the enormous number of factors to be taken into account. Therefore, it is invaluable to consider the following: a) informing citizens about possible hazards in the shortest possible time frame; b) most at-risk population can be notified within 3 hours without the use of specialized technical systems; c) alerts are transmitted much slower at night than in the evening or during working hours; d) new technologies expedite the process of informing the public; e) informal information plays a significant role in the public information process; f) public reaction time depends on the perceived threat (Sorensen, 2000).
Early warning systems for earthquakes, first introduced in Japan, have facilitated short-term warnings of impending tremors within a few tens of seconds or even a few seconds. Such national systems exist in Japan, while regional systems have become available in many other countries. Additionally, one of the tools used to predict earthquakes is operational forecasting of tremors based on various types of seismic activity occurrences (applied in the USA), which increases the short-term probability that additional earthquakes, including harmful ones, could occur from several hours to several days (Goltz & Roeloffs, 2020).
The most commonly used technologies for public alerts are sirens (Bubar et al., 2020; Kuligowski, Kuligowski, & Doermann, 2018; Perera et al., 2020; Piciullo, Calvello, & Cepeda, 2018), emitting loud and specific sounds, followed by electronic media and staff from competent institutions going out into the streets and informing citizens using appropriate loudspeakers or megaphones. All these methods of informing the public have their advantages and disadvantages, as well as innovative improvements or alternative replacements. Early warning systems themselves emerged in the 1980s when famine in Sudan and Ethiopia prompted the need to predict and prevent future food insecurity (Alcántara-Ayala & Oliver-Smith, 2019; Kim & Guha-Sapir, 2012).
Early warning systems designed to inform the population of the consequences of disasters caused by volcanoes, earthquakes, tsunamis, and floods may appear inadequate when facing epidemics of infectious diseases such as COVID-19. For this reason, continuous improvement of population early warning systems is necessary to respond to all natural and technological risks faced by communities (LaBrecque, Rundle, & Bawden, 2019; Perera et al., 2020; Yang, Zhang, Wang, & Tang, 2018). In the future, mobile phones will be used to send photos and warnings in rural locations lacking communication infrastructure, as well as satellite broadcasting of warnings about dangers in remote areas.
Efficient early warning systems for populations require enhancements (Gunasekera, Plummer, Bannister, & Anderson-Berry, 2005): extending warning deadlines; improving the accuracy of warnings; increased demand for probabilistic forecasts; better communication and dissemination of warnings; utilization of new techniques for public alerts; directing warning services to relevant and specific users (delivering the right information to the right people at the right time and place); ensuring warning messages are understood and appropriate actions are taken in response. When it comes to the functioning of such systems, there are two trends: centralized systems where national organizations perform these functions, and decentralized systems where these tasks are carried out across multiple local levels by other agencies, municipal and district workers, and volunteers (León, Bogardi, Dannenmann, & Basher, 2006).
In Italy, there exists an operational landslide warning system typical for the entire region. Such a system displays real-time results through a graphical interface using a dedicated software module named SMART, which tracks landslide movements against precipitation thresholds (calibrated through a database of 160 landslides) with hourly data on measured precipitation and triggering time (Alfieri, Salamon, Pappenberger, Wetterhall, & Thielen, 2012; Tiranti & Rabuffetti, 2010). In China, warnings for multiple hazards are applied, involving coordination among multiple agencies, cooperation, and participation in disaster prevention mechanisms (Rogers & Tsirkunov, 2011). Specifically, the China Meteorological Administration (CMA) issues fourteen categories of warning signals: tropical cyclones, heavy rain, heavy snow, cold waves, strong winds, dust, heat waves, droughts, thunderstorms and lightning, hail, frost, heavy fog, mist, icy roads (Tang & Zou, 2009). Worldwide, national meteorological and hydrological services responsible for early warning systems continuously conduct systematic monitoring and observation of hydrometeorological indicators, provide various real-time data, analyze hazards, conduct mapping, and hazard prediction (Rogers & Tsirkunov, 2011).
A group of German scientists has developed the concept of a tsunami early warning system for the region (German-Indonesian tsunami early warning system) which introduces entirely new technologies and scientific concepts to reduce early warning times by 5-10 minutes through the integration of real-time GPS deformation monitoring, as well as new modeling techniques and decision support procedures (Rudloff, Lauterjung, Münch, & Tinti, 2009). Certain authors identify four elements of efficient early warning systems: (1) active involvement of vulnerable groups; (2) continuation of public education and awareness-raising initiatives; (3) multi-channel message delivery and warnings (Fakhruddin & Chivakidakarn, 2014).
In Finland, the monitoring unit of the national prediction system includes measurement stations and manual measurements of precipitation, water levels, releases, snow depth, ice thickness, and water temperature (SKIE, 2013). In England, over 200 stations monitor meteorological parameters, including air temperature, atmospheric pressure, precipitation, wind speed and direction, humidity, cloud height, and visibility. Additionally, technologies such as meteorological satellites, balloons, and aircraft measurements are utilized (Legg & Mylne, 2004). In Switzerland, alarms (acoustic or optical signals) are directly transmitted to endangered individuals or the public, unlike warnings submitted to inform authorities of potential risks (Sättele, 2015).
In Serbia, the public alert system consists of appropriate sound sources (sirens), devices for remote control signal transmission and reception, transmission routes, and other equipment and specialized units of civil protection for alarming. Additionally, local self-governments conduct procurement, installations, and maintenance according to their risk assessments, acoustic studies, and technical standards (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 87/2018). Local self-governments are legally obliged to complete acoustic studies within 3 years, and if they lack remote activation systems, they must have specialized civil protection units for alarming. This system is managed by the Ministry of Interior Affairs. It is important to note that sirens in Serbia were installed almost 50 years ago, and their functionality is largely questionable. Also, even after 11 years of the intended introduction of the universal “112 emergency call system” aimed at providing coordinated, rapid, and efficient intervention and assistance in disasters, fully compliant with existing standards and practices in European Union countries, it is still not operational.
According to the Instructions on the Methodology for Risk Assessment and Protection and Rescue Plans (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 80/2019), early warning comprises activities related to detecting, monitoring, and collecting information related to risks and hazards that may threaten a specific territory, population, material, and other assets. Entities responsible for promptly collecting data on phenomena, events, and hazards are warning sources that deliver collected information to the relevant information service, which then provides information and data on the type and intensity of the hazard to users in the potentially affected area. Early warning generally includes the organization of receiving and transmitting early warnings for specific hazards, with procedures for determining their impact on the territory of the local self-government unit and a scheme for transmitting information in early warning. By the late 1940s, the United States began constructing its federal early warning system as part of post-war efforts to invest in reducing the impacts of tropical cyclones, floods, storms, droughts, tsunamis, and other hazards that threatened its population (Buan & Diamond, 2012). All of this contributed to the development of a national framework for preparing and implementing protection and rescue measures, incident command systems, multi-channel emergency warning systems, and federal, state, and local policies that encouraged increased awareness of hazards, risk mitigation, and disaster preparedness.
The integration of multi-channel disaster warning systems involves three main elements (Klafft & Ziegler, 2014, p. 2): a) one or more warning message producers, i.e., different segments of warning messages used by different bodies for creating and defining warning messages; b) warning message repository as central storage for warnings from multiple dispersed warning systems; c) distribution channels – the specified interface of the message repository allows the incorporation of new systems for distributing warning messages as they become available.
The Russian population early warning system, developed to provide information to Soviet strategic forces in the event of a nuclear disaster, has two main components: a network of early warning radars and a space-based early warning system with satellites in highly elliptical and geosynchronous orbits (Podvig, 2002). Russia has over 90 satellites initiated between 1972 and 2003 to form a satellite constellation of early warning systems worldwide and beyond.
In 2005, the Japanese government launched a new nationwide early warning system for disasters caused by landslides. The system’s core technique is establishing criteria for waste flow and landslide events based on multiple precipitation indicators in each 5 km grid across Japan (Osanai, Shimizu, Kuramoto, Kojima, & Noro, 2010). Earthquake early warning systems, first introduced in Japan, have facilitated the communication of very short-term warnings that seismic tremors will arrive within seconds to tenths of seconds. Currently, a national system exists only in Japan, but regional systems are becoming available in many earthquake-prone countries, including the United States. Another means of predicting earthquakes is operational earthquake prediction based on the occurrence of seismic activity of various kinds, increasing the short-term probability that additional earthquakes, including damaging ones, may occur from several hours to several days (Goltz & Roeloffs, 2020).
Early warning systems face numerous challenges and limitations: lack of quality communication about disaster risks, warning issuance methods, and community response capabilities; lack of clear, unambiguous, and precise messages; use of multiple communication channels; local bottom-up early warning approach provides multidimensional response to issues and demands through active engagement of local communities; different groups have different vulnerabilities based on culture, gender, or other characteristics affecting their ability to effectively prepare, prevent, and respond to disasters; multiple hazard early warning systems will also be activated more frequently than single hazard warning systems; dissemination systems must be accessible to all (elderly, young, deaf, mute); public education and awareness must be improved.
Furthermore, such systems face other challenges: insufficient comprehensive and multidimensional knowledge of hazards from natural and technological spheres; lack of respect and synchronization with preparedness level and capacity for effective responses; different hazards require different early warning systems (difference between drought and tsunamis); difficulties in predicting volcanic eruptions due to insufficiently developed technical measuring devices; many systems can issue warnings for various natural hazards; inadequate warnings and insufficient public ability to timely and effectively receive, understand, and respond to issued warnings; atmospheric disaster warning systems are adequately developed considering national meteorological and hydrological services of the World Meteorological Organization; maps and data are unavailable; insufficiently developed national and integrated capacities for reducing and managing risks from natural and technological disasters.
To improve the functioning of early warning systems, it is necessary to fulfil certain conditions regarding different phases of the operation of such systems (Rogers & Tsirkunov, 2011):
- Monitoring and Warning Service:
- a) Established Institutional Mechanisms:standardized processes, roles, and responsibilities of all organizations, agreements and inter-agency protocols are established to ensure consistency in warning language and communication channels, partnership within the warning system, communication arrangements, the warning system is subjected to systematic testing and drills, warning centers are effective in all circumstances.
- b) Developed Surveillance Systems:measurement of parameters and specifications, accessible plans and documents for surveillance networks, technical equipment, applicable data and analyses from regional networks, and data routinely archived and available for verification.
- c) Established Prediction and Warning Systems:data analysis, prediction, and generation of warnings based on accepted scientific data, warning data and products issued in accordance with international standards, warnings generated and distributed in an efficient and timely manner.
- d) Dissemination and Communication:
1) Institutionalized processes of organization and decision-making: warning dissemination chain conducted through government policy or legislation, recognized authorities authorized to disseminate warning messages, functions, roles, and responsibilities of each actor in warning dissemination.
2) Installed effective communication systems and equipment: communication and dissemination systems tailored to individual needs, warning communication technology reaches the entire population, consultation with international organizations or experts, and multiple communication media used for warning dissemination.
3) Warning messages recognized and understood: warnings and messages tailored to the specific needs of the affected, warnings and messages are geographically specific, messages encompass understanding the values, concerns, and interests of those who will need to take action, warnings specific to the nature of the threat.
- Response Capacity:
- a) Respected Warnings:warnings are generated and distributed to those at risk from credible sources, developed strategies for building credibility and trust in warnings.
- b) Established Disaster Preparedness and Response Plans: plans strengthened by law, hazard and vulnerability maps used for disaster preparedness development, previous disaster events analyzed, and responses assessed.
- c) Assessed and Strengthened Community Response Capacity: community’s ability to respond effectively to early warnings evaluated, responses to previous disasters analyzed, and lessons learned.
- d) Enhancing Public Awareness and Education:provision of simple information on hazards, vulnerabilities, risks, and ways to mitigate the impact of disasters disseminated to affected individuals, communities, and decision-makers, community educated on how warnings will be disseminated.
2.3.2. Evacuation
Evacuation of people from residential buildings in the face of various natural and man-made hazards represents one of the very complex and multidimensional tasks for members of emergency rescue services. The complexity of action often arises from the fact that people sometimes, out of ignorance, fear, or other circumstances, refuse to evacuate, causing serious problems: loss of valuable time; creating disturbance and confusion; unnecessary additional resource engagement; and raising the level of inefficiency. In such situations, cooperation between rescuers and evacuees is crucial to minimize the consequences for people and their property (Mumović & Cvetković, 2019).
For the successful implementation of measures for evacuating people from areas prone to natural and man-made disasters, the following basic indicators are necessary (Kopylov & Fedyanin, 2005): a) establishment of evacuation points; b) presence and capabilities of transport vehicles and the condition of roads and transportation routes (evacuation routes); c) presence of competent evacuation authorities and their readiness to implement evacuation measures; d) available forces and resources for comprehensive evacuation security and organization of life security for evacuated population; đ) sequence of mutual action with military command and other authorities in preparing and implementing evacuation measures.
Depending on the timing and conditions under which it is conducted, evacuation can be: a) timely (preventive), b) urgent, and c) subsequent, and in terms of scope: a) complete and b) partial. Timely (preventive) evacuation is a measure to protect the population and material goods from the consequences of war and peace threats, and it is carried out from the moment of identifying the immediate danger until its manifestation. Timely evacuation can be spontaneous or ordered. Spontaneous (individual or self-evacuation) is such a form of evacuation when the population spontaneously, on its own initiative, decides to leave areas that may be threatened by one of the possible dangers before the evacuation order is issued. In this form of evacuation, there is often uncontrolled movement of the population, preventing the implementation of evacuation plans (Jakovljević, 2011; Cvetković & Gačić, 2016).
Ordered or organized timely evacuation implies that competent authorities – protection and rescue headquarters, control the situation, implement evacuation in certain phases of its execution in accordance with the evacuation plan. Urgent evacuation is carried out when there is an immediate danger to people and their material goods, usually when the population is threatened by floods, forest fires, or when there is a possibility of contamination of a certain area (Jakovljević, 2011; Mlađan, 2015; Cvetković & Gačić, 2016). Subsequent evacuation is conducted when timely evacuation has been missed, evacuating the part of the population whose timely evacuation was not planned. In wartime conditions, this form of evacuation is most commonly performed when there is a sudden change in the situation on the battlefield, i.e., when combat operations are transferred to areas from which evacuation was not planned. As a rule, it is carried out after an attack has been carried out or harmful actions of natural or man-made disasters have been manifested. Subsequent evacuation is much more complex and difficult than timely evacuation because people and material goods must be evacuated in a relatively short time with all the limitations posed by the consequences of the disaster. Subsequent evacuation is carried out based on the assessment of specific conditions for these situations, but, whenever possible, efforts should be made to conduct subsequent evacuation based on plans for timely evacuation (Jakovljević, 2011; Cvetković & Gačić, 2016).
Complete evacuation implies the relocation of the largest number of residents from a certain area to safer places. Only the necessary part of the population remains in the endangered area for its maintenance and to mitigate the consequences. Partial evacuation involves the evacuation of certain categories of population, or part of the material goods, from a threatened area to safer places – regions or areas. Partial evacuation of the population includes those categories of citizens provided for by the evacuation plan, i.e., those without obligations imposed by disasters in war and peace (work obligation, obligation to serve in civil defense units) (Jakovljević, 2011; Mlađan, 2015; Cvetković & Gačić, 2016).
The preparation of evacuation measures includes: elaboration of evacuation plans; establishment and preparation of necessary evacuation bodies; preparation of transport vehicles for transporting evacuated population, material, and cultural goods to secure areas; preparation of evacuation routes, development of infrastructure outside the city and its preparation for the placement and security of the evacuated population (Kopylov & Fedyanin, 2005). Certainly, the effectiveness of evacuation is influenced by numerous factors, such as demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the population. It has been established that the gender of the respondents does not affect the decision to implement evacuation, i.e., there is no difference between men and women in terms of their readiness to comply with the orders of competent authorities, particularly firefighting and rescue units, to evacuate in disaster conditions (Mumović & Cvetković, 2019). Therefore, biological predispositions are not crucial in the decision-making process regarding consent to evacuation. On the other hand, it has been established that women are more likely to agree to evacuate in disaster conditions compared to men (Bateman & Edwards, 2002). Certainly, in the literature, there are often explanations why women are more likely to agree to evacuate due to different perspectives in the nest, approaches to evacuation incentives, risk exposures, etc. It has also been found that older citizens are more likely to agree to evacuate compared to younger ones who are reluctant to do so. It can be assumed that older citizens do not have much strength and other abilities to evacuate independently and quickly. Besides, they are much more vulnerable than the rest of the population and recover more slowly. On the other hand, the younger population often lives with the belief that they are invincible and unstoppable.
2.3.2.1. Implementation of evacuation organization
In the organization and execution of evacuations, various entities are involved, including transportation owners and providers, civil defense units, civil defense commissioners, the Red Cross, volunteers, humanitarian organizations, and others. It is crucial to utilize an Evacuation Plan containing the following elements:
- a) Schematic representation of entities involved in protection and rescue for evacuation;
- b) Overview of protection and rescue entities and resources;
- c) Assessment of the capacity of entities and resources;
- d) Derivation from the assessment of members of specialized operational teams for the specific action;
- e) Checklist for the disaster management staff and operational team leaders, responsible persons, for the specific action;
- f) Review of measures and activities of participants in protection and rescue for the specific action;
- g) Overview of the evacuated population (by priorities), considering vulnerable categories (persons with disabilities, sensitive individuals);
- h) Review of evacuation routes;
- i) Review of assembly and reception points for evacuees;
- j) Overview of transport vehicles by type and capacity and who provides them;
- k) Organization of health care during evacuation;
- l) Review of evacuated livestock and their care;
- m) Organization of veterinary evacuation with a review of animal farms;
- n) Review of carriers with transport vehicles for animal evacuation.
It is important to note that operational procedures regarding informing the affected population about essential facts for organizing and executing evacuations (evacuation methods, assembly points, healthcare organization, evacuation routes, reception points) are developed during evacuations. Additionally, transportation to assembly points, prioritization of evacuation, and organization of livestock evacuation (veterinary services in collaboration with municipal disaster management headquarters) are part of these operational procedures.
Evacuation from disaster-affected areas, in the case of predictable hazards such as floods, will be timely and mostly complete, while in the case of earthquakes, which cannot be predicted, evacuation will be delayed, aiming to move the population away from damaged residential and other facilities as much as possible. Evacuation of contaminated areas, typically, will be delayed, and its scope and initiation will be dictated by the conditions arising from the use of hazardous materials or the consequences of technical and technological disasters in the chemical and nuclear industries. Evacuation of people, material, and cultural goods represents an organized and planned activity that connects the basic elements of evacuation into a single unit for its successful execution. To ensure this activity is organized and planned, it must have clearly defined and determined elements: assembly points, movement routes from assembly points to reception areas, reception points, and distribution areas, as well as material, health, safety, and psychological support for the evacuation.
In the first phase, timely information about possible evacuation, warning readiness to those subject to evacuation, and updating evacuation plans are carried out. Additionally, vehicle checks and updates to evacuation plans are necessary. In the second phase, where the psychological aspect is strongly emphasized, efforts should be made to ensure that the population arrives at assembly points in an organized and peaceful manner. In cases where evacuation (transportation) is conducted in multiple groups to avoid assembling a large number of citizens in a relatively limited space, citizens can be called according to the sequence of their transportation.
In the third phase, special attention must be given to the healthcare of the sick and debilitated, along with pregnant women, new mothers, and mothers with young children, ensuring the most favorable conditions for them. In the fourth phase, the distribution of evacuated populations takes place. Here, priority is given to mothers with children, the sick, debilitated, pregnant women, new mothers, and the elderly. After distribution to homes, collective centers, the reception committee visits households and other accommodation facilities and makes any necessary adjustments to accommodation.
When considering evacuation, it is essential to take into account the well-being of people, i.e., the safety of their homes and a program for their return. In the process of determining when and which people need to be evacuated, the following factors should be considered:
- Possible means of transporting endangered people and traffic management capabilities;2. Shelter and accommodation in rest centers;3. Support for people seeking shelter on-site; 4. Assistance to groups of people with specific needs; 5. Development of strategies to prevent crime in the evacuated area; 6. Business continuity; 7. Protection of objects and sites of cultural interest and high value.
People leaving their homes should bring medication, spare clothing, mobile phones, and some money with them, but only if it does not endanger themselves or others. Additionally, there must be an evacuation plan, and all relevant emergency rescue services in the disaster-affected area must be informed about it.
2.3.2.2. Planning the implementation measures of evacuation.
As part of planning the organization of protection and rescue measures in a specific area, evacuation planning must also encompass the following aspects: whether evacuation facilitates or complicates the lives of evacuees; whether there are accommodation, food, health, and social support facilities in the designated area for reception and distribution. The content of evacuation planning activities includes a series of activities, among which the most important are assessing the needs and capabilities for conducting evacuation and receiving the population; and developing strategic, tactical, and operational plans for evacuating the population (Jakovljević, 2011; Cvetković, 2020; Cvetković & Gačić, 2016).
Assessing the needs and capabilities for conducting population evacuation requires identifying all essential elements that have the most immediate impact on the effectiveness of implementing this protection measure, namely: which population structures to evacuate and to what extent; analyzing the most suitable areas for assembly points; assessing and determining the most suitable routes for conducting evacuation; identifying suitable reception and distribution areas for evacuated population; assessing the needs for forming necessary bodies for conducting evacuation and receiving the population. Based on such analytical assessment of needs and capabilities, documents are prepared for the civil protection plan tailored to population evacuation measures (Jakovljević, 2011; Cvetković, 2020; Cvetković & Gačić, 2016).
The evacuation plan includes the following (Kopylov & Fedyanin, 2005): a) the sequence of informing the population about the start of evacuation; b) the number of evacuated population and its categorization; c) forms and sequence, deadlines for evacuating the population; d) the number of residential areas, companies, and organizations subject to evacuation; e) areas for the placement of the population and their capacity for accommodating evacuated population; f) calculation of the number of transport vehicles and their distribution; g) evacuation routes, organization of public order security, and traffic control on roads and evacuation routes; h) calculation of the number and location of available assembly evacuation points, accommodation points; i) measures for preparing evacuation areas, accommodation points; j) the sequence of evacuating material and cultural values; organization of accommodation for evacuees at evacuation sites and provision of living conditions; k) organization of evacuation management and other issues.
2.3.3. Search and rescue
Search and rescue operations are conducted in inaccessible terrains (mountainous landscapes, cliffs, caves, ruins, adverse weather conditions) which require specific knowledge and equipment. In such situations, it is essential to adhere to and implement the following steps: prediction, planning, preparation, and intervention. Prediction entails analyzing the area itself, understanding terrain characteristics, predicting potential hazards, analyzing past accidents, incidents, and dangerous situations, as well as anticipating and assessing future risks and challenges (Šuperina & Pogačić, 2007, p. 237). During search and rescue in disasters, emergency responders face specific problems and challenges: a) issues arising from hindered inter-organizational communication; b) lack of specialized technical equipment; c) insufficient planning of media relations. It can be boldly stated that members of the local community will rescue the majority of people from the rubble after the manifestation of earthquake-induced damages. The peculiarity of such rescues is their immediacy, occurring within hours of the event causing the consequences. However, often such rescues do not require specialized technical equipment.
The problem arises with victims who remain trapped deep within the rubble, which can be particularly challenging, especially considering reinforced concrete structures (Cvetković, 2020). In such circumstances, specialized skills and equipment are necessary for locating and rescuing victims (Search & Group, 2006). In practice, there are specific calculations based on which the chances of survival for trapped victims can be determined, and these decrease very rapidly. For this reason, a fast and timely reaction is of crucial importance. Planning and preparation for search and rescue involve: education, training, and equipping personnel; completing equipment; establishing appropriate cooperation with other bodies to achieve greater responsiveness and availability 24 hours a day throughout the year; developing plans and procedures for rescue and evacuation from all potential locations and in different weather conditions; preparing locations for rescue team access, evacuating the injured, helicopter landings (on improvised helipads); practicing all possible rescue scenarios, rapid evacuations using classical techniques or with helicopter assistance from/to all terrains and structures; monitoring and documenting potential personnel for large-scale disasters; enhancing the quality and training of personnel, constant education and improvement, incorporating new capable, active, and professionally qualified individuals; influencing the creation of a legal framework, material basis, and other prerequisites to ensure a better position of rescue services with other relevant authorities; ensuring and enhancing cooperation with other institutions that can contribute to the effectiveness of the service (Šuperina & Pogačić, 2007, p. 237). Citizens or volunteers can be crucial in rescuing people from rubble. The majority of survivors will be rescued within the first two days, assuming that trapped victims will have injuries requiring rapid intervention. Specialist teams often arrive late to assist all victims, undertaking measures and activities that allow community recovery at a specialized level; integration of volunteers and established organizational activities is not achieved in practice (Rodríguez, Kennedy, Quarantelli, Ressler, & Dynes, 2009; Cvetković, 2020). For search and rescue purposes, various teams can be formed: a) light category (operational capacity to provide assistance in surface search and rescue immediately after impact); b) medium category (operational capacity for technical actions in search and rescue from rubble. They are capable of breaking, breaching, and cutting concrete, typical of suburban settlements. They are not expected to have the ability to cut, break, or breach structural steel); and c) heavy category (operational capacity for heavy technical actions in search and rescue from rubble, especially steel structures) (Search & Group, 2006).
2.3.4. Terrain remediation
2.3.4.1. Corpse burial organization
After a disaster, one of the more challenging aspects of management in such situations will concern the timely and efficient organization of corpse and dead animal burial. The manner in which victims are handled will have a profound and long-lasting effect on the mental health of survivors, while on the other hand, legal implications (inheritance, insurance, etc.) of the activities carried out must be taken into account. There often exists in the public a mistaken belief and fears that dead bodies, found in disaster-stricken areas, will cause epidemics. Typically, such misconceptions in the public are caused by poor or inadequate media reporting. All of this, in turn, leads to significant political pressure, resulting in unnecessary rapid and mass burials, spraying with disinfectants. The truth is that there is a much greater likelihood of disease transmission among people who have survived such events.
Immediately after the disaster, the strategic, tactical, and operational levels of management will be largely uncoordinated and quite chaotic. Therefore, corpse burial needs to be carried out at the local, regional/provincial, and national levels. Early coordination is vital for the realization of the following tasks: a) managing information and coordinating risk assessment activities; b) determining the necessary resources (e.g., number of body bags, available mortuaries); c) implementing an action plan for corpse management; d) providing accurate information to families and communities to expedite identification of the missing (Morgan, Tidball-Binz, & Van Alphen, 2006). To approach corpse burial as efficiently as possible, it is necessary to appoint a local coordinator as soon as possible and establish a team to coordinate numerous activities: storage, identification, provision of information and communication, disposal, family support, logistics. Additionally, it is necessary to have advisors for public relations and media communication, legal issues regarding identification and death certificates, technical support for identification and documentation, logistical support.
In order to prevent the occurrence of certain diseases, precautionary measures are taken to protect personnel working with corpses from exposure to blood-borne and bodily fluid-borne illnesses (Morgan et al., 2006): a) gloves and boots; b) using basic hygiene measures (water and soap) after handling bodies and before eating; c) avoiding wiping faces and mouths with hands; d) washing and disinfecting all equipment, clothing, and vehicles used for body transportation; e) face masks are unnecessary but should be provided if required to avoid anxiety; f) if bodies are found in enclosed spaces, caution should be exercised – toxic gases can accumulate after several days of decomposition; g) use of body bags.
In the initial phase, it is necessary to locate all corpses, and in this process, a larger number of people will be involved. Often, it takes several days or weeks to find all the corpses, considering the devastating consequences of certain disasters such as earthquakes and nuclear catastrophes. The level of efficiency in finding corpses will be directly conditioned by the preparedness of the local community (developed disaster protection and rescue plans, adoption of action plans). Parallel to these processes, continuous actions aimed at providing first aid and medical, as well as other types of assistance to survivors, will be carried out. A larger number of members and other citizens will be involved in activities of finding and identifying corpses: search and rescue teams; police officers; fire and rescue units; surviving community members; volunteers from various organizations, etc. Such circumstances necessitate effective coordination to avoid errors in subsequent phases of identification. When a body is found, it needs to be placed in an appropriate bag, and if one is not available, other materials (sacks) can be used. It is particularly important to ensure that body parts (e.g., limbs) must be treated separately as individual bodies and under no circumstances should their combination and alignment be attempted at the disaster site. In this process, it is necessary to record data on the location, date, and time of body discovery. All personal belongings, jewelry, and documents must be placed in the same bag as the body they were found with. A unique reference number should be assigned to each body or body part. Subsequently, such a number should be written on a waterproof label attached to the body. Additionally, it is necessary to photograph the body and any found items. Clothing should not be removed from the body, as it may be crucial in the corpse identification process. For transportation purposes, various means of transport can be used (avoid using emergency medical vehicles) such as trucks, refrigerated vehicles, as well as various carriers.
One of the major problems in the body management process is providing adequate cold storage. High temperatures cause accelerated body decomposition, which will greatly hinder the process of identifying individuals. Therefore, it is necessary to provide a space where the temperature will be low, which will slow down such processes. For this purpose, suitable mortuaries, refrigerators, or other spaces with lower temperatures can be used for body cooling (between 2 and 4 degrees Celsius). In situations where this is not possible, temporary body burial can be resorted to, considering that the underground temperature is much lower. In this way, bodies will be protected from accelerated decomposition as well as other negative influences (e.g., animals).
The identification of dead bodies represents an operational-tactical and technical activity undertaken to determine legal properties (personal data), factual properties (unique personal identification number), and physical properties (fingerprints). One of the most reliable methods for determining identity is the use of fingerprint patterns (relief ridges on the fingers), i.e., fingerprinting methods. In addition to the mentioned method, visual identification by relatives or friends is also used when possible. Before performing identification, it is necessary to perform the grooming of the corpses (makeup and facial enhancement). In order to respect procedural aspects, it is necessary to use an appropriate form for the identification of dead bodies. It is used to collect all relevant information that will be important for the recognition of corpses. When identification is completed, the body is handed over to the family or friends along with a separate form.
2.3.5. Disaster risk insurance
Disaster risk insurance plays a crucial role in building societal and individual resilience. Such a mechanism can financially protect policyholders in the event of a disaster, helping them avoid negative economic consequences. By providing financing and liquidity after a disaster, insurance can expedite the process of recovery and rehabilitation. Insurance can incentivize risk reduction before a disaster by providing financial incentives or, after a disaster, by providing additional funds to mitigate hazards as part of the recovery process. However, insurance can provide these benefits only as part of a broader risk management framework that includes active participation from government and other stakeholders (Kousky, 2019).
The number of disasters is increasing, and their consequences are becoming increasingly devastating. In some countries, there is mandatory insurance against the consequences of natural disasters such as floods, while in Serbia, it is still in its infancy. Natural disasters cause a wide range of consequences that are often difficult to track and measure precisely, especially concerning economic impacts (Alexander, 1997; Cutter & Emrich, 2005; Baker & Baker, 2010; Cvetković & Dragićević, 2014). Insurance against disaster consequences is one of the significant components in the reconstruction and recovery processes of communities from the damages incurred.
Serious consequences of natural disasters that affected the territory of Romania and amounted to over 950 million euros largely contributed to the introduction of mandatory insurance against the consequences of floods, earthquakes, and landslides (Cvetković, 2016, p. 184). Additionally, fines ranging from 23 to 116 euros are prescribed for citizens who do not insure their property. On the other hand, floods that hit Serbia’s territory in 2014 caused damage ranging from one to two billion euros. In our country, there was long a lack of awareness among citizens about the need to insure property, but after 2014, there was an increase in the rate of using such insurances.
Representatives of insurance companies highlight a rise in demand from interested citizens for insurance. However, insurance premiums depend on various factors: location, type of construction, and age of the property. For property in low-risk zones, the insurance premium for households and business premises against possible earthquakes and floods ranges from twenty to forty euros annually (Cvetković, 2016, p. 184). According to data from the Central Bank, the total premium collected for flood and earthquake insurance accounts for 0.8% of the total premium for non-life insurance.
Based on the data provided by insurance companies to the National Bank of Serbia, for the first nine months, it is observed that 51,579 insurances covering the flood risk, 19,191 insurances with earthquake risk, and six drought insurances were concluded. The total premium collected under all three bases is less than 300 million dinars. Flood insurance accounts for only about 1.5% of the total number of concluded non-life insurances, while earthquake insurance accounts for about 0.6% of the total number of non-life insurances in Serbia (Cvetković, Jakovljević, & Stanić, 2016).
In disaster theory literature, various studies exist on the impact of insurance on reducing disaster risks (Kunreuther, 1996; Wang, Liao, Yang, Zhao, Liu & Shi, 2012; Collier, & Skees, 2012; Peng, et al., 2014; Hyndman, & Hyndman, 2016; Thirawat, Udompol, & Ponjan, 2016; Liu, Tang, & Miranda, 2015). Examining measures taken by states to reduce disaster risks, it is noticed that the importance of household self-protection is insufficiently emphasized, which may be one reason why only 20% of the structures were insured when the Mississippi River flooded in 1993 (National Research Council, 2006, p. 126).
There is insufficient precise data in the literature on how households make decisions to insure or not (Cvetković et al., 2016). One of the serious problems regarding flood insurance relates to the fact that often only households with the highest probability of experiencing a flood are insured (Kunreuther & Roth, 1998). Research shows that citizens who do not insure their property have much more difficulty recovering from the damages caused by disasters (Peacock & Girard, 1997). The decision-making process of households whether to insure is similar to models of decision-making on the adoption of protective measures created by Lindell and Perry (2004; Lindell, 1994).
Results of research conducted in Serbia show that only a small number of respondents insured their property against the consequences of floods, while the majority did not (Cvetković et al., 2016). On the other hand, the results of research conducted in Scotland (Werritty et al., 2007, p. 112) show that out of the total number of respondents who experienced flood consequences, as many as 84% insured their households, while 3.9% did not. Conversely, out of the total number of respondents who did not experience flood consequences, 59.8% insured their households, compared to 8.3% who did not. Authors found a statistically significant relationship between insurance and demographic characteristics of respondents such as gender, age, education level, success in high school, and certain socio-economic characteristics: employment status, marital status, and distance of the household from the river (Cvetković et al., 2016).
2.3.6. Mobilization
The concept of mobilization originates from the Latin word “mobilis,” which signifies mobility. Treated as a combat action, in a broader sense, it also denotes the engagement of the population or economic sectors in carrying out tasks in a specific situation. The primary goal of mobilization is to ensure an adequate workforce, material, and technical resources for the competent intervention and rescue services, organizing them in accordance with the prescribed formation and systematization. From the normal organization and situation, such services are transformed into a state of operational readiness for protection and rescue operations. Individual calls or public announcements can be used to mobilize a large number of people.
Mobilization in terms of scope can be broad or partial in nature. The term “general mobilization” refers to the mobilization of all or part of the necessary personnel and units, as well as material resources needed for carrying out protection and rescue operations. Mobilization is carried out in accordance with the mobilization strategy. Complete mobilization can also be ordered for specific purposes, such as determining whether a unit is ready for mobilization, conducting planned exercises, commanding forces, and using units for specialized protection and rescue missions in emergencies and extraordinary situations.
Timely mobilization involves gradually bringing troops and resources into a state of readiness to carry out assigned tasks. In the absence of timely response, subsequent mobilization is carried out when the consequences of certain hazards exceed the human and material capabilities of enterprises, organizations, and services responsible for the protection and rescue of the population and mitigation of the consequences of certain hazards.
Mobilization of civil protection units is conducted by the Ministry or the local self-government unit that forms the civil protection units. The mobilization of civil protection units is executed according to the mobilization plan, prepared by the Ministry or the local self-government unit that forms the civil protection units. The mobilization executor and his deputy are responsible for drafting the mobilization plan for civil protection units, its preservation, and executing the mobilization of civil protection units.
In cases where the assessed risks of disasters are such that the possible engagement of civil protection units is expected, the mobilization executor takes the necessary measures to inform the members of the civil protection units. It is also envisaged that the organization of calling up members of the units, the organization of receiving members of the units at the mobilization assembly point, the organization of equipment collection from warehouses, and its distribution to unit members, as well as the organization of unit transport to the place of engagement and other activities, are regulated by the mobilization plan of civil protection units.
Calling up members of civil protection units for mobilization is conducted by general and individual call-ups. In conditions of emergency and wartime, calling up members of civil protection units is carried out by the competent territorial body of the Ministry of Defense. When a state of emergency is declared, in the event of an emergency, or when there is an immediate danger of occurrence of a natural disaster and technical-technological accidents, the calling up of members of civil protection units is carried out by the ministry or the local self-government unit that forms the civil protection units. The call for general mobilization is posted in public places, headquarters of local self-government bodies, and announced in public gazettes, printed, and electronic media.
When partial mobilization is ordered, a member of the civil protection unit is handed an individual call for engagement in protection and rescue tasks at their place of residence or place of employment. To ensure more efficient calling up of members of civil protection units, they can also be called by phone. A member of the civil protection unit who responds to the general call or phone call is given an individual call at the mobilization assembly point. The president of the municipality or the mayor or the authorized person informs the Ministry about the issued Regulation on the mobilization of civil protection units from the jurisdiction of the local self-government (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 84/2020).
The implementation of mobilization of civil protection units by local self-government units, the progress of mobilization execution and engagement of general-purpose civil protection units and civil protection units for alerting are reported to the president of the municipality and the Ministry. In addition, the mobilization executors of civil protection units formed by the Ministry report to the head of the organizational unit of the Ministry, the competent disaster management services on the progress of mobilization execution and engagement of civil protection units (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 84/2020).
2.3.7. Protective structures (shelters)
Protective structures (shelters) represent engineering constructions intended and designed to protect people, equipment, and property from natural and man-made hazards (Matveyev & Kovalenko, 2007). Shelters must be designed to allow for the sustained stay of protected individuals for several days. There are also shelters designed to accommodate people for more than a week, especially in the case of specialized nuclear shelters. They are used as protective measures in situations where there is a direct or indirect threat from various harmful actions (impact, thermal, radioactive, etc.) on people.
In such protective systems, all technical and technological systems enabling the uninterrupted life of people must be present. Adequate amounts of clean and uncontaminated air, drinking water, and facilities for personal hygiene, food supplies, sleeping space, etc., must be provided. For this reason, air supply is particularly designed using two different functional systems: a) air supply through ventilation systems without filtration means; b) air supply through ventilation systems with filtration means. Depending on the type of shelter, one of these air supply systems will be used. Additionally, when dealing with chemically hazardous facilities or nuclear power plants, complete or partial isolation regimes must be implemented and used in their vicinity.
In terms of their characteristics (properties, capacities, locations, building materials, electricity supply methods, ventilation equipment, purposes), there are various types of shelters (Matveyev & Kovalenko, 2007). According to capacity, shelters can be classified as small – up to 150 people, medium – 150-600 people, and large – 600–5000 people. Regarding shelter location, they are categorized as: a) standalone; b) built outside buildings and structures; c) integrated (located in basements and first floors of buildings and structures); d) situated in mines and other natural cavities; e) in underground facilities of urban development (metro, garages). Based on construction material, shelters can be made of wood, concrete, stone, or metal. According to the method of supplying electricity: provided from the city grid and using protective power sources, etc. (Matveyev & Kovalenko, 2007).
In Serbia, a Public Enterprise for Shelters was formed based on the Defense Law (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 48/94), which has the following responsibilities: organization of construction, maintenance, and technical control of public and block shelters on the territory of the Republic of Serbia, peacetime use of shelters, organizing shelter protection by surpassing, performing various construction and craft works for the purpose of shelter sanitation and maintenance, and other tasks. According to official records, there are around 1441 public and block shelters in the territory of 48 municipalities in the Republic of Serbia (www.sklonista.co.rs).
The Technical Norms for Shelters Regulation (Official Gazette of the SFRY, No. 55/83) stipulates that the protective properties of shelters are expressed through the resistance to weapon actions that the shelter can withstand without compromising its function, namely: 1) in terms of mechanical action: by the magnitude of the overpressure of the air shockwave of the explosion, the caliber of an air bomb, or another projectile that directly hits the shelter; 2) in terms of radiation action – by the strength and intensity of radioactive radiation (gamma rays, neutrons); 3) in terms of thermal action – by the intensity and quantity of heat; 4) in terms of chemical action – by the concentration of toxic substances in the external atmosphere. Additionally, this Regulation specifies the technical norms for shelters and dual-purpose objects and spaces for the protection of the population from wartime actions, as well as technical norms for means, equipment, and devices for use in shelters.
2.3.8. Protection of critical infrastructure from disasters
Serious direct and indirect consequences of disasters on people and their property can be caused by the destruction or damage of critical infrastructure, ranging from the destruction of bridges, hindering the movement of populations and resources, to the occurrence of faults in large energy facilities (electricity production and distribution) during winter months, when electricity is a crucial existential issue. However, although catastrophic effects on key infrastructure cannot be avoided, disaster prediction and early warning methods can be strengthened, resulting in greater resilience and capacity for faster and more efficient recovery of threatened assets and property (Cvetković & Milašinović, 2017). The most effective technique for ensuring that critical infrastructure is resilient to the many influences contributing to natural and technical-technological disasters is to build it in such a way that it can fully or partially withstand such negative impacts. Due to the increased knowledge and education, individuals, companies, and government organizations can better understand all existing hazards and the activities that can and must be taken to reduce the risks of these threats, allowing for a specific consideration of the resilience of critical infrastructure. This is the most cost-effective and likely successful technique for mitigating hazards to critical infrastructure (Moteff & Parfomak, 2004). Of course, whether construction companies decide to use a critical infrastructure design that is resilient to various types of disasters depends on whether they have access to appropriate financial resources, technical competence, and material resources (Cvetković, 2014).
The Law on Critical Infrastructure in the Republic of Serbia (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 87/18, Article 4) defines critical infrastructure as systems, networks, objects, or their parts, the interruption of whose functioning or interruption of the supply of goods or services may have serious consequences for national security, human health and lives, property, the environment, citizen safety, economic stability, or endanger the functioning of the Republic of Serbia. The sectors in which the identification and determination of critical infrastructure are carried out are: a) energy; b) transport; c) water and food supply; d) health; e) finance; f) telecommunications and information technology; g) environmental protection; h) functioning of state bodies. It is regulated that operators must adopt a risk management safety plan, which is a document establishing risk reduction measures, defining responsibilities and duties, and establishing a framework for action to eliminate or reduce the consequences of security threats defined in the risk analysis, which is an integral part of the plan. In addition, the methodology, method of development, and content of the Operator’s Risk Management Safety Plan are prescribed by the minister responsible for internal affairs (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 87/18, 6-8).
Also, operators of critical infrastructure must have a liaison officer, or a person who serves as a contact between the operator and the Ministry, which provides constant risk and threat control, informs about changes regarding critical infrastructure, informs the Ministry about risk, threat, and vulnerability assessments, coordinates the Operator’s Risk Management Safety Plan, conducts testing through exercises and other activities envisaged by the plan, and performs all other tasks related to critical infrastructure. The liaison officer is appointed by the Ministry upon the proposal of the operator of critical infrastructure from among the employees (Article 9).
Structural measures for protecting critical infrastructure, as the most common preventive measures, play a decisive role in ensuring the functionality of such infrastructure in natural disasters. Structural measures for protecting critical infrastructure imply designing, constructing, maintaining, and renovating critical infrastructure to withstand physical forces and disaster impacts. These are structural mitigation measures that involve or dictate the need for some form of construction, engineering, or other mechanical changes or improvements aimed at reducing the likelihood or consequences of risks from hazards (Copola, 2007, p. 178; Cvetković, 2014).
In certain parts of the world, building styles are created with design elements critical for the structural resilience of buildings in various disasters (Murrai, 2012). This is often seen in flood-prone areas where structures are built on stilts, as is the case in many flood-prone areas. Elevated structures in Banja in India, which have withstood earthquakes, are an example of culturally adapted building types that are resilient to disasters such as earthquakes.
Designing mitigation measures in construction from the ground up requires only a small investment of resources and minimal additional effort, while building standard, non-resilient structures and subsequent modifications require significant resource investment and a high level of capability. All stated facts clearly show that when constructing critical infrastructure, it is necessary to use materials, techniques, procedures, and designs that will enable critical infrastructure to withstand or mitigate all potentially harmful consequences of various natural disasters, including earthquakes. In order to more accurately identify potential natural disasters that may occur and as a result impact the development of resilience in basic infrastructure, it is necessary to analyze risks at the local government level (Cvetković, 2014).
Practically in every country in the world, regulatory structural measures are used in some form. They are one of the most widely used strategies of structural impact mitigation, applied in almost every country (Radvanovski, 2006). With appropriate information about potential disasters affecting an area or country, engineers can devise building codes advising builders to make their projects resilient to pressures from relevant disasters. Although this may seem straightforward in principle, inherent difficulties with rules and laws can significantly diminish its effectiveness and efficiency.
Building codes guarantee that vital infrastructure projects are resilient to various external pressures, which may include earthquakes. Each disaster emits a unique set of external pressures on structures, including (Copola, 2007, p. 180): lateral and/or vertical tremors, lateral and/or uplift pressures of loads (strong storms, cyclonic storms, tornadoes, strong winds), extreme heat (building fires, forest fires), roof loads (hail, strong storms, ash precipitation), hydrological pressure (floods, storm surges). When properly applied, building codes provide significant protection to basic infrastructure from various disasters. They are the main explanation for the dramatic reduction in deaths and injuries caused by earthquakes in developing countries during the past century. This is because they fully incorporate protective measures into the building itself from the design phase onwards, rather than imposing protective measures after the construction is completed (Cvetković, 2014).
Contrary to all the advantages, each step of construction aimed at strengthening the resilience of the object and infrastructure itself increases the costs of subsequent development. Precisely because of this, builders resist the development of serious construction requirements because the need to use stronger and larger materials reduces the profit margins of their infrastructure costs. For construction rules to be effective, there must be absolute compliance and enforcement. Implementation can only be ensured through direct monitoring of the implementation itself, which adds a new financial cost for government staff. Although enforcement is promoted through various building inspections, non-compliance with such standards is always possible due to bribery, negligence, etc. Inspectors may lack the necessary training or expertise to properly perform their duties, making them unable to properly identify hazardous conditions or non-compliance with building standards (Cheng & Vang, 1996, p. 121; Cvetković, 2014).
Scientific progress and ongoing research continually provide new information about disasters and their impacts on critical infrastructure systems. Such new information may reveal that critical infrastructures in identified risk zones are not designed in such a way as to withstand the forces of potential disasters. Naturally, local authorities have three options available (Claudia & Flores, 2005; Cvetković, 2014): the first is to do nothing; the second, critical infrastructures can be destroyed and rebuilt to adapt to new information about potential disaster risks; and the third, often the most appropriate measure, is to modify critical infrastructure to be resilient to predicted impacts of natural disasters. In the professional literature, such a measure is often referred to as retrofitting. How retrofitting affects critical infrastructure depends on the risk of the specific disaster being addressed.
Examples of specific disasters and their retrofitting include (Copola, 2007, p. 98): storms: reinforced network installations (electro, information), hydro-isolation (often called secondary water resistance); stronger frame connections and joints (including “roof trusses”, structural elevation, lateral support structures, stronger entries including garage doors); earthquakes: reinforced walls, removal of walls below the first floor, foundation anchoring, floor framing, chimney reinforcement, foundation insulation systems, exterior frames, removal of roof weight, floor reinforcement; floods: structural elevation, replacement of the first floor, “wet” and “dry” hydro-isolation, flood openings; forest fires: replacement of exterior materials including eaves, drainage pipes, boards, doors, window frames, and tiles, with those resistant to fire; hail: increased roof pitch, reinforced roofing materials, increased load capacity of flat roofs and roofs with no pitch; tornadoes: in addition to modifications for cyclonic storms, construction of a “safe room”, shelter in the basement; lightning – lightning rod; extreme heat – cooling systems (Cvetković, 2014).
Examining the attributes and determinants of the elasticity of objects and critical infrastructure, researchers at the Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Research, University at Buffalo, developed the “R4” resilience framework: robustness, redundancy, resourcefulness, and rapidity (Tierney & Bruneau, 2007, p. 37). The first component of such a framework, robustness, refers to the ability of systems, system elements, and other units of analysis to withstand a given magnitude of disaster without significant degradation or loss of function. This dimension reflects the inherent strength of the system. The lack of robustness can cause system failure, as occurred with the levee breaches in New Orleans in 2005 after Hurricane Katrina.
The second component, redundancy, relates to the extent to which system elements are sustainable (i.e., able to meet functional requirements if significant functional impairments occur). It allows for alternative options, choices, and substitutions. The lack of this component hampers a proper response to disasters. A significant number of people in New Orleans were unable to evacuate in accordance with mandatory evacuation orders before the landslides during Hurricane Katrina because public transportation was unavailable (Harrington, 2005). Resourcefulness is linked to the capacity for diagnosing problems, establishing priorities, and adequately mobilizing resources for rapid recovery from disaster impacts. The final component is rapidity, which pertains to the capacities for meeting priorities and promptly mitigating consequences and revitalizing threatened assets (Cvetković, 2014).Resilient communities may bend before the extreme impact of disasters, but they do not break and cease to function. They are consciously built to be strong and flexible, not brittle and fragile. Their vital systems of roads, utilities, and other support institutions are designed to continue functioning in the face of rising waters, strong winds, and earth tremors. Settlements and businesses, their hospitals and public safety centers, are located in safe areas rather than well-known high-risk areas. In such communities, buildings are constructed or adapted to meet building standards designed to reduce threats from natural hazards. Natural environmental protection systems such as dunes and wetlands are preserved to protect hazard mitigation functions as well as their more traditional purposes. Therefore, disaster-resilient communities are more sustainable than those that do not develop a comprehensive strategy that incorporates hazard mitigation into their current and ongoing construction, design, and critical infrastructure planning activities. Taking appropriate measures to ensure greater resilience and sustainability primarily requires gaining greater respect for the hazards dominant in a particular area (Cvetković, 2014).
2.4. Natural and technological-technological hazards as causes of disasters
If humanity had always been rational, history would not be a long chronicle of folly and crime.
Arthur Schopenhauer
The causes of disasters can be diverse, most often stemming from either natural or technological spheres. Generally speaking, catastrophes can be caused by natural or technological (anthropogenic) influences, as well as a combination of these factors. Disasters caused by natural hazards, such as harmful events to humans, their property, and the environment, occur in various spheres of the Earth (lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere). Such events occur in the actual (natural) environment and are not caused by humans, but they have consequences for them.
In disaster studies, various myths are examined, which greatly hinder the disaster management process: disasters are exceptional and rare events; disasters kill randomly regardless of economic or social status; technologies will save the world from disasters; earthquakes are natural hazards that cause significant human casualties; natural disasters weaken the moral of affected communities; people are hesitant to evacuate in disaster conditions; after a disaster, things return to normal within a few weeks; temporary settlements are ideal housing solutions for disaster victims; overcrowding of the nearest hospital with patients near the disaster site; blood donations are necessary in disaster conditions; disaster victims develop the “Disaster Syndrome”; natural disasters create epidemics of infectious diseases; myth of panic behavior of people in disaster conditions; disasters cause antisocial behavior (Cvetković & Jovanović, 2021).
The occurrence and development of disasters are influenced by a larger number of factors contributing to their intensity level. For example, floods can be caused by heavy rainfall, but they can also be exacerbated by deforestation and intensive land use. Similarly, landslides are often caused by heavy rainfall, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, but they can also result from human activities such as deforestation, road construction, and housing construction.
In the literature, there are various criteria for classifying disasters. According to the origin of occurrence, natural disasters can be: lithospheric, atmospheric, hydrospheric, biospheric, and extraterrestrial. Considering the source of occurrence, they can be endogenous (earthquakes) or exogenous (floods), technological-technological (dam collapse), while according to the speed of occurrence, they can be sudden and slow, etc. (Cvetković, 2019). In the literature, there are numerous works dedicated to the classification of natural disasters (Below, Wirtz, & Guha-Sapir, 2009; Berren, Beigel, & Ghertner, 1980; De Boer, 1990; Lukić et al., 2013; Mlađan & Cvetković, 2013; Yang & Chen, 1999). For example, according to the place of occurrence, natural disasters can be classified as: geophysical (earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis); meteorological (tornadoes, lightning, hail storms, snowstorms, blizzards, cold and heat waves, etc.); hydrological (floods, flash floods); biological (epidemics and insect infestations) and extraterrestrial (Degg, 1992, p. 199; Tobin & Montz, 2004, p. 98). Considering the source of occurrence, they can be endogenous (earthquakes), exogenous (floods), and anthropogenic (floods caused by dam collapse) (Paul, 2011, p. 43). On the other hand, according to the extent of their consequences, they can be intensive and limited (earthquake and tornado) or diffuse and widespread (flood and drought) (Smith, 2013, p. 64).
Chapman (1999) classifies natural disasters into three broader categories: originating from the atmosphere and hydrosphere; originating from the lithosphere and biosphere. Gad-el-Hak (2010, p. 2) classifies natural disasters based on their consequences (number of deaths, injuries, displaced persons, and affected area in square kilometers) into: small (less than 10 affected people and less than 1 km2 affected area); medium (from 10 to 100 affected people and from 1 to 10 km2 affected area); large (from 100 to 1000 affected people and from 10 to 100 km2 affected area); huge (from 1000 to 103 affected people and from 100 to 1000 km2 affected area); and gigantic (more than 104 affected people and more than 1000 km2 affected area), etc.
The accelerated technological development has significantly improved the quality and way of life for modern people, but it has also contributed to the growth of various risks to their safety. Each disaster is characterized by different spatial boundaries: a) the disaster’s epicenter; b) the area of total destruction; c) the area of partial destruction; d) the area of negative changes not accompanied by destruction. Additionally, the following temporal frameworks are distinguished: a) the accumulation of negative actions preceding the disaster; b) processes initiating the disaster; c) the occurrence and spread of the disaster; d) the phase of weakening and return to normalcy (Polyakov, 2002).
In disaster studies, various terms are used to denote events intentionally or unintentionally caused by humans. Most commonly used is the term technological-technological disaster, and less frequently anthropogenic, as well as man-made disaster (Cvetković, 2019). The classification of technological-technological disasters can be presented as follows (Bulanenkov et al., 2001, p. 22):
- a) traffic accidents (disasters): accidents involving freight trains; accidents involving passenger trains, metro trains; accidents involving river and sea freight ships; accidents involving river and maritime passenger ships; aircraft crashes at airports, in settlements; aircraft crashes outside airports, settlements; road accidents (major traffic accidents); traffic accidents on bridges, level crossings, and tunnels; accidents on main pipelines;
- b) fires, explosions, threats of explosions: fires (explosions) in buildings, communications, and technological equipment of industrial facilities; fires (explosions) in facilities for the production, processing, and storage of flammable, inflammable, and explosive materials, fires (explosions) in transportation; fires (explosions) in mines, underground and mining works, metros; fires (explosions) in residential, social, and cultural buildings and facilities; fires (explosions) at chemical hazard facilities; fires (explosions) at radiation hazard facilities; detection of unexploded ordnance; loss of explosives (ammunition);
- c) accidents involving the release (threat of release) of chemically hazardous materials: accidents involving the release (threat of release) of chemically hazardous materials during their production, processing, or storage (disposal); traffic accidents involving the release (threat of release) of chemical agents; formation and spread of chemically hazardous materials in chemical reaction processes resulting from accidents; accidents involving chemical munitions, loss of sources of chemical warfare;
- d) accidents involving the release (threat of release) of radioactive substances: accidents at nuclear power plants, nuclear power plants for production and research purposes involving the release (threat of release) of radioactive materials; accidents involving the release (threat of release) of radioactive materials in nuclear fuel cycle enterprises; accidents involving vehicles and spacecraft with nuclear installations or cargo of radioactive materials on board; accidents during industrial and test nuclear explosions involving the release (threat of release) of radioactive materials; accidents involving nuclear weapons at their storage, operation, or deployment sites; loss of radioactive sources;
- e) sudden collapses of buildings, structures: collapse of elements of transportation communications; collapse of industrial buildings and structures; collapse of residential, social, and cultural buildings and structures;
- f) accidents in the power system: accidents at autonomous power plants with prolonged power outage for all consumers; accidents in power systems (grids) with prolonged power outage for major consumers or large areas; failure of transport electric contact networks;
- g) accidents in life support systems: accidents in sewage systems with large emissions of pollutants; accidents in heating networks (systems for hot water supply) during the cold season; accidents in water supply systems for the population; accidents in public pipelines;
- h) accidents at wastewater treatment plants: accidents at wastewater treatment plants of industrial enterprises with massive emissions of pollutants; accidents at facilities for the treatment of industrial gases with massive emissions of pollutants;
- i) hydrodynamic accidents: breaches of dams with the formation of break waves and catastrophic floods; breaches of dams with the formation of breakthrough floods.
According to the Law on Disaster Risk Reduction and Emergency Management (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 87/18), a technological-technological accident is defined as a sudden and uncontrolled event or a series of events that have gone out of control when managing certain means of work and handling hazardous materials in production, use, transport, traffic, processing, storage, and disposal. Such hazards include: fires, explosions, accidents, traffic accidents on roads, rivers, railways, and air traffic, accidents in mines and tunnels, cable car breakdowns for transporting people, dam collapses, accidents at power, oil, and gas plants, accidents handling radioactive and nuclear materials, severe pollution of land, water, and air, consequences of war destruction and terrorism, whose consequences can threaten the safety, life, and health of a larger number of people, material and cultural goods, or the environment to a greater extent (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 87/18).
The most common technological disasters relate to accidents caused by explosion, fire, or leakage of hazardous materials; nuclear and radiation accidents; accidents on hydraulic structures. The most famous technological disasters are: the Great Fire of London (1666); Chernobyl (1986); Bhopal (1984); explosion in a coal mine in France (1906); terrorist attacks on September 11 (2001) (Cvetković, 2019).
Based on the common characteristics of all natural and technological hazards, it can be said that there are six main groups of harmful actions against people, the environment, and material goods: a) pressure effect, shockwave (explosions of various explosives, gas clouds, process vessels under pressure, explosions of conventional and nuclear weapons of mass destruction, etc.); b) thermal actions (thermal radiation during fires caused by human and natural actions, “fireball”, nuclear explosion); c) toxic actions (technogenic accidents in chemical hazard industries, deposition of combustion products during a fire, use of chemical weapons, emissions of toxic gases during normal operation of enterprises); d) radiation (technogenic accidents at radiation hazard facilities, nuclear explosions); e) mechanical (fragments, collapse of objects, etc.); f) biological (epidemics, bacteriological weapons) (Mastryukov, 2012, p. 5). When considering the characteristics of natural and technological disasters, it can be said that they differ in the following dimensions: the strength of destruction; predictability and mitigation capability; suddenness of occurrence and speed of spread of harmful actions; prevention and response methods, etc.
Questions for Discussion
¤ Explain what disaster protection and rescue measures entail.
¤ Is there a distinction between disaster protection and rescue measures and civil protection?
¤ Explain the significance of the Geneva Conventions for the development of disaster protection and rescue measures.
¤ Explain the development of disaster protection and rescue measures in Serbia.
¤ List and explain the types of disaster protection and rescue measures.
¤ Explain conceptually defined evacuations and methods for organizing specific measures essential for its implementation.
¤ How is the implementation of evacuation planned?
¤ What problems are present during the conduct of search and rescue operations in disasters?
¤ Explain which specific natural hazards can cause disasters and how.
¤ Explain which specific technological hazards can cause disasters and how.
Further reading recommendations
¨ Alexander, D. (2002). From civil defence to civil protection – and back again. Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal, 11(3), 209-213.
¨ Alcántara-Ayala, I., & Oliver-Smith, A. (2019). Early warning systems: lost in translation or late by definition? A FORIN approach. International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, 10(3), 317-331.
¨ Bubar, A., Eckstein, B., Ell, A., Hilts, E., Martin, S., Powell, T., Rios R., A. (2020). Emergency siren detection technology and hearing impairment: a systematized literature review. Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive Technology, 1-9.
¨ Cvetković, V. (2021). Innovative solutions for disaster early warning and alert systems: a literary review. Paper presented at the XI International scientific conference Archibald Reiss days, November 9-10, 2021.
¨ Jakovlјević, V. (2011). Civilna zaštita Republike Srbije: Univerzitet u Beogradu, Fakultet bezbednosti.
¨ Lipkovič, I., Petrenko, N., & Oriщenko, I. (2014). Organizaciя i vedenie avariйno-spasatelьnыh rabot. Zernograd: Azovo-Černomorskiй inženernый institut FGBOU VPO DGAU.
¨ Mlađan, D. (2015). Bezbednost u vanrednim situacijama. Beograd: Kriminalističko-policijska akademija.
¨ Cvetković, V. (2020). Upravlјanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama. Beograd: Naučno-stručno društvo za upravlјanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama.
¨ Cvetković, V., & Gačić, J. (2016). Evakuacija u prirodnim katastrofama. Beograd: Zadužbina Andrejević.
¨ Cvetković, V., Jakovlјević, V., & Stanić, M. (2016). Osiguranje i smanjenje rizika od prirodnih katastrofa. Sedmi naučno-stručni skup sa međunarodnim učešćem „Evropske integracije: pravda, sloboda i bezbednost“, Tara, hotel „Omorika.
¨ Rodríguez, H., Kennedy, P., Quarantelli, E. L., Ressler, E., & Dynes, R. (2009). Handbook of disaster research: Springer Science & Business Media.
¨ Rogers, D., & Tsirkunov, V. (2011). Implementing hazard early warning systems. Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery, 11, 1-47.
¨ Gunasekera, D., Plummer, N., Bannister, T., & Anderson-Berry, L. (2005). Natural disaster mitigation: role and value of warnings. Economic value of fire weather services, 3.
III MANAGEMENT OF DISASTER PROTECTION AND RESCUE MEASURES
Chapter summary
In the third chapter of the textbook, conceptual foundations of disaster management measures are presented. The characteristics and specificities of organizing disaster management measures at different levels—strategic, tactical, and operational—are examined. Within the tactical level, the responsibilities and procedures of disaster management headquarters are scrutinized. Then, within the operational level of disaster management measures, the responsibilities of intervention managers, assessment of operational safety, area management and control, information and resource management, and post-disaster reporting are elaborated in detail. Special attention is given to logistical aspects of supporting disaster management measures. Tasks and activities of various departments crucial for logistical support are discussed: planning department, material supply department, operations department, administrative-legal affairs and finance department, as well as the role of information systems in the disaster protection process. Recognizing the necessity of understanding different disaster protection and management systems, an overview of the organization and functioning of such systems in Russia, the United States, Serbia, Germany, and China is provided. Without neglecting the significant importance of various aspects of planning disaster management measures, different dimensions of past disasters are examined to draw lessons and enhance disaster management systems to prevent such consequences from reoccurring.
Keywords: management of protection and rescue measures; organization of management; strategic, tactical, and operational levels of management; management headquarters; intervention manager; assessment of operational safety; management and control of areas; information and resource management; post-disaster reporting; logistical support in management; planning department; material supply department; operations department; information systems and protection; comparative overview; Russia; USA; Serbia; Germany; China; planning protection measures.
Learning objectives
v Understanding the characteristics and processes of disaster management measures.
v Familiarization with the basic aspects of organizing disaster management measures.
v Comprehensive understanding of the strategic, tactical, and operational levels of disaster management measures.
v Acquiring knowledge of the roles and tasks of disaster management headquarters.
v Introduction to various procedures in the intervention management process during disasters.
v Obtaining basic knowledge in the areas of safety assessment, area management and control, and information and resource management in disasters.
v Understanding logistical support in disaster management.
v Acquiring knowledge about different disaster management systems in Russia, the United States, Serbia, Germany, and China.
v Familiarization with the basic characteristics of planning disaster management measures.
3.1. Conceptual definition of disaster management measures
Between us and heaven there is only life, which is the most fragile thing in the world.
Pascal
Every day, some country in the world is brought to its knees due to the inefficiency of the traditional disaster management system. Alongside obvious motivational factors for improving disaster risk reduction and response, since its inception, the practice has been the integrated disaster management model, which represents a significant step towards strengthening the capacities of local communities. As such, it entails a proactive approach that anticipates expected consequences. It consists of phases of preparedness, mitigation, response, and recovery. In each of these phases, citizens play a crucial role in enhancing their own safety.
The main goals of disaster management systems are: addressing relevant problems and gaps in various phases of disaster management from a holistic perspective; prevention, mitigation, preparedness, and response to disasters by strengthening local capacities and capabilities, especially in disaster risk management; promoting a multi-dimensional, multi-disciplinary approach in coordination and cooperation among protection and rescue forces for an effective response and utilization of limited resources (Cvetković & Petrović, 2015).
The advantages of using an integrated system include mitigation, preparedness, and warning before disasters occur. Critical factors for its success include effective institutional engagement; coordination and collaboration; applied laws and regulations; efficient information management systems; adequate competence of managers and members of expert teams; effective consultations with key stakeholders and protection and rescue forces; efficient communication mechanisms; clearly defined objectives and key stakeholders and forces; efficient logistics management; sufficient mobilization and distribution of resources (Cvetković & Petrović, 2015).
Disasters caused by natural or technological hazards are events that necessitate a large number of measures and activities by one or more intervention-rescue services. Therefore, disaster management involves multiple coordination, management, and control, as well as supervision of the work of entities (state bodies, local self-governments, etc.) and forces (police, fire and rescue units, emergency medical service, headquarters, etc.) of the protection and rescue system, all aimed at a systematic, effective, and prompt response to disasters. Generally, there are three significant phases of disaster management (Cvetković, 2019):
- a) Phase I – preventive (proactive, before the disaster), which includes measures and actions taken before a specific natural or technological hazard manifests, including: risk assessments, prevention and mitigation measures, measures to improve structural and non-structural preparedness, formulation and implementation of disaster management policies and programs, risk monitoring, preparation of protection and rescue plans, warning, informing and alerting systems, education, and citizen training for proper and safe behavior.
- b) Phase II – reactive (during the disaster), which involves all strategic, operational, tactical, and technical measures for the protection and rescue of people and their property from the short-term or long-term consequences of manifested hazards. Therefore, these are all activities undertaken before, during, or after a disaster, aimed at saving lives, reducing property damage, and increasing recovery rates as quickly as possible. Namely, in this phase, intervention and rescue services take all operational measures within their jurisdiction using material-technical resources at their disposal to save lives and property.
- c) Phase III – recovery (after the disaster), which involves all measures and activities aimed at reversing the harmful effects of hazards and returning people’s lives to normal functioning as quickly as possible. It includes reconstruction, rehabilitation, and development measures after the disaster.
Researchers in the field of disasters emphasize the need for a well-defined and clearly articulated management plan while dealing with the aftermath of disasters. As soon as we think of management, the first thing that comes to mind is a well-established formal system, or more concretely, a model that will clearly explain each phase of such a process with all activities. After a thorough review of relevant professional literature, it is possible to identify different models of disaster management. Models with logical, integrative, causal, and other methods are among the available options.
The integrated approach to disaster risk reduction and management, as demonstrated by extensive research on the effectiveness of management systems, is undoubtedly the dominant paradigm in countries worldwide, especially in the United States. It is a comprehensive and integrated approach that takes into account all types of disasters (biosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere) and all phases of disasters (preparation, mitigation, response, and recovery). As a result, in the areas of disaster prevention, response, and post-event recovery, an iterative decision-making process is used. Thus, disaster-affected communities are given the opportunity to assess how their collective actions can contribute to the long-term sustainability of their affected region, while simultaneously balancing the demands of life, property, and the environment. It also offers communities the opportunity to explore how their collective efforts can aid in the long-term sustainability of the region affected by the disaster. Systematic approach, cooperation, uncertainties, geographic focus, reliance on research, and reliable data are all guiding concepts that can reasonably be assumed in such a process (Cvetković & Petrović, 2015).
People will never be fully protected from disasters because it is impossible to predict where and when the next one will strike. What can be done is to learn from past events and, as a result, plan and prepare appropriate responses. Theoretical foundations and frameworks are provided by researchers in the scientific field of disaster management. The basic concept of management is unclear precisely because of this and there is no agreement on it. The general consensus on the prototype of integrated disaster management, which is summarized in the following different phases: mitigation and preparedness (activities undertaken before the disaster), response (activities undertaken during and immediately after the disaster), and recovery (activities undertaken after the disaster), is clear from the analysis of a large number of scientific papers on disasters (activities after natural disasters). Since these phases are so closely related and intertwined, they are comprehensive and multiple. Disaster management has a long and illustrious history in many countries around the world (Cvetković & Petrović, 2015).
Disaster management consists of a series of basic tasks, including risk assessment and consequence assessment, as well as the implementation of preventive and normative measures; planning, organizing, training, and preparing resources for response; response (organizational assistance in disaster protection and rescue); and rehabilitation (recovery and recovery from disaster). Managers are tasked with one of the most difficult tasks imaginable: solving problems to return society to its normal or “typical” state as soon as possible. Management is one of the toughest tasks imaginable. It is divided into two parts: planning and acting. Planning is the first part. In this phase, the planning team examines risks, capacities, and possibilities for mitigating and preventing natural disasters, as well as choices for action and mitigation of unavoidable impacts. During the response phase, measures and activities are taken to mitigate the consequences of the incident and manage the procedures involved in restoring the situation to its previous (regular) state (Ogorec, 2010; Toth, Čemerin, & Vitas, 2011).
Different management models can be distinguished by reading relevant professional literature: logical, integrative, causal, and others. The logical model describes the phases of a disaster in a unique way, highlighting the essential events and actions that constitute a disaster. The phases of the integrated model are characterized by the way disasters are viewed through strategic planning and monitoring. It relates to effective coordination of necessary activities and organization for comprehensive action in case of disasters. As a result, events and actions are intertwined in such a paradigm. The causal model suggests the basic causes of disasters, rather than defining phases in disasters. It has two models: boiling and pressure relief.
Most models are built around the four main phases of disaster management: prevention, mitigation, response, and recovery; there is no single model that summarizes most of the main disaster management activities; these models do not take into account environmental factors that may affect the severity of a disaster; and individual models do not provide a comprehensive description of all management activities. As a result, a comprehensive model that includes all phases of disaster and management can fill the gap. Considering the most important characteristics, it seems that an integrated disaster management strategy is the most feasible choice (Asghar, Alahakoon, & Churilov, 2006; Cvetković & Petrović, 2015).
Preparation, warning, emergency assistance, rehabilitation, and reconstruction are five general phases of disaster management. Mitigation and preparedness measures are implemented in parallel throughout the entire prediction process. Afterward, structural and non-structural measures are taken to reduce the negative effects of natural and technical-technological disasters, such as timely and effective warning and immediate evacuation of people and property. The next warning phase involves providing immediate and effective information through pre-established institutions. These may be of immediate, short-term, or long-term nature. Rehabilitation concerns decisions and actions taken after a disaster with the aim of restoring or improving living conditions as they were before the disaster. Special attention is drawn to the adaptability of communities to future disasters. After the natural disaster has passed and the facade has been rebuilt, mitigation, preparation during prediction phases, response operations and emergency interventions, as well as recovery activities, are covered (Moe, Gehbauer, Senitz, & Mueller, 2007).
3.2. The organization of management measures for protection and rescue
Good management is the art of making problems so interesting and their solutions so constructive that everyone wants to get to work and deal with solving them.
Po Hock
Management of disaster protection and rescue measures can be carried out at one or three levels, such as operational, tactical, and strategic. The level of management depends on the nature and extent of the danger in the disaster-affected area. The management framework agreed at the national level, which encompasses the same principles regardless of the cause or nature of the disaster, remains flexible in individual circumstances. Such a framework:
- Establishes the relationship between different levels of management;
- Allows each emergency rescue service to develop its own disaster response plan, which will align with the plans of other such services;
- Enables representatives of all emergency rescue services to understand their roles in a combined or joint response, i.e., reaction (Cvetković, 2012).
Managing rescue operations in disasters represents a cyclical process that includes:
- a) Collecting data on the status and progress of rescue operations;
- b) Analyzing and evaluating the status and flow of rescue operations;
- c) Preparing conclusions and proposals on the composition of emergency rescue services and the procedure for their use;
- d) Communicating tasks to subordinate management bodies;
- e) Organizing interaction of formations and ensuring their activities (Voronoi, Darmenko, Koryazhin, Mazukhovsky et al., 1995).
In such situations, engineering formations can also be used to ensure the actions of rescuers in the field, conduct engineering reconnaissance of disaster areas, perform various demolition and victim clearance works, anchorages, damage localization, and loading and unloading activities.
In the case of sudden disasters, the initial response typically comes from emergency rescue services and, as necessary, from appropriate local authorities and possible volunteer organizations (Tobin & Montz, 2004a, p. 13). When assessing and planning a framework for an appropriate response to slow-onset disasters, it is crucial to identify starting points that will prompt the organization to activate its disaster response mechanisms.
Mechanisms governing initial and long-term protection and rescue measures must assess the course of danger and attempt to predict its consequences (Alexander, 2000, p. 42). The goal must be to mitigate the consequences of disasters by implementing measures that provide necessary resources for long-term response and enable continuity in the work of emergency rescue services. In the event of a disaster, timely response is essential. Implementing disaster protection and rescue measures involves realizing activities outlined in the Disaster Protection and Rescue Plan, reaction of protection and rescue forces aimed at reducing hazards. Such measures include ensuring peace and order in the affected area, activities in agriculture and health surveillance (Blaikie et al., 1994, p. 24). They entail ensuring that citizens are informed and cared for if needed.
Caring for endangered, affected, displaced, and evacuated individuals in disasters involves providing emergency shelter, healthcare, food and drinking water supply, reuniting separated families, psychological support, and creating other conditions for life. In such cases, the endangered population is evacuated to a safe location that provides conditions for living and protection.
3.2.1. Strategic level of management of protection and rescue measures
At the beginning of any disaster without warning, the first level to be activated is the operational level. Escalation or the threat of worsening situations may require transitioning to higher levels – tactical or strategic. These three levels of managing protection and rescue measures in disasters can be adapted for use by any emergency service participating in response efforts. Adopting these widely recognized methodologies can aid communication and avoid confusion among emergency services (Cvetković, 2012). At the strategic level of disaster management, it is necessary to enable the execution of effective protective and rescue operations, taking into account the responsibilities of different services, authorities within various organizations, and varying responsibilities within different organizations.
Within the framework of the strategic level of disaster management, it is necessary to reorganize or create new management structures, then reorganize existing or create entirely new information systems, as well as establish collaborative work and organization among different services responsible for: identifying the situation at hand; mapping and planning; studying the causes of disasters; forecasting disaster development; modeling dynamic developments; assessing resources (material, financial, human, etc.) needed to prevent disaster spread; assessing the need for evacuation; developing and analyzing disaster prevention strategies and their consequences; zoning territory and assigning responsible managers, workers; determining the necessary manpower and mechanization at sites; creating restricted zones and patrolled areas; organizing evacuations (partial or complete); planning and operation management in line with work organization; determining priority works; deploying supervisors for such tasks; allocating material resources; conducting rescue, emergency repair, and other urgent works, including finding victims, providing medical assistance, implementing fire prevention, and chemical works; organizing temporary accommodation and infrastructure; operating transportation means; providing material and technical support; organizing catering, commerce, communication, and information systems (Shilova & Kulba, 1998, p. 243).
At the strategic level of disaster management, it is essential to consider the following: leadership involves developing, directing, and establishing communication and collaboration among various organizations on the ground; establishing collaboration with various local officials, the public, and the media to obtain adequate and timely information in real-time; managing tactical operations involves coordinating and organizing all resources at the scene for operational-tactical and technical measures and actions; collecting information and delivering it to the competent headquarters is a precondition for developing action plans and implementing tasks; establishing logistical support systems is a significant prerequisite for all upcoming activities (Bullock, Haddow, & Coppola, 2011).
3.2.2. The tactical level of managing protection and rescue measures
When the manager of the operational level of disaster management assesses and when circumstances dictate that this level of management cannot provide an adequate response, the tactical level of management is introduced to ensure comprehensive and efficient execution of all tasks. At this level of management, the number of rescuers and equipment is increased, and there is a need for rescuers trained for specific situations in applying protection and rescue measures in disasters. Assistance is sought from military units (military emergency medical services, mobile toxicological teams), gendarmerie units (sanitary units and teams for searching and extracting the injured), and rescuers trained for specific situations (mountaineers, divers, speleologists).
The local community gets involved by providing technical-transportation vehicles and equipment for care (cranes, construction materials), appointing its representatives to the operational staff. The core of the operational staff consists of representatives of emergency rescue services, local self-government, and individuals specialized in various disasters. This staff has complete control over the situation, coordinates work between the operational staff manager and the local community. Members of the operational staff must have the authority to make decisions independently within a short time interval, i.e., for some decisions, they do not explicitly need permissions from their superiors (Cvetković, 2012).
Managers at the tactical level (silver level) determine priorities when allocating resources, ensure further resources if necessary, and plan and make decisions about when tasks will be performed. These managers are obliged to take appropriate measures to reduce risks as well as to consider safety and health requirements. They must focus on overall management and must be aware of what is happening at the operational level. Everything that happens at the operational level will be left to the manager of that level to perform the assigned tasks as needed (Cvetković, 2012).
3.2.2.1. Headquarters for managing protection and rescue measures
Disaster management headquarters represent the main organizational structure responsible for considering, planning, adopting, and implementing all measures for protection and rescue in disasters. Within it, leaders of all relevant services, in collaboration with appropriate experts, reach conclusions and decisions manifested in concrete operational-tactical and technical measures at the disaster site. The obligation of such headquarters lies in examining and identifying trends in the further development of the disaster, assessing the scope of its impact and consequences, calculating the time and resources needed to mitigate its effects, informing the management team about current changes and new disaster zones, adjusting their priorities, providing lists of action zones for relevant services and their priorities, and monitoring work progress in these zones at all protection facilities, and similar tasks (Shilova & Kulba, 1998).
To monitor activities aimed at reducing risk and coordinate disaster management, headquarters are formed, namely: 1) for the territory of the Republic of Serbia – the Republican Disaster Management Staff formed by the Government; 2) for the territory of the autonomous province – provincial disaster management staff formed by the executive body of the autonomous province; 3) for the territory of the administrative district – district disaster management staff formed by the Republican Disaster Management Staff; 4) for the territory of the city – city disaster management staff formed by the competent city authority; 5) for the territory of the municipality – municipal disaster management staff formed by the competent municipal authority. The disaster management staff forms expert-operational teams as its auxiliary expert bodies. It issues orders, conclusions, and recommendations, has its seal and registry. The competent service performs professional and administrative tasks for the needs of the Republican Disaster Management Staff, district disaster management staff, and the Belgrade city disaster management staff (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 87/2018).
The disaster management staff performs the following tasks: 1) directs and coordinates the work of the subjects of the disaster risk reduction system and manages the implementation of established tasks; 2) directs and coordinates the implementation of measures and tasks of civil protection; 3) considers risk assessments, protection and rescue plans, and other planning documents, and makes recommendations for their improvement; 4) monitors the status and organization of the disaster risk reduction system and management and proposes measures for its improvement; 5) orders the use of forces of the disaster risk reduction system and management, aid, and other resources used in disasters; 6) ensures regular informing and informing the population about risks and dangers and measures taken; 7) assesses the vulnerability to the occurrence of a disaster and submits a proposal for declaring and lifting the state of emergency; 8) orders the readiness of subjects and forces of the disaster risk reduction system and management in disasters; 9) collaborates with other disaster management staffs; 10) engages subjects of special importance; 11) participates in organizing and implementing measures and tasks of recovery, reconstruction, and rehabilitation, taking into account the reduction of risks of future disasters; 12) prepares proposals for the annual work plan and the annual report on work and submits them to the competent authority for adoption; 13) forms expert-operational teams for executing specific tasks in the field of protection and rescue. A member of the disaster management staff is obliged to respond to and participate in training (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 87/2018, article 43).
The Republican Staff for Emergency Situations performs the following tasks: 1) orders the staffs to take measures and activities to reduce the risk of disasters and manage protection and rescue measures in disasters; 2) orders the engagement and use of forces of the disaster risk reduction and management system and resources from the territory of unaffected units of local self-government to the area of affected units of local self-government; 3) through district staffs, directly coordinates the engagement of forces and resources in emergencies when a larger number of units of local self-government are simultaneously threatened in the territory of the administrative district; 4) engages subjects of special importance for the protection and rescue of the Republic of Serbia; 5) proposes to the Government to make decisions on seeking, accepting, or providing assistance; 6) proposes to the Government to order the general mobilization of units, other civil protection forces, and material resources; 7) dissolves the staff for emergency situations of local self-government units if it does not perform protection and rescue tasks in accordance with this law, does not make timely and appropriate decisions based on which necessary measures are implemented and taken to reduce risks and manage emergency situations; 8) prepares proposals for the annual work plan and the annual report on its work and submits them to the Government for adoption; 9) performs other tasks in accordance with the law (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 87/2018, article 47).
3.2.3. Operational level of management of protection and rescue measures
The operational level of management involves measures for protection and rescue in disaster areas or surrounding areas and includes daily agreements regarding responses to immediate lower-level hazards. Intervention and rescue services participating in providing responses will take appropriate and timely measures and assess the extent of the problem. They retain full control over the resources and assets they use within their area of responsibility.
The operational-level manager (bronze level) will direct protection and rescue measures for specific tasks within their area of responsibility. They will act in accordance with prescribed duties until another command level is established. This management level will be adequate for effective coordination and addressing a larger number of smaller-scale immediate hazards. The key role of managers at this level will be to decide whether circumstances warrant the application of the tactical level of management (Cvetković, 2012).
The fundamental prerequisites for successful protection and rescue in disasters include (Kopylov & Fedyanin, 2005): monitoring the natural environment and the state of potentially hazardous technical and hydrodynamic facilities; forecasting dangerous situations of natural and technological character, assessing their risk; preventing certain inappropriate and hazardous natural phenomena and processes in certain areas through systematic reduction of their potential; preventing technical accidents and disasters by increasing the technological safety of production processes and equipment operation; elaborating and implementing engineering and technical measures to reduce possible losses and damage from disasters (by reducing their possible consequences) on specific objects and territories; preparing economic facilities and systems to ensure the life and work of the population in disaster conditions; elaborating and participating in special measures to prevent terrorist and sabotage acts and their consequences; declaring industrial safety and licensing of activities; conducting state expertise in the field of population and territory protection from disasters; implementing state supervision and control on issues of natural and technical safety; insuring natural and technical risks; informing the population about potential natural and technical hazards in the territory they inhabit.
3.2.3.1. Intervention manager
The person directly managing interventions is the intervention manager, a fully qualified individual for such a position. Their main responsibilities include establishing a disaster management system and commanding operations; protecting lives and property; controlling personnel and resources; ensuring accountability and maintaining public safety; establishing and maintaining effective collaboration with other agencies and organizations.
As disasters become more complex, a group of individuals may be assigned to carry out the activities of the intervention manager. In such circumstances, the manager may delegate authority for certain activities to others. Thus, new command positions are established: a public relations officer responsible for managing public relations, liaising with the media, and coordinating information dissemination; a safety officer to monitor safety and develop measures to ensure the safety of involved personnel; a liaison officer to serve as a link between services and agencies on the critical area and other agencies. Depending on the situation, the intervention manager may appoint individuals to lead each of the basic functions of the management system, section chiefs, who will be responsible for their specific function and directly subordinate to them, with the authority to expand internally if necessary.
During the organization of disaster management measures, the intervention manager is obliged to inform all subordinates about the following: a) the division of responsibilities and work: the goal and task of the division, areas (objects) where the main forces are centralized, what data and when need to be obtained, what forces and resources need to be provided for conducting operations and ensuring their effectiveness, the sequence and deadlines for submission; b) in terms of radioactive, chemical, and biological protection: the sequence of conducting radioactive, chemical, and biological actions and providing data; the sequence and deadlines for implementing radiation and chemical control; the place, time, and sequence of special treatment; the sequence of fulfilling tasks (measures) of radioactive, chemical, and biological protection; deadlines for formation security; the sequence of notifying about radioactive, chemical, and biological contamination; implementing safety measures against radioactivity; c) engineering protection: the character, passability, and deadlines for arranging passages during landslides, on movement and maneuver roads; the sequence of securing areas by formations and forces; the sequence of formations passing through difficult terrain; the place and forms of crossing water and deadlines for their readiness; d) providing routes: routes of movement and deadlines for their readiness for the passage of transport and equipment; forces and means allocated for maintaining roads and routes, and equipping passages, local roads, and crossings; e) material provision: the sequence and deadlines for providing formations, necessary products, drinking water, technical means, equipment for radiation protection and chemical protection, medical equipment, special clothing, fuel, and other materials for transport and emergency rescue vehicles, places and deadlines for equipping points for food intake and rest of personnel, conducting special treatment; f) transport provision: the character and scope of transport, the sequence of transport of evacuated persons, material and cultural values, and allocating transport for that purpose, time and place of transport, evacuation routes, border controls and deadlines for their passage, areas and deadlines for movement, reserves of transport vehicles, and the sequence of their use; g) medical provision: measures to maintain the health and working ability of formation personnel, the sequence of indicating and forms of medical assistance to the injured and sick, their evacuation; h) technical provision: tasks of technical protection, deadlines, areas, volumes, and sequence of technical maintenance of equipment, time of their readiness for use; sizes of technical property, the sequence, and deadlines for repairing equipment that has gone out of order and the route of its evacuation.
The head of the protection and rescue action of the competent service, in carrying out his duties, is authorized to: 1) prohibit access to the scene of the extraordinary event and stop traffic next to that place to unauthorized persons; 2) order emergency evacuation of persons and property from endangered areas, spaces, and objects; 3) order the interruption or supply of electric current, gas, and liquid fuels; 4) order the use of water and other fire extinguishing agents used by legal and natural persons if the required amount of water or other fire extinguishing agents cannot be provided in another way; 5) order the use of vehicles and watercraft of legal and natural persons for the transport of injured persons in an extraordinary event, evacuation of persons and property, and the delivery of fire extinguishing agents; 6) order the removal of vehicles and other objects that obstruct the protection and rescue action; 7) order other legal and natural persons to make available tools, transport, technical, and other means needed for protection and rescue; 8) order partial or complete demolition of buildings or parts of buildings not affected by the extraordinary event if protection and rescue of human life cannot be ensured in another way; 9) take measures to secure evacuated property; 10) order forced opening of locked premises or spaces to protect and rescue people and property; 11) order able-bodied persons to provide assistance in protection and rescue; 12) determine the identity of persons and identify objects; 13) inspect the scene of the extraordinary event (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 87/2018, Article 52).
3.2.3.2. Assessment of safety measures
The assessment of information about hazards and potential risks is a critical point in decision-making for successful management of protection and rescue measures in disasters. Hazard and risk assessment is the most critical function performed by emergency response and rescue services. The primary goal of the risk assessment process is to determine whether offensive or defensive measures and actions should be undertaken, and which strategic objectives and tactical options should be implemented to control the situation on the ground. This assessment must absolutely not be flawed. Accordingly, danger refers to a threat that extends to endangering life. In emergencies, all these elements are considered constant values and can be drawn from sources such as accident response guides or material safety data sheets.
Risk is the possibility of suffering consequences or losses. Risks from hazardous materials are intangible values that vary from event to event and must be assessed by expert personnel. Among the factors influencing the level of risk are: 1. the type of hazard and quantity of involved material (risks are generally greater when an accident occurs with larger quantities of hazardous materials, during storage or transportation, than when these substances are in limited quantities or individual packages); 2. the effect of exposure, including the extent of the accident, size, and degree of chemical contamination—which may threaten involved individuals, civilians, land, and the environment; 3. available resources (staff training and expertise in the event of contact with hazardous materials as well as the rapid response time). Fire and rescue units have excellent experience with flammable liquids and gas contamination but lack experience in controlling disaster-stricken areas caused by work with less familiar materials in strictly confidential experimental laboratories.
Those involved in protection and rescue actions must see themselves as risk assessors, not as individuals bearing risk. Hazard and risk assessment can be divided into three main tasks: 1. assessing the presence of danger; 2. assessing the level of risk; 3. devising an action plan to address the problem. Evaluating information about hazards and potential risks is a crucial point in decision-making for successful disaster management and control. While most individuals recognize the initial need for isolating areas, halting entry, and identifying materials, for many others, this situation requires the development of effective analytical skills. (Cvetković, 2012, 2013).
3.2.3.3. Management and control of the area
After the arrival of the emergency rescue service at the scene, it is necessary to determine the physical extent of the disaster because experience has shown that this is crucial for not exacerbating the security situation. Also, experience has shown that disasters that are not properly treated in the initial stages become increasingly difficult to control as the situation progresses, both in terms of time and complexity. Hazardous actions of the disaster cannot be safely and effectively controlled if there is no control over the location itself.
Management and control of the location are critical starting points and the basis upon which all significant response functions are built, as well as the development of tactics. In this step, it is necessary to (Cvetković, 2013): approach the location or area affected by the disaster and position the emergency rescue services (it is important that their staff do not become part of the problem, but rather part of the solution); establish control and activate the disaster management system (the first emergency rescue service to arrive activates the management system); coordinate other emergency rescue services; determine hazard zones (internal, external, and traffic cordons; if the disaster area is not isolated, there will be a security breach) and implement all measures to protect the population (conducting evacuation or protection).
The goal of area management is to quickly establish control over the disaster site and separate people from the problem, which is determined and assessed in the next step. Area management and control are achieved by forming cordons. In such situations, three cordons are set up: internal, external, and traffic cordons, meaning the disaster site is divided into three zones: 1. Prohibited zone; 2. Restricted access zone; and 3. Safe zone (Mladjan and Cvetković, 2012; Cvetković, 2013).
Figure 1. Representation of regulating the situation in the disaster-affected area. Source (Cvetković, 2012).
In Figure 1, the following are depicted: 1. Prohibited zone (hot zone); 2. Restricted access zone (warm zone); safe zone (cold zone); 4. Internal cordon; 5. External cordon; 6. Traffic cordon; 7. Operational headquarters (joint control center); 8. Access control to the disaster site; 9. Assembly point; 10. Access control point to the internal cordon; 11. Access control point to the external cordon; 12. Police area; 13. Media area; 14. Central victims bureau; 15. Decontamination area; 16. Logistics area; 17. Reception center for friends and relatives; 18. Reception center for survivors; 19. Rest area; 20. Humanitarian aid center; 21. Morgue.
The restrictive (inaccessible, exclusive, red, hot) zone is an area immediately surrounding the disaster site, extending to a sufficient distance to prevent harmful effects of the hazard action or harmful actions on people outside that zone (for the police organization, this is the most endangered – contaminated part of the internal cordon), and only emergency rescue services with special equipment can access it. This zone has one entrance and exit (access control) to prevent entry without personal protective equipment. It will be marked with red and white tapes.
The personnel of the emergency rescue service deployed at entry and exit points must know who can access the internal cordon, in addition to these services and other specialized and auxiliary staff, such as local authorities. The personnel of the emergency rescue service entering this zone must be noted so that their position can be known in case of need for emergency evacuation from that area. The prohibited zone area may become the responsibility of the fire rescue unit cooperating with the emergency medical service. Police officers control objects found with victims and suspects. Due to limited capabilities of working in personal protective equipment, it is necessary to perform planned replacements of police officers. The minimum distances of the internal cordon are usually predetermined by various plans (Mladjan and Cvetković, 2012; Cvetković, 2013).
When the rescue phase is completed, the police take responsibility to transfer the deceased and mortal remains from this area, conduct forensic investigation, and collect evidence. The restricted access zone (reduction of contamination space, yellow, warm, providing specific type of assistance, external cordon), is adjacent to the restrictive zone and includes the area where there are no harmful effects – contamination from released hazardous materials on people, but equipment and people exiting the restrictive zone may be contaminated. Within it, there are operational headquarters, assembly point, police area, decontamination centers, and injured (Mladjan and Cvetković, 2012; Cvetković, 2013).
Area management and control are achieved by forming cordons. Usually, three cordons are set up: internal, external, and traffic cordon. The internal cordon is set up around the prohibited zone (hot zone). It ensures immediate safety. The external cordon closes a wide area around the internal cordon, i.e., it ensures the restricted access zone. The traffic cordon is set up outside the external cordon to prevent unauthorized vehicle access to the disaster-affected area.
The personnel of the external cordon must be alerted to the possibility of people attempting to gain unauthorized access, especially through remote sectors of the border area. Decontamination of people and equipment is carried out in this zone, providing support to engaged personnel in the restrictive zone, but it is also necessary to use appropriate personal protective equipment. Police officers in this zone control the crowd and assist in isolating victims in accordance with priority rules for assistance and decontamination. The restricted access zone is secured by the external cordon. The staff of non-intervention services requiring passage through the external cordon are directed to the operational headquarters after obtaining authorization to pass through it for further instructions. The function of the external cordon is to create a safe working environment for emergency rescue services responding in the event of this disaster. The radius of the external cordon, i.e., this zone, depends on the type and scope of the disaster itself, resource availability, and the needs of the community (Mladjan and Cvetković, 2012; Cvetković, 2013).
The safe (support, clean, cold, green) zone is an area free from contamination. Conditionally, the safe zone has two subzones: 1. A part where the equipment and resources of all services participating in the intervention, operational and integrated command posts, developed emergency medical assistance system (triage system, field hospital, helicopter landing area) are located; 2. Part of the traffic cordon to prevent unauthorized vehicle access to the area around the incident site, where the media area is located (sometimes media representatives can be accommodated in the common area as well as near the operational headquarters) and gathered citizens and families of victims. On the edge of the traffic cordon, an appropriate number of control points – access points to the incident site are also set up. It is very important and necessary for the police to check all suspicious objects and persons in all three cordons. The police must register all their members entering the internal cordon at the location called the assembly point (Mladjan and Cvetković, 2012; Cvetković, 2013).
Therefore, the internal cordon is set up around the prohibited zone (hot zone). It ensures immediate security. The external cordon encloses a wide area around the internal cordon, i.e., it ensures the restricted access zone. The traffic cordon is set up outside the external cordon to prevent unauthorized vehicle access to the disaster-affected area. Personnel from all emergency rescue services as well as others should be directed to specific assembly points. The position of the assembly point should be protected and safe for use. It is advisable that the location of this point is not predetermined. Of course, it is necessary to conduct terrain reconnaissance before actual use. When determining the position, the following should be considered: 1. Is there enough space for personnel from all emergency rescue services? 2. Is the parking on solid ground? 3. Is the area well lit? 4. Is access enabled for large vehicles? 5. Is it easy to find? It would be desirable for fire rescue units and emergency medical services to have different assembly points (Mladjan and Cvetković, 2012; Cvetković, 2013).
The operational headquarters is a central place (joint control center of emergency rescue services) from which competent leaders of emergency rescue services collectively make decisions in a coordinated manner, thus managing the disaster. The operational headquarters is responsible for all issues such as safety, resource management, response coordination, media and community relations.
The access control center is set up outside the external cordon and must be clearly visible. It is under police command and must be clearly visible to those wishing to pass through the external cordon. It conducts identity verification of non-intervention service personnel. Also, all persons seeking access are registered in this center. It is in constant communication with the operational headquarters. After identity verification, individuals are escorted to the assembly point or operational headquarters. This center does not control access to the internal cordon (Cvetković, 2013).
The rest center is established by local authorities and represents an appropriate gathering place for evacuation. The rest center provides shelter and support for evacuated individuals. The facility to be used as temporary accommodation is predetermined by local authorities. Health organization staff, local authorities, and volunteers are involved in these centers. This center provides security, communication, food, and medical services. Generally, rest centers are not open for more than 48 hours, after which local authorities will relocate people to temporary accommodation.
The main function of the survivor reception center is to document survivors and aim for identification and further investigation. This responsibility belongs to the police service. It is noteworthy that there is no unified definition of survivors, but the term is considered to encompass all individuals directly involved in the disaster. Specifically, for the improvement of identification and investigative procedures, as well as for their well-being, all survivors should be directed to this center. There are five circumstances under which survivors should leave the survivor reception center: a) going to a hospital or other medical institution; b) approved discharge because individuals are healthy and capable, preferably taken over by a family member; c) group return to their local government; d) going to the rest center when they cannot be returned to their areas, and alternative accommodation cannot be found for them, and e) if they are arrested as suspects in the police investigation (Cvetković, 2013).
For the support and provision of relevant information to families and friends, a Friends and Relatives Reception Center will be opened at a secure and safe location away from the disaster site. In these disasters, there will be a large number of survivors and casualties. It will be opened, if possible, within 12 hours of the disaster. This is a place where friends and relatives of victims and missing persons can come to receive information. Within this center, provision should be made for accommodating representatives of various agencies whose advice and assistance could be helpful (Cvetković, 2013).
Under the Humanitarian Aid Center, it is understood as a location that offers medium-term or long-term humanitarian aid to people directly or indirectly affected by these disasters. The local community should open this center within 48 hours of the start of the disaster. It acts as a central point for informing and assisting bereaved families and friends, survivors (Cvetković, 2013).
After establishing a disaster management system by the emergency rescue services and determining danger zones, it is necessary to relocate people and other living beings to a safe place to protect them from present dangers on the scene. The area within the prohibited zone, secured by the internal cordon, will typically be evacuated, except for emergency rescue service personnel. It is important to consider wind direction when determining the evacuation zone. Alternatively, protective measures may be required in shelters within designated facilities. The evacuation procedure is carried out by directing individuals and other living beings to designated evacuation assembly points, from where they are transferred to rest centers. When considering evacuation, it is necessary to take into account the well-being of people, i.e., the security of their homes and a program for their return (Cvetković, 2013).
In the process of determining when and which people should be evacuated, the following should be taken into account (Thomas, 2008; Cvetković, 2013): 1. transportation of these people and traffic management; 2. shelter and accommodation in rest centers; 3. support for people seeking shelter on-site; 4. assisting groups of people with specific needs; 5. developing a strategy to prevent crime in the evacuated area; 6. business continuity; 7. protection of objects and facilities of cultural interest and great value. Additionally, there must be an evacuation plan, and all relevant emergency rescue services in the area affected by the manifested harmful effects of the disaster must express their views on it.
3.2.3.4. Information and resource management
The flow of information and coordination of resources refer to the process of determining timely and effective management, coordination, and dissemination of all existing data, information, and resources among all participants. The success of coordination is directly linked to the implementation of the mentioned disaster management system and its procedures. If the elements of the team identified at the management location are not implemented, it will be very difficult for all present representatives on-site to act safely and efficiently. Key guidelines to consider are: 1. Confirm orders within the disaster management process and monitor the progress to ensure they are fully received and implemented correctly. Keep the situation under strict control; 2. Ensure there is continuous progress towards problem resolution within the timeframe. Do not delay in calling for additional assistance if escalation occurs; 3. Ensure that all key actors understand the action plan and have grasped the process; 4. Bad news does not improve with time; 5. Do not allow external factors to operate freely within the unified command (Cvetković, 2012, 2013).
Coordination of information and resources in disasters can be a complex task that takes time. While it is very difficult to act safely when there is little or insufficient information, it can be even more detrimental to act with too many people and data that cannot be effectively organized for evaluation and decision-making. Information coordination also plays a role after the incident itself, supporting the leader in the disaster. As with many disasters, it is important to establish a “paper trail” that tracks events that occurred during the disaster.
The Copernicus Emergency Management Service provides necessary information for all phases of disaster management (preparedness, response, and recovery), including meteorological, geophysical, and technical-technological hazards. It was developed as an Earth observation program by the European Union and is under civilian control. The service supports environmental protection efforts, civil protection, and offers six different services: disaster management; atmosphere monitoring; environmental monitoring; land monitoring; climate change; and security monitoring. It has been in use since 2012, providing maps and satellite image analysis before, during, and after disasters.
It consists of two main components: early warning and mapping. With the help of the system, various natural and technical-technological disasters such as floods, earthquakes, tsunamis, landslides, storms, volcanic eruptions can be mapped. It has two modules: rapid mapping and risk-recovery mapping. The early warning component allows alerting and risk assessment for floods and forest fires. The rapid mapping service has been activated and used more than a hundred times: Italy, after the 2012 earthquake; the Philippines, after devastating storm impacts; West Africa, in the context of the Ebola virus; Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina in terms of floods and landslides in 2014; Greece in terms of forest fires, etc. The “risk-recovery mapping” service can be used for: examining exposure to specific hazards at certain locations; vulnerability and resilience of people and buildings; assessment of post-disaster needs (damage and loss assessment); monitoring of reconstruction and recovery after disasters. So far, the mentioned service has been used for: risk assessment and mitigation of flood consequences in Bolivia; monitoring the reconstruction and recovery of Haiti after the earthquake; preparedness, risk assessment, and disaster risk reduction in Nepal; analysis of environmental degradation in Kenya (Cvetković, 2018).
3.2.3.5. Post-disaster reporting
During the final phase, after the conclusion of the disaster or upon the demobilization of emergency response personnel, a disaster report is submitted. Report submission is most effective when an individual is selected to lead it. This report should be concise, covering only the main aspects of disaster management measures and should not last longer than 30 minutes. Recommended content topics include: 1. health information (accurate materials and potential exposure pressure faced by staff, including symptoms and signs resulting from exposure, along with the need for any follow-up medical examinations and documentation of exposure levels.); 2. equipment and apparatus exposure check (identification of potential exposure of equipment and apparatus to hazardous materials, special cleaning, and disposal. Determination of personnel and procedures for decontamination or disposal of equipment.); 3. issues requiring immediate action (procedure failures, major staff problems, and legal participation in recovery operations.); 4. highlighting things done correctly and acknowledgment from the disaster manager for a job well done (Cvetković, 2012; 2013).
The disaster report should present goals, namely: a) inform emergency response personnel about possible exposure to toxins and accompanying signs and symptoms; b) identify equipment malfunctions requiring immediate attention or isolation for further examination; c) determine information gathering duties for disaster analysis and critique; d) summarize the activities performed by each special department or sector within the disaster management system; e) highlight positive aspects of the disaster response. When analyzing all aspects of disaster management, a reconstruction of the response is conducted to create a clear picture of the event (Guidance on emergency procedures, 2009).
On the other hand, the aim of criticism is to show deficiencies in the disaster management system, not to find fault with emergency response personnel. The main participants in the critique are members of the emergency response services who directly took tactical measures and actions. Criticism about event success is a positive way to outline and discuss learned lessons. Concluding the critique of operations will improve performance and planning by increasing efficiency in addressing shortcomings. These comments should give particular importance to suggestions for improving disaster response and for reviewing and improving programs. The final report should circulate within emergency response services to ensure all staff are familiar with it. It is also necessary to document all phases of the disaster: operational, control, and sanitation (Cvetković, 2012, 2013).
3.2.3.6. Logistical support in disaster management
Decision-makers in local communities and leaders of emergency rescue services cannot effectively manage disasters unless they have abundant data on various dimensions of hazards (Cvetković, 2013a). The data they need comes from various sources, most of which are publicly available. The quality and usability of these data depend on the organizations that create them. Users of such data must first be aware of their existence and know how to access and effectively use them. Therefore, information on spatial risk requires the organization of infrastructure spatial data, where they are shared among decision-makers, various technical, and scientific organizations relevant to risk assessments.
The infrastructure of such data represents a framework for policies, resources, and structures that ensure spatial data are available to all decision-makers when needed and in a format that can be immediately utilized (Fischer, 1998; Riley & Meadows, 1997; Stephenson & Anderson, 1997). It is significant to mention that monitoring networks on land or in oceans are supported by numerous satellite systems used for data transmission to the central part of the system. There is a wide variety of monitoring-based systems that can regularly measure hazard characteristics over large areas, such as (marine surface) temperature, precipitation, altitude, cloud characteristics, vegetation indices, etc. If there are no data from meteorological stations for broader areas, rainfall estimates can be obtained using satellite imagery, such as the Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission, Multi-satellite Precipitation Analysis. These estimates are used to issue landslide and flood warnings based on threshold values derived from previously published frequency, intensity, and duration relationships for different countries (Cvetković, 2018; Hong, Adler, Negri, & Huffman, 2007).
In Europe, the Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES), an initiative of the European Commission and the European Space Agency (ECA), actively supports the use of satellite technology in disaster management, with projects such as Preview (prevention, information, and early warning services, which support risk management), LIMES (integrated land and sea monitoring for environment and security), GMOSS (global monitoring for safety and stability), SAFER (services and applications for emergency response), and G-MOSAIC (GMES services for operation management, situational awareness, and regional crisis intelligence) (GMES, 2010).
There is also an open platform that allows the creation, exchange, and shared use of geospatial data for risk assessment known as GeoNode (Clifton, Griffith, & Holland, 2001; PICKLE, 2011). Global risk assessment is mainly done to assess risk indices for certain countries, which are related to indices of socio-economic development, so that international organizations such as the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank (Nasrabadi, Naji, Mirzabeigi, & Dadbakhs), the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) could make a priority list to support these countries (Cardona, 2005).
In addition to the mentioned infrastructures, there are various applications (Boehm, 1991; Currion, Silva, & Van de Walle, 2007) that greatly facilitate the coordination of efforts to mitigate the consequences of disasters. For example, the Sahana software was created to save lives by providing information management solutions that enable organizations and local communities to better prepare and respond to disasters (Duc, Vu, & Ban, 2014). For this reason, free and open-source software has been developed to provide services that solve specific problems in disaster management. It was developed in Sri Lanka, immediately after the consequences of the earthquake and tsunami that hit the shores of the Indian Ocean in 2004. Generally, there are several possibilities: the first relates to managing details about organizations, offices, facilities, contacts, and others; the second relates to managing engaged personnel, volunteers, stocks; the third relates to visualization of who, what, and where works with the possibility of providing charts and maps, etc.
The Virtual Disaster Viewer represents a unique social network designed for impact assessments and disaster damage (Underwood, 2010). During the earthquake in Haiti in 2010, it proved to be very effective. It operates on the principle of engaging hundreds of earthquake experts and remote sensing specialists who are assigned specific areas to review and provide their assessments based on comparing high-resolution satellite images before and after disasters. Such an application can become very significant software support for decision-makers in the future (Cvetković, 2018).
In order to improve analyses, databases (Lyon, 1988) on risks should contain various information for longer periods of time to be able to analyze intensity and frequency relationships. These requirements entail considering events of high frequency and low magnitude for risk assessment with a high probability of occurrence, but it should also contain enough events of low frequency and high magnitude to be able to assess extreme event hazards.
Therefore, besides measuring, observing, and mapping recent hazardous events, conducting comprehensive archival research is of great importance. For example, one of the most comprehensive projects for landslide and flood mapping inventory is the “AVI” project in Italy (Guzzetti, Cardinali, & Reichenbach, 1994; Guzzetti, Reichenbach, Cardinali, Galli, & Ardizzone, 2005).
3.2.3.6.1. Department of Planning
The Department of Planning must first determine priorities and formulate procedures that must be followed according to the situation at hand. To carry out this activity effectively, it is necessary to have data on necessary material, financial, and personnel resources and to address numerous technical issues and issues related to algorithms of steps and procedures being implemented.
The function of planning includes collecting, assessing, and using information on event developments and resource status. Among the responsibilities of this function is the development of an Action Plan, which defines specific activities to be undertaken, resource utilization, required resources, and the time frame for each activity. Additionally, in this phase, consolidation of goals to be achieved and implementation of personnel with responsibilities and tasks through the formulation of the Action Plan are of great importance.
Some of the key characteristics of the Action Plan include: it must encompass all stakeholders, i.e., the entire community; it must cover all phases of victim care; it must allow for the engagement of additional services; it must be amenable to modification and consistent with the existing management system; it must define the tasks, responsibilities, and authorities of all participants, as well as the time frame within which they must be achieved.
Planning can be realized at different levels and for different purposes. It is vital to employ flexible hierarchical planning on a large scale. As a consequence, since the disaster will spread to neighboring areas, communication between them will be limited, and planning will be disorganized. Alternatively, each local planning system connects with other planners to coordinate operations and provide status updates, all in pursuit of the most efficient approach possible. Unlike a global planning system, techniques are needed for fully distributed and asynchronous planning.
One of the main themes of the study is whether the most successful strategic planning can be achieved through global planning with subordinate plans or through the complete implementation of planning at the local level. The overall planning system may need to be sufficiently adaptable to allow for dynamic reformulation of planning approaches across the entire dispersing and hierarchical spectrum of planning. A range of actors, including humans, rescue robots, helicopters, cars, and other independent and interdependent agents, are involved in this planning.
The application of geographic information systems began in the early 1990s after the devastating effects of Hurricane Andrew. The possibilities of geographic information systems are manifold: distribution of public aid; management of disaster-affected areas; mapping of damaged and collapsed homes; depiction of paths and directions of hazard propagation; documenting significant points; risk mapping. A geographic information system consists of the following elements: an input subsystem that converts maps and other spatial data into digital form (data digitization); a storage and retrieval subsystem; an analysis subsystem; and an output subsystem for map production, tables, and providing responses to queries.
In the last decade, the use of geographic information systems by disaster researchers has become increasingly relevant considering all the advantages it offers for all phases of disaster management processes. Certain authors have used satellite imagery and specific models to model the extent and depth of floods in a complex river system in Australia. It is particularly noteworthy that for certain hazards such as tropical cyclones and forest fires, satellites represent the main source of information gathering and monitoring.
3.2.3.6.2. Department of Material Supply
The Department of Material Supply and Logistics provides support to engaged personnel by ensuring the provision of necessary equipment, vehicles, facilities, storage, and delivery of food and water. It could be said that this function serves as the connective tissue of the entire operation.
Therefore, this department ensures the provision of facilities, provides services, supplies materials, necessary equipment, and ensures staff for work. Long-term, this function holds tremendous significance. The entire function is tasked with providing comprehensive support to all engaged members of emergency rescue services in the field. Without adequate logistical support, it is unacceptable to even consider an efficient and timely response to such catastrophes.
3.2.3.6.3. Department of Operational Activities
The support activities for individuals endangered by the situation fall under the tasks of the operational sector. This sector and its affiliated personnel operate in the field, conducting medical needs assessments, controlling the spread of negative consequences or harmful actions, and working towards the rapid restoration of normalcy.
The Operational Activities Sector is responsible for implementing all activities outlined in the Action Plan. The head of the department – the operations commander – who leads it, bears primary responsibility for adopting and implementing the plan. One of the authorities held by the head of the department is to determine necessary resources and establish the internal organizational structure of the department.
His main responsibilities include ensuring the safety of operational staff and directly coordinating their activities; implementing the action plan; informing the intervention manager about the situation and resource status within the department; procuring new resources and recovering remaining resources through the intervention manager; collaborating with the manager in goal development.
3.2.3.6.4. Department of Administrative-Legal Affairs and Finances
The Department for Administrative-Legal Affairs is formed in the case of disasters that last for longer periods. From the name itself, it can be inferred that the sector deals with all financial issues that may arise in all modes of operation of the services in the command and control system in disasters, as well as in routine tasks.
Although sometimes overlooked, this function is crucial for monitoring costs and keeping accounts. If costs and financial transactions are carefully recorded, it is possible to later claim reimbursement. Therefore, each of these functional areas can be expanded by forming additional organizational units and further delegating authority.
The goal in such situations requiring an urgent response is to stabilize disasters while simultaneously protecting lives, the environment, and property, thus minimizing human and material losses. The task of the management system is to implement measures that represent an adequate response to the given situation, involving a larger number of emergency rescue services with different characteristics, in the most efficient manner.
3.2.3.6.5. Information Systems and Disaster Protection
When facing disasters, decision-makers must consider and analyze various information regarding hazard characteristics (nature, strength, intensity, etc.), while also taking measures aimed at short-term and long-term community recovery. Certainly, the spatial dimension of disasters is crucial for rapidly mitigating their consequences and preventing further spread of harmful actions from various catastrophes. In addition to the spatial dimension, disasters, as highly complex events, also include inputs such as wind speed, surface roughness, air temperature, flow rate, and geographic features (Pine, 2008).
It is important to highlight that physical characteristics influence the consequences and are included in hazard models expressed in the form of mathematical algorithms or formulas. Certainly, for the use of such models, it is very important to consider their characteristics and the data required for their functioning. For certain models, such as “HAZUS-MH,” technical documentation is provided that precisely provides users with necessary data (Cvetković & Filipović, 2017a).
Starting from the destructive consequences of numerous disasters, as well as their unpredictability, decision-makers increasingly rely on the use of observation and geographic information systems, which represent powerful tools in the risk management process. With the help of such tools, and all the benefits that information systems offer, it is possible to timely and effectively mitigate the consequences of disasters. From the local to the regional level, risk management is largely conditioned by spatial data on the occurrence and spread of hazards, obstacles encountered, and the affected area (Cvetković & Filipović, 2017a).
The main objectives for which information systems are developed include (Marko, Marjan, & Vlada, 2010): reducing response time, i.e., organizational system responsiveness and improving decision-making, i.e., action; continuous data collection, with data processing yielding information on all vital performances of the observed system, status, deadlines, costs, quality, work results, reliability, etc.; ensuring complete “history” of the observed system for analysis and forecasting of system conditions in the future.
The basic principles on which information systems are based should be: data and/or information entered into the system only once where they originate or are collected; data and information requirements posed to those where they are stored, eliminating the classical reporting method by levels; minimizing manual work on documentation; timely informing all management levels according to their needs; applying processing over elementary data to avoid the possibility of “frozen” reporting; permanent data storage as long as they are current, and the possibility of evaluating system and its elements’ effectiveness (Andrejić et al., 2010).
The accelerated development of technologies has greatly facilitated the management process in disasters, and until the 1990s, relatively powerful and networked desktop computer systems became an integral part of disaster management operations (Stephenson & Anderson, 1997). Thomas Drabek (Drabek, 1991) pointed to the quite extensive use of decision support computer-based systems in the US, especially during the damage assessment phase. Geographic information systems on one hand and remote sensing and satellite imagery on the other hand represent fundamental components of hazard research that create opportunities and improve new scientific approaches (Tobin & Montz, 2004b). In hazard and disaster studies, GIS application began in the early 1990s, following Hurricane Andrew in 1992 (Hodgson & Palm, 1992). After recognizing the potential of geographic information systems for disaster risk reduction purposes, they began to be used for various purposes: distributing public assistance, managing disaster-affected areas, mapping damaged and collapsed homes, displaying paths and directions of hazard spread, recording significant points, risk mapping, etc.
In the literature, there are different definitions of geographic information systems that reflect the scientific discipline of the authors themselves. However, there is also a traditional definition according to which a geographic information system represents a computer system for collecting, processing, transmitting, archiving, and analyzing data that have geographic references (Čekerevac et al., 2010). It can be said that such a system consists of four interactive subsystems: an input subsystem that converts maps and other spatial data into digital form (data digitization); a data storage and retrieval subsystem; an analysis subsystem; and an output subsystem for map, table, and query response creation (Maguire, 1991). Analysis of natural hazards involves expertly combining the use of geographic information systems, ecological modeling, and remotely sensed data sets (Pine, 2008).
In recent years, the use of GIS by disaster researchers and decision-makers has become increasingly popular, and they are beginning to use it in all phases of the disaster management cycle (Curtis & Mills, 2009). Penton and Overton (2007) used satellite imagery and certain models to simulate the extent and level of flooding in a complex river system in Australia (Penton & Overton, 2007). It should be noted that for certain hazards such as tropical cyclones and forest fires, satellites are the main source of information gathering and monitoring. On the other hand, for a large number of hazards, specific ground stations measuring specific measurable characteristics can be used. For certain hazards, methods of reflecting information in different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum obtained from various optical and infrared groups can be used. Satellites can thus be used for mapping events and sequential flood phases such as duration, flood depth, and current direction (Smith, 1997). Geomorphic information can be obtained using optical (landsat, spot, aster) and microwave (ers, radarsat) data (Marcus & Fonstad, 2008).
In practice, there are numerous factors that hinder the use of certain optical data, such as the presence of clouds and dense vegetation. Thermal sensors can provide data for mapping forest fires or destroyed areas (Giglio & Kendall, 2001). For geographic information systems to function, it is necessary to establish appropriate hazard databases. In such databases, high probability and low-intensity hazards should be covered, as well as those of low probability and high intensity, in order to develop scenarios for the most probable and most serious events. Therefore, it is essential to conduct a large number of archival studies to supplement measurements, observations, and mapping with information from the past. For example, in China, an analysis of extreme rainfall was conducted based on data collected from historical documents over the past 1500 years (Zheng et al., 2006). Additionally, participatory mapping and geographic information systems, with the participation of the local community in data production and spatial decision-making, can be used to create hazard inventories (Westen, 2013).
Spatial data are intended to be viewed on maps, and geographic information systems allow such maps to be interactively manipulated to reveal landscape information in various ways. With the help of such systems, various spatial layers can be added: where people live, transport routes, quarantine areas, key facilities or infrastructure, etc. Furthermore, displaying hazard analysis results and using spatial analysis and mapping tools help the local community to: identify patterns in complex datasets or multiple related datasets; make sense of large datasets; consider that local geographic features change over time; consider that geographic features may be similar or intersect more frequently in smaller geographic scales; provide means of communicating complex information without oversimplifying data; provide critical information to emergency responders at the local, state, or regional level about the nature of hazards and their potential impacts (Pine, 2008).
A geographic information system, with an appropriate spatial database, can (Stoimenov, Stanimirović, Milosavljević, & Živković, 2012): enable map display, geo-data search, and other basic GIS functions; provide visual display of obtained data about potentially risky objects/buildings on a map; provide information about the nearest fire stations, police stations, and emergency medical teams; provide information about existing installations of water supply, power grid, telecommunication cables, road network, and similar (Cvetković & Filipović, 2017a).
3.2.3.7. Comparative review of characteristics of disaster management measures
It is based on the following premises, which guarantee its efficiency and effectiveness: establishing basic functions, planning, logistics, operations, administration and financing, and defining their interrelation; a unified chain of command and appropriate range of control by managers; flexibility and adaptability of disaster management systems; logistics and planning are key elements of the system (Cvetković, 2013).
The size, structure, and management approach largely depend on the nature and scale of the disaster, as well as on the necessary human, technical, and financial resources. The basic principles to be applied in establishing a management system are as follows: the mission of the entire system must be in line with the available resources and the way it is implemented; the scope of the mission must enable optimal management with clear delineation of scope boundaries; the chain of command and relationships of subordination and superordination must be clearly defined, along with an appropriate range of control; at all times, cooperative work and coordination with services, agencies, and units that can subsequently be involved must be ensured (Cvetković, 2012).
Tasks, responsibilities, and authorities of each participant must be respected. An adaptable management system structure consists of main components aimed at providing rapid and efficient use of resources and minimizing disruption of normal order. Four basic dimensions are necessary for successful management of disaster protection and rescue measures (Jiang, Hong, Takayama, & Landay, 2004): a) an efficient accountability system; b) a thorough situation assessment; c) appropriate resource deployment; and d) an effective communication system. The concepts and principles of the management system are proven functional and useful at all levels of authority during disasters, as well as in the private sector. However, training is necessary to ensure that all potential participants familiarize themselves with the basic tenets of its organization.
The progressive growth and multidimensional nature of the manifested consequences of disasters require the engagement of all existing national, regional, and international capacities to mitigate and eliminate the resulting consequences. States faced with serious disasters usually cannot cope and recover independently, necessitating the sending of requests for international assistance to relevant organizations. In order to facilitate international cooperation, international organizations are beginning to be formed that are directly or indirectly engaged in various aspects of disasters: the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR); the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOSHA); the International Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG); the United Nations Capacity Development for Disaster Reduction Initiative (UN CADRI); the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies; the Civil Emergency Planning Directorate (CEP – NATO), etc.
Consequently, there is also the formation of a larger number of national non-governmental organizations that play an important role in disaster management. One of the most significant non-governmental organizations in the Republic of Serbia is the Scientific-Expert Society for Risk Management in Emergencies, formed in mid-2018, and the International Institute for Disaster Research formed in 2020 (Cvetković, 2019).
3.2.3.7.1. Russia
In the Russian Federation, the management of disaster protection and rescue measures falls under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Civil Defense, Emergencies, and Disaster Relief. The Ministry consolidated the work of the State Committee for Emergencies and the Civil Defense Staff of the Russian Federation. This consolidation took place in 1991 with the aim of improving the efficiency of protecting the civilian population and material goods in the event of natural or man-made disasters. The ministry consists of nine sectors, eight administrations, and seven departments.
At the helm of the ministry is the minister, who has four deputies. The organizational units of this ministry include sectors for:
- Civil defense;
- Disaster prevention and elimination of disaster consequences;
- Military, civil defense, and rescue formations;
- Organizational-formational affairs;
- Personnel affairs and training;
- Economic-financial affairs;
- International cooperation;
- Investments and exploitation;
- Inspection of forces and territory; as well as units of various purposes:
- Specialized rescue teams;
- Civil defense units of various compositions, as part of the system for disaster prevention and elimination of consequences;
- Aviation units for disaster prevention and elimination.
Management is organized at the following levels:
- Federal level;
- Regional level;
- Territorial level;
- Local level; and
- Field level.
The Federal Law on “Protection of the Population and Territories from Natural and Man-Made Disasters” (No. 429-FZ) adopted in 1994 and revised in 2020 regulates the system of disaster protection and rescue. It stipulates that the bodies managing the unified state system for disaster prevention and relief include bodies created to coordinate the activities of federal executive bodies, executive bodies of constituent entities of the Russian Federation, local self-government bodies, organizations in the field of population and territory protection from disasters, and forces involved in disaster prevention and relief.
The objectives of the law are listed as: preventing the occurrence and development of disasters; reducing damage and losses from disasters; disaster relief; delineating authorities in the field of population and territory protection from disasters among federal executive bodies, executive bodies of constituent entities of the Russian Federation, local self-government bodies, and organizations.
According to the aforementioned law, the unified state system for disaster prevention and relief integrates the management bodies, forces, and resources of federal executive bodies, executive bodies of constituent entities of the Russian Federation, local self-government bodies, organizations whose authorities include addressing issues of population and territory protection from disasters, including ensuring the safety of people on water facilities. Such a system operates at the federal, interregional, regional, municipal, and facility levels.
The main tasks of the unified state system for disaster prevention and relief are: developing and implementing legal and economic norms to ensure the protection of the population and territories from disasters, including ensuring the safety of people on water facilities; implementing targeted and scientific-technical programs aimed at disaster prevention and increasing the sustainability of organizations’ functioning, as well as social objects in disasters; ensuring readiness for action by command and control bodies, forces, and resources intended and deployed for disaster prevention and relief; collecting, processing, exchanging, and issuing information in the field of population and territory protection from disasters; preparing the population for action in disasters, including organizing explanatory and preventive work among the population to prevent disasters on water facilities; organizing population warning about disasters and informing the population about disasters, including emergency notification of the population; predicting disaster hazards, assessing socio-economic consequences of disasters; creating reserves of financial and material resources for responding to disasters; conducting state expertise, state supervision in the field of population and territory protection from disasters; disaster relief; implementing social protection measures for the population affected by disasters, implementing humanitarian actions; exercising the rights and obligations of the population in the field of disaster protection, as well as persons directly involved in their liquidation; international cooperation in the field of population and territory protection from disasters, including ensuring the safety of people on water facilities. Principles of construction, composition of control bodies, forces, and resources, procedure for performing tasks and interaction of main elements, as well as other issues of functioning of the unified state system for disaster prevention and relief, are determined by the legislation of the Russian Federation, regulations and orders of the Government of the Russian Federation.
Local self-governments in the Russian Federation have the following responsibilities within the disaster protection and rescue system: they conduct training and maintain readiness of necessary forces and resources for the protection of the population and territories from disasters, as well as training the population in disaster protection; they make decisions on categorizing disasters as municipal-level emergencies, on implementing evacuation measures, and organizing their implementation; they inform the population about disasters; they finance activities in the field of population and territory protection from disasters; they create reserves of financial and material resources for disaster response; they organize and conduct rescue and other emergency operations, as well as maintain public order during their implementation; they contribute to the sustainable functioning of organizations in disasters; they establish permanent management bodies within local self-government bodies, specifically authorized to address issues in the field of population and territory protection from disasters; they introduce a high state of readiness for competent management authorities and forces of the unified state system for disaster prevention and relief; they participate in the creation, operation, and development of systems for calling emergency rescue services using the unified number “112”; they establish and maintain municipal warning and information systems for informing the population about disasters; they collect information in the field of population and territory protection from disasters and exchange this information, including using a comprehensive system for emergency warning of the population about danger or disaster occurrence, timely informing the population about danger or disaster occurrence (Clause 11, Article 2, No. 429-FZ).
The Russian system for managing measures of disaster protection and rescue has five levels: federal, regional, territorial, local, and facility, and includes two subsystems – territorial and functional. The territorial subsystem consists of groups corresponding to the administrative-territorial division of the subjects of the Russian Federation, while the functional subsystem consists of organizational structures determined by federal executive bodies for carrying out tasks of population and territory protection from disasters.
3.2.3.7.2. United States of America
Management of disaster protection and rescue measures in the United States falls under the jurisdiction of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). The agency was established in 1979 by Executive Order of President Carter and encompasses agencies, services, and programs related to preparedness, prevention, assurance, and support. During this period, it became an autonomous organization and, together with the National Warning System (NAWS), is organized at the federal, district, and local levels.
The legal authority of this agency derives from the Robert T. Stafford Act. Enacted in 1988, its amended version from 2007 serves as a replacement for the 1974 Act. This Act defines the legal responsibilities for most federal intervention and rescue services, created with the aim of establishing organized and systematic federal action for disasters and other duties to aid citizens. The agency has civil defense responsibilities, inherited from the Department of Defense, and operates within an integrated system of disaster protection and rescue measures.
Based on the 2002 Homeland Security Act, a reorganization of various federal services occurred, forming the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). Agencies within this department are responsible for analyzing threats and intelligence data, safeguarding borders and airports, protecting critical infrastructure, and coordinating responses to potential disasters. This department has responsibilities including border and transportation security, intelligence analysis and infrastructure protection, disaster preparedness and response (FEMA), strategic national stockpiles, medical systems in disasters, and response and support teams for nuclear and other energy. The work of the Department is based on two documents: the Homeland Security Strategy (2002) and the DHS Act (2002).
Several years after its establishment, the Department of Homeland Security defined several essential and priority objectives aimed at protecting the population and resources of the state from existing and potential terrorist threats. These objectives quickly became part of the strategic preventive plan for terrorism protection, as well as part of a new integrated management system in all disasters.
The primary mission of this agency, as per (Bevelacqua & Stilp, 2003), includes disaster preparedness, prevention, response, and recovery. Within this agency, the Office of National Preparedness was formed to coordinate terrorism-related issues with other federal agencies. Since 2003, it has been within the Department of Homeland Security, providing a platform for implementing programs for managing disaster protection and rescue measures.
Management of disaster protection and rescue measures is always under civilian command, and the engagement of military resources in such situations falls under the jurisdiction of civilian authorities. The entire territory of the United States is divided into 10 regions, each directly subordinate to this agency for issues of ensuring the readiness of authorities and the population in the event of large-scale disasters, both in peacetime and wartime. There are also 10 regional centers, and the FEMA director is directly accountable to the President of the United States, maintaining close contact with the National Security Council, the Cabinet, and the White House.
In the event of a declared disaster, FEMA provides centralized leadership and coordination of rescue and restoration efforts, maintains normal communication operations, maintains databases related to rescue and restoration issues, and provides necessary assistance to local administrative authorities after the disaster is declared. The FEMA director appoints a federal coordinating officer, who determines the most important measures and coordinates all activities of central authorities and assisting organizations.
3.2.3.7.3. Serbia
Disaster risk management is under the jurisdiction of the Sector for Emergency Situations of the Republic of Serbia. It was formed in 2009 by merging the Sector for Protection and Rescue and the Disaster Management Directorate of the Ministry of Defense into a unified service. Through the Sector for Emergencies, the Ministry of the Interior organizes and implements activities aimed at protecting the lives, health, and property of citizens, preserving conditions necessary for life, and preparing to overcome emerging situations in the event of disasters, major accidents, technological accidents, and other hazardous conditions resulting from natural and induced disasters.
The Law on Disaster Risk Reduction and Emergency Management (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 87/2018, Article 1) regulates: disaster risk reduction; prevention and strengthening of resilience and readiness of individuals and communities to respond to the consequences of disasters; protection and rescue of people, material, cultural, and other goods; rights and obligations of citizens, associations, legal entities, bodies of local self-government units, autonomous provinces, and the Republic of Serbia; disaster management; functioning of civil protection; early warning, notification, and alerting; international cooperation; inspection supervision, and other issues of importance for organizing and functioning of the disaster risk reduction and emergency management system.
Disaster risk reduction and emergency management are based on the following principles (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 87/2018, Articles 3-9): the principle of priority (disaster risk reduction and emergency management represent a national and local priority); the principle of integrated action and intersectoral cooperation (risk assessments and preventive measures and activities aimed at preventing and reducing disaster risks are integrated into sectoral development plans and programs in all areas of state administration); the principle of the primary role of local communities (local self-government units have a primary role in disaster risk management, supported by all relevant state and provincial institutions); the principle of gradual use of forces and means (in protection and rescue, forces and means from the territory of local self-government units are used first, and when these forces and means are insufficient, the competent authority ensures the use of other forces and means from the territory of the Republic of Serbia, including the police and the Serbian Armed Forces when necessary); the principle of equality and protection of human rights (subjects of the disaster risk reduction and emergency management system make special efforts to achieve the principle of gender equality and take special care to ensure that no decision, measure, or action encourages or leads to a more unfavorable position for women and their equal participation in the disaster risk reduction and emergency management system); the principle of participatory and solidarity (the right of endangered citizens to participate in the design and implementation of activities in disaster risk reduction, as well as the right to participate in proposing, taking, and executing certain measures, tasks, and activities in protection and rescue, and to express their needs in assistance).
During 2018, the Sector for Emergency Situations was reorganized. Its composition includes the following organizational units: organizational units at the headquarters, Emergency Management Directorates in: Belgrade, Novi Sad, Niš, and Kragujevac, and Departments for Emergency Situations in: Bor, Valjevo, Vranje, Zaječar, Zrenjanin, Jagodina, Kikinda, Kraljevo, Kruševac, Leskovac, Novi Pazar, Pančevo, Pirot, Požarevac, Priboj, Prokuplje, Smederevo, Sombor, Sremska Mitrovica, Subotica, Užice, Čačak, in Šabac. The following organizational units were formed for the performance of tasks at the headquarters of the Sector for Emergency Situations: Department for Legal Affairs and International Cooperation; Department for Economic and Material-Technical Support; Directorate for Preventive Protection; Directorate for Firefighting and Rescue Units and Civil Protection; Directorate for Risk Management.
The Department for Preventive Protection includes: the Department for Preventive Protection in the Construction of Complex Objects; the Department for Inspection Supervision; the Department for Traffic and Transport of Explosive Materials and Controlled Goods. The Directorate for Firefighting and Rescue Units and Civil Protection comprises: the Department for Firefighting and Rescue Units; the Department for Coordination of Work of Firefighting and Rescue Units and Forces of the Protection and Rescue System; the Department for Civil Protection Units; the Department for Unexploded Ordnance (UXO). The Directorate for Risk Management consists of: the National 112 Center; the Planning and Risk Assessment Department; the Coordination and Emergency Management Department. The Sector for Emergency Situations in Belgrade includes: the Department for Preventive Protection in the Construction of Objects; the Department for Inspection Supervision; the Department for General-Legal and Administrative Affairs; the Department for Risk Management; the Department for Civil Protection; the 112 Operational Center; the Firefighting and Rescue Brigade. The Sector for Emergency Situations in Kragujevac comprises: the Department for Implementation of Preventive Measures in the Use of Objects; the Department for Implementation of Preventive Measures in Construction; the Department for Risk Management; the Department for Civil Protection; the 112 Operational Center; and the Firefighting and Rescue Brigade. The Departments for Emergency Situations in Novi Sad and Niš include: the Department for Preventive Protection in the Construction of Objects; the Department for Inspection Supervision; the Department for Risk Management; the Department for Civil Protection; the 112 Operational Center; and the Firefighting and Rescue Brigade. The Departments for Emergency Situations in Bor, Vranje, Zaječar, Zrenjanin, Jagodina, Kikinda, Kruševac, Leskovac, Pančevo, Prokuplje, Smederevo, Užice, Čačak, and Šabac include: the Section for Preventive Protection; the Section for Civil Protection and Risk Management; the 112 Operational Center; and the Firefighting and Rescue Battalion. The Departments for Emergency Situations in Valjevo, Kraljevo, Novi Pazar, Pirot, Požarevac, Prijepolje, Sombor, Sremska Mitrovica, and Subotica include: the Section for Preventive Protection; the Section for Civil Protection and Risk Management; and the Firefighting and Rescue Battalion. The organizational units at the headquarters are structured either along functional lines, closely linked to corresponding organizational units and tasks of subsidiary Departments for Emergency Situations, or they perform their tasks across the entire territory under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior. The Sector for Emergency Situations is headed by the Sector Chief, who is also the Minister’s Assistant (Milašinović, 2019, pp. 115-116).
The normative and functional incompleteness and partial establishment of the disaster risk management system at the central level have led to a situation where the system is largely not established at the local level either. Disaster risk management at the local level is carried out in a uniform manner: all local self-government units have the same type and scope of jurisdiction. Generally, there are no differences between cities and municipalities in terms of the degree of establishment of jurisdiction, normatively, institutionally, functionally, operationally, or financially, except in individual cases in favor of municipalities. Strategic documents in the field of security of local communities are not mandatory and do not exist in a large number, while mandatory documents (key for disaster prevention), such as disaster risk assessments and protection and rescue plans, have been adopted to an alarmingly small extent. The responsibilities of cities in operational terms, such as establishing headquarters and adopting accompanying documents, are only partially fulfilled. Obligations reflecting the functional establishment of jurisdiction requiring full political, organizational, and financial commitment and the incorporation of security concepts into the organizational system have not been established. This primarily concerns the work and equipping of civil protection units for all purposes, the population warning system in disasters. Supervision over the performance of duties in the field of disasters in local self-government units is not visible in the system. Also, practical responsibility does not exist, nor are there procedures and mechanisms for determining compliance with the legally prescribed duties of local self-government units. Individual, legal, and criminal responsibilities are not clarified, with the responsibility primarily of a political nature (Cvetković et al., 2021, p. 27).
3.2.3.7.4. Germany
In Germany, the federal government does not possess precisely defined responsibilities for disaster protection and rescue operations. However, in such situations, it is envisaged that federal states may request assistance from forces in other states. Federal support in disaster protection and rescue operations is usually described as providing aid to affected individuals. The legal basis for carrying out federal civil protection and disaster protection tasks is regulated by the Civil Protection and Disaster Assistance Act of the Federal Government (BGBl. I S. 726).
The Civil Defense and Disaster Assistance Act (BGBl. I S. 726, Article 4) stipulates that administrative tasks of the Federation are entrusted to the Federal Office for Civil Protection and Disaster Assistance. Its tasks include: supporting the competent supreme federal authorities in unified civil defense planning; providing instructions to personnel dealing with civil protection issues, as well as training managers and disaster control trainers within their civil defense tasks; developing training content for civil protection, including self-protection; supporting municipalities and municipal associations in fulfilling their legal obligations; assisting in the population warning process; informing the population about civil protection, especially about protection and assistance capabilities; technical-scientific research tasks in consultation with federal states, evaluation of research results, as well as collection and evaluation of publications in the field of civil protection; examining equipment and resources intended solely or predominantly for civil defense, as well as participating in the approval, standardization, and quality assurance of these facilities. In the second paragraph, it is prescribed that the powers of the Federal Government in the field of civil protection are transferred to the Federal Office for Civil Protection and Disaster Assistance (Zivilschutz- und Katastrophenhilfegesetz – ZSKG, BGBl. I S. 726).
Measures for protection and rescue include non-military measures to protect the population, their homes and workplaces, vital state services or civil services important for defense, companies, objects, as well as cultural assets from the consequences of war, as well as removal or mitigation of their consequences. Such measures include: self-protection; population warning; construction protection; disaster control; arranging accommodation and shelter; measures for protecting public health; measures for protecting cultural assets (Article 1, BGBl. I S. 726). Establishing, improving, and managing self-protection of the population, as well as improving self-protection of authorities and companies from special hazards, falls within the jurisdiction of local self-governments. And in the process of informing and training the population, municipalities have competent organizations at their disposal (Article 5, BGBl. I S. 726). Municipal fire departments with over a million firefighters and women are the backbone of disaster response. In the areas of fire protection, technical assistance, and defense, they also perform tasks in disaster control that are already assigned to municipalities as mandatory tasks prescribed by the laws on fire protection of federal states (https://www.bmi.bund.de).
Risk management, protection, and rescue of people and their property fall under the jurisdiction of numerous entities or institutions. In addition to the usual fire and rescue units, other emergency rescue services, and volunteer organizations, there are special organizational units such as the Technical Assistance Organization (THW) and the aforementioned Federal Office for Civil Protection and Disaster Assistance. Additionally, the Federal Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) actively participate in numerous projects with non-governmental organizations, the United Nations, Red Cross and Red Crescent organizations to improve disaster management processes. Also, there is a national or state platform for disaster risk reduction that supports and promotes interdisciplinary research approaches to disaster risk reduction in other specialized sectors, as well as in politics and business, and contributes to spreading knowledge at all levels of the education sector (https://www.dkkv.org/, 20.12.2021).
There are certain disagreements among federal states regarding the definition of responsibilities and terminology in disaster protection, considering that each possesses separate legislative competence. However, systematic and structural approaches are very similar. Initial response, coordination, and responsibility are at the level of administrative districts, as well as representatives of competent disaster control authorities. Support to all mentioned organizations is provided by corresponding technical operation management teams. It is very important to emphasize that the entire concept of disaster protection and rescue is based on voluntary engagement. Currently, according to generally known data, around 2 million volunteers are organized and responsible for the majority of protection and rescue operations. Of course, numerous legal solutions motivate people to get involved: suspension of military service, changed conditions for employees, reduced funding, and demographic changes, etc.
3.2.3.7.5. China
According to the Law on Prevention and Mitigation of Disasters in China (2008, Article 3), the following organs are responsible for prevention, response, and recovery from various disasters: the Ministry of Internal Affairs for hazards such as windstorms, earthquakes, landslides, fires, explosions, and volcanic eruptions; the Ministry of Economy for hazards such as floods, droughts, mining disasters, accidents on industrial and public gas pipelines, and oil pipelines; the Agriculture Committee of the Executive Yuan for hazards such as extreme temperatures, forest fires, epidemics, epizootics, and epiphytotics; the Ministry of Communications for hazards such as aviation accidents, maritime and road accidents; the Department of Environmental Protection of the Executive Yuan for hazards such as toxic chemical disasters and disasters caused by suspended particles; the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare for biological pathogen disasters; the Atomic Energy Commission of the Executive Yuan for radiation disasters. For all other disasters, the Central Authority for Disaster Prevention and Relief, appointed by the Central Committee for Disaster Prevention and Relief in accordance with the law, is responsible.
The Central Authority for Disaster Prevention and Relief has the following responsibilities (Law on Prevention and Mitigation of Disasters, 2008, Article 3): directing, supervising, and coordinating related issues, such as implementing disaster prevention and relief work by central and municipal, county (city) governments and public utilities; formulating and implementing revisions to disaster prevention and relief business plans; supporting and managing disaster prevention and relief work; executing and coordinating disaster prevention and relief work not under local administrative jurisdiction.
On the other hand, the Central Committee for Disaster Prevention and Relief has the following tasks: determining the basic policy for disaster prevention and relief; adopting the basic disaster prevention and relief plan and the business plan for disaster prevention and relief of the central disaster prevention and relief authority; reviewing and approving important disaster prevention and relief policies and measures; approving national disaster response measures; supervising and evaluating issues related to disaster prevention and relief by the central government, municipalities, and counties (cities); and other issues specified by laws and regulations (Law on Prevention and Mitigation of Disasters, 2008, Article 6).
Municipal and county (city) authorities form municipal and district (city) reports on disaster prevention and relief, whose tasks include: reviewing and approving disaster prevention and relief plans for municipalities, counties (cities), and regions; approving major disaster prevention and relief measures and countermeasures; approving emergency response measures to disasters within their jurisdiction; supervising and evaluating issues related to disaster prevention and relief within their jurisdiction; and other issues specified by laws and regulations. The central disaster prevention and relief committee prepares the basic disaster prevention and relief plan (Law on Prevention and Mitigation of Disasters, 2008, Article 8).
In order to effectively implement certain disaster protection and relief measures, it is envisaged that governments at all levels should carry out the following tasks: preparing organizations for disaster prevention and relief; training and exercises for disaster prevention and relief; monitoring disasters, predicting, issuing warnings, and improving their facilities; establishing, maintaining, and improving communication facilities necessary for gathering, informing, and commanding in case of disaster; storing and inspecting materials and equipment for disaster prevention; maintaining and inspecting facilities and equipment for disaster prevention and relief; strengthening, removing objects that obstruct disaster response measures; coordinating international support in case of disaster; other disaster preparedness issues (Law on Prevention and Mitigation of Disasters, 2008, Article 23).
In China, the following measures for protection and relief in disasters are defined: issuing and transmitting alerts, disaster preparedness, evacuation, rescue, evacuation advice, data collection in case of disaster, and investigation into the ineffectiveness of disaster warnings; designing warning zones, traffic control, maintaining order, and preventing crime; firefighting, flood prevention, and other emergency measures; temporary shelter, social assistance, and special protection measures for vulnerable groups; emergency assistance for children, teenagers, and students affected by the disaster; handling hazardous materials and equipment; prevention and treatment of infectious diseases, waste disposal, environmental disinfection, food hygiene inspection, and other hygiene issues; search and rescue, emergency medical assistance and transportation; assistance in the examination and disposal of dead bodies and victims’ remains; supply and distribution of civilian resources and drinking water; disaster prevention and rehabilitation of water conservancy and agricultural facilities; emergency repairs of public facilities such as railways, roads, bridges, public transportation, airports, ports, public gas pipelines, oil pipelines, power lines, telecommunications, tap water, agriculture, and fisheries; emergency assessment of hazardous facilities; storage and disposal of floating objects, submerged and other rescued objects; complete documentation of the disaster response process; other disaster response and prevention of spread issues (Law on Prevention and Mitigation of Disasters, 2008, Article 27).
In the process of disaster recovery, the following measures are provided for: investigation, statistical analysis, evaluation, and analysis of the catastrophic situation and the needs of people in the disaster area; formulation and implementation of guidelines and plans for post-disaster recovery and reconstruction; registration and deployment of volunteers; distribution and management of donated materials and funds, as well as relief distribution; care for victims, relocation of people in the disaster area, and maintenance of order in the disaster area; healthcare, epidemic prevention, and psychological counseling; sanitation and reconstruction of school halls and related public facilities; schooling and education for students affected by the disaster; approval or assistance in formulating emergency repair and restoration plans for historical sites and buildings; disaster measures such as investigating the catastrophic situation and emergency rescue; safety assessment and treatment of damaged facilities; restoration and reconstruction of residential and public buildings, urban renewal, and land ownership treatment; repair of water conservancy, water and land protection, environmental sanitation, telecommunications, electric power, tap water, oil, gas, and other facilities and adjustment of supply and demand for civilian resources; rehabilitation and reconstruction of railways, roads, bridges, public transportation, airports, ports, agriculture, and fisheries; environmental disinfection and waste treatment; employment service engagement and industrial revitalization for people affected by the disaster; and other issues related to post-disaster recovery and reconstruction.
3.3. Planning measures for disaster protection and rescue
Give me six hours to chop down a tree, and I will spend the first four sharpening the axe.
Abraham Lincoln
Planning in the field of disasters represents a precondition for successful and effective mitigation of future disaster consequences. In such a process, various dimensions of past disasters are examined with the aim of extracting all lessons learned and improving the system of protection and rescue to prevent such consequences from occurring again. The development of disaster protection and rescue plans itself implies a certain textual or graphic representation of specific decisions that will enhance the resilience of local communities or the effectiveness of intervention and rescue services.
Organization, preparation, and participation in the execution of measures and tasks for the protection and rescue of people and their property are impossible without a basic planning document in which all of this will be anticipated. The process of developing such plans involves collecting a large amount of information, as well as a challenging creative process within which measures and activities are planned. Additionally, plans are based on risk assessments, available capacities, and possibilities for protection and rescue in disasters, at all levels (Cvetković, 2019).
In the literature, the following recommendations exist regarding various aspects of planning activities for protection and rescue in disasters (Amundson, Lane, & Ferrara, 2008): a) do not overplan, as every preconceived plan will quickly be overtaken by the evolving chaos of the disaster; b) team training and cross-training should be intensively conducted during periods between disasters; c) leaders should know where to find information regarding socio-economic and health conditions of people in the affected area; d) leaders should have quick access to real-time updates regarding the local situation and how it impacts the affected population; e) leaders should know whom to find and whom to listen to, as it is imperative that the hardest-hit receive the needed assistance; f) response teams should learn how to utilize all available human resources at the local level and how to quickly establish efficient communication within and outside the organization; g) military medical units that can be deployed require tools for rapid assessment to be used in disaster scenarios.
The organization of planning measures for protection and rescue in disasters includes (Kopylov & Fedyanin, 2005): a) studying and analyzing the legislative and normative-legal basis concerning organizations and in relation to the implementation of measures in the field of population and territory protection from natural and man-made disasters; b) determining the subjects or forces, enterprises, institutions, and organizations responsible for planning and implementing measures for protection and rescue from disasters; c) analyzing potential sources of natural and man-made disasters, forming data on potentially hazardous areas and objects, determining the degree of their danger to the population and territory (scale of possible disaster zones, damages, number of affected persons); d) selecting and establishing measures for the basic directions of protection and rescue (environmental monitoring and potentially hazardous object monitoring, disaster forecasting, increasing the technical and operational safety of production processes); e) selecting and establishing measures for basic directions to reduce the harmful effects of disasters on the population, objects, and the environment (establishing prevention systems, providing individual and collective protection means, financial and material-technical resources); f) arranging places for temporary accommodation of evacuated population; g) rational distribution of enterprises and inhabited areas in a certain territory, their engineering protection; h) preparing facilities and life protection systems for operation in disaster conditions; i) ensuring management systems, forces, and resources of territorial and functional subsystems of the Emergency Situations Sector (National Measures for Prevention and Elimination of Emergency Situations); j) developing action plans for disaster prevention and elimination, including protection and rescue measures.
Plans represent documents based on which protection and rescue subjects organize, prepare, and participate in the execution of measures and tasks for the protection and rescue of endangered population, material and cultural goods, and the environment. A protection and rescue plan generally includes: introduction, early warning and preparedness; mobilization and activation; protection and rescue by types of hazards; civil protection measures and the use of forces and subjects for protection and rescue, as well as additional annexes depending on the planning level and the subject that creates the plan. It is crucial to familiarize oneself with all maps of hazards from natural and man-made disasters (Figure 2) (Guidelines on the Methodology of Risk Assessment and Protection and Rescue Plans Development (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 80/2019).
In our context, the following plans are of significance for protection and rescue: observation, early warning, notification, and alerting plan; preparedness plan for emergency response; mobilization (activation) plan of protection and rescue forces; hazard-specific protection and rescue plan (for earthquakes, wildfires, extreme snowfall, technological accidents, nuclear and radiological incidents, epidemics and epizootics, war-related hazards); civil protection measures and tasks plan; public information plan; disaster mitigation and response plan. The risk assessment methodology provides basic guidelines that must be followed to establish uniform criteria for risk assessments at all levels and to improve risk databases (Cvetković, 2019).
In the Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia for the period from 2021 to 2035 (2021), it is emphasized that to conduct a proper assessment of the vulnerability degree of space, i.e., constraints for its use, it is necessary to establish an information system of geospatial data for the function of a disaster-prone area cadastre at lower planning levels, which would provide relevant information for planning needs, especially the display of potential risk zones, probabilities of occurrence, scope of consequences, and based on that, priorities for space protection. Additionally, the same document determines the vulnerability of the territory of Serbia to natural hazards in areas with an expected seismic intensity of VIII on the MSK scale for a return period of 475 years, areas with excessive erosion, the most vulnerable areas to landslides (areas prone to landslides), potential flood areas, areas most vulnerable to hail and drought, areas with the highest risk of forest fires outbreaks, as well as areas with SEVESO facilities/complexes.
According to the Spatial Plan, it has been determined that the following general principles will be applied in the development of spatial and urban plans: prevention instead of reaction; coexistence with natural hazards instead of opposition; selection of optimal land uses and activities instead of constant defense, construction of structures, and technical measures; involvement of all community subjects in preventive actions; integration of spatial data through information systems; constant informing and education of the population; planning of multiple complementary uses that can have a protective role in potential disasters: development of recreational areas along watercourses, more public open spaces, development of alternative transportation routes, and similar.
Table 49. Overview of Planning Solutions and Measures of Special Importance for Disaster Risk Reduction and Emergency Management. Source (Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia, 2021-2035, p. 349).
| Danger | Measures |
|
Earthquake |
Macroseismic and microseismic zoning and mapping of vulnerability. Application of technical norms and standards in the design, construction, and reconstruction of structures. Supervision and control of structural vulnerability. |
|
Erosion and flash floods |
Identification of erosion-prone areas and development of plans for flash flood vulnerability. In areas with a high risk of landslides, obtaining the opinion of geological experts before issuing location conditions is mandatory. Implementation of biological and technical measures to protect watershed areas. Establishment of windbreak belts. |
|
Floods |
Mapping of water land and flood zones. On flood zone maps, identify high-risk flooding areas where additional measures for planning and construction will be prescribed. Prohibition of municipal waste dumping along watercourses. Maintenance of protective structures against high waters. Regular cleaning of riverbeds and canals. |
| Hail | Installing hail nets on agricultural properties. Ensuring crop insurance. |
|
Storm wind |
Planting windbreak forest belts. Erecting artificial windbreaks at critical locations. Planning the development of a street network that slows down or “breaks” the wind flow. |
| Dangers from snowstorms, drifts, ice, and cold waves | Installing snow guards at snow accumulation points. Establishing alternative traffic routes. Improving the electronic communication network. |
|
Drought |
Improving the quality of forest stands. Increasing forested areas. Establishing and maintaining irrigation systems, implementing appropriate agronomic practices, and adopting suitable soil cultivation methods. Remediation and cleaning of riverbeds and irrigation channels for agricultural land irrigation. |
|
Lack of drinking water |
Protection and development of local water supply sources and connection to regional systems. Rationalization of water consumption. Supplying industry with water from separate dedicated sources. Multiple reuse of wastewater. |
| Epidemics and pandemics | Increase in the fund for public service facilities. Protection of open public spaces. Construction of multifunctional facilities. |
|
Potential hazards of fire and explosion, open fire |
Construction of small reservoirs as water reservoirs, especially in hard-to-reach areas. Provision of access roads for heavy vehicles to reservoirs and water intakes for firefighting purposes. Implementation of measures for bio-technical protection of forests: planting mixed forest cultures, creating firebreaks, cleaning, and maintaining coniferous cultures. Development of accident protection plans for all lower-tier SEVESO installations/complexes and external major accident hazard prevention plans for all higher-tier SEVESO installations/complexes, including elaboration of potential accident scenarios. |
Figure 2. Thematic map of disaster vulnerability. Source (Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia from 2021 to 2035, p. 349).
The significance of planning in the process of managing measures for disaster protection and rescue is undoubtedly one of the most important steps and prerequisites for successful response and effective protection of people and property. Hence, plans are formulated to clearly delineate the tasks of all protection and rescue entities, aiming for their coordinated and mutually aligned actions.
According to the Methodology for the Development of Protection and Rescue Plans (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, number 80 dated November 8, 2019), it is envisaged that the Republic of Serbia Plan be prepared for the territory of the Republic and includes: a) early warning and preparedness, which elaborate on the organization and actions of entities in early warning, types and structure of data, as well as the organization of introducing and implementing preparedness of entities and protection and rescue forces; b) activation of the Republic and district disaster headquarters, operational staffs, and expert-operational teams formed by the Republic headquarters and entities of special significance for protection and rescue for the Republic and their capacities; c) mobilization of Republic operational forces (civil protection units competent services); d) protection and rescue by type of hazard, which elaborates on measures and activities in the implementation of protection and rescue from hazards identified by the Risk Assessment at the national level, determining protection and rescue entities and forces, and their human and material-technical resources; e) protection and rescue measures (evacuation, sheltering, first aid, and terrain sanitation), involving the engagement of entities of special significance for protection and rescue at the Republic level and the use of protection and rescue forces and entities at the national level and the engagement of international protection and rescue teams.
In addition to the republic level and the autonomous province level, it is envisaged that the Local Self-Government Unit Plan be prepared for the territory of the local self-government unit and includes: a) early warning and preparedness; b) mobilization and activation; c) protection and rescue by type of hazard; d) external major accident protection plan (if there is a higher-tier SEVESO complex in the territory of the local self-government unit); e) protection and rescue measures (warning, evacuation, sheltering, removal, first aid, and terrain sanitation) and the use of protection and rescue forces and entities.
It is also prescribed that at the beginning of the Plan: a) the legal framework for the preparation of the Plan; b) a brief summary, i.e., conclusions from the risk assessment about the hazards faced by vulnerable areas, objects, population. The introduction lists the documents adopted by the local self-government unit for the organization of protection and rescue in its territory (Decision on Civil Protection Functioning, act on designating entities of special significance for protection and rescue, act on appointment and designation of civil protection commissioners and deputy commissioners, act on the formation and establishment of civil protection units) – or the number of designated entities, commissioners, and units.
The legislator has foreseen that the plan in the introductory part contains: a) a scheme of the organization of the disaster risk reduction and management system of the local self-government unit; b) an overview of all protection and rescue entities and forces in the local self-government unit; and c) an overview of all capacities of protection and rescue entities and forces in the territory of the local self-government unit, while the part on the elaboration by hazards and measures of civil protection provides general templates for each specific hazard and protection and rescue measure (forces and capacities for a specific hazard/measure), an overview of measures and activities of participants in protection and rescue; expert operational team for a specific hazard/measure, reminder for the work of the person in charge of a specific hazard/measure).
Protection and rescue by type of hazard are only developed for those hazards identified by the Disaster Risk Assessment as hazards that can endanger people and material goods: floods, earthquakes and landslides, open fires, drinking water shortages, extreme weather phenomena (hailstorms, stormy winds, drought, heavy rainfall, ice, snowstorms, heatwaves), epidemics and pandemics, plant diseases and animal diseases, and technical-technological accidents, considering the approach that the plan is developed based on events with the most severe possible consequences. In the introductory part of protection and rescue by type of hazard, the risk and consequences for the territory are textually stated concerning the recognized hazards from the risk assessment. This part of the plan contains mandatory appendices for all recognized hazards, made according to general templates, and other appendices depending on the type of hazard, including: a) schematic representation of entities engaged in protection and rescue; b) an overview of protection and rescue entities and forces, only for a specific hazard; c) an overview of the capacities of protection and rescue entities and forces, only for a specific hazard; d) summary of the members of expert-operational teams, for a specific hazard; e) a reminder for the work of disaster headquarters members and leaders of expert-operational teams, responsible persons; f) an overview of measures and activities of participants in protection and rescue (the most important part of the plan for each planned hazard. It is necessary to elaborate on all measures ordered by the competent headquarters or other body/service/agency, then all operational procedures by which the ordered measures are implemented, as well as the bearers of all operational procedures. Other parts of the plan are appendices to help implement the plan).
Recovery from flood-induced disasters consists of actions that restore the affected area to a frequently improved normal state (Simonović, 2011, p. 31). Organizations and communities should plan, manage, and undertake activities that enable a faster return to normalcy for both the community and those involved in providing responses. Lessons from the past emphasize the need for the community to be fully involved in its own recovery (Coppola, 2006, p. 242). Promoting and supporting self-help activities are of great importance.
Disaster recovery involves a set (complex) of measures for normalizing conditions that arose during the disaster and restoring the situation to its initial state. It pertains to objects (buildings, structures, bridges, tunnels, roads), communications (communication, power and gas supply systems, water and heating), supply systems and material provision of rescue formations for search and rescue services, restoring their combat capabilities; recovery of natural resources, territory recovery, recovery of natural disaster management, recovery of life support systems, and other aspects reflecting the degree of restoring objects, situations, phenomena, and conditions to the position before the disaster occurred. For some objects, this cannot be applied due to the high cost of recovery, extensive destruction, and other reasons. Road recovery involves a set of organizational-technical and construction measures to restore the destroyed roads and infrastructure suitable for the re-establishment of movement of emergency rescue services, material resources delivery, and population evacuation, material, and cultural values (Mileti, 1999, p. 13).
Recovery or restoration of natural resources involves a set (complex) of measures aimed at regaining natural resources in approximately the same quantity. This is achieved through artificial measures after complete or partial depletion (e.g., plant revitalization, animal acclimatization, forest recovery). The goal of recovery measures is to return the system and activities in the affected area to a normal state in the shortest possible time. Recovery measures include physical sanitation of the affected area, establishing a functional service provision state, including municipal services and basic infrastructure (Flint & Brennan, 2006).
An extremely important task in this phase is terrain sanitation. It involves taking sanitary-hygienic and sanitary-technical measures in the field, in settlements, and objects, to prevent the spread of infectious diseases, epidemics, and other harmful consequences to the population, material, and cultural assets (Quarantelli, 2005, p. 90). Disaster recovery depends on the magnitude of the damage caused by the disaster and the available financial resources. Recovery relates to short-term activities, while reconstruction relates to long-term activities and responsibilities. Short-term activities include temporary shelters, temporary housing construction, safe rubble disposal, decontamination of contaminated water, etc. Long-term activities include permanent solutions to housing and sanitation issues, as well as achieving a satisfactory level of comfort (Smith & Petley, 2009, p. 21).
Questions for discussion
¤ Explain the conceptual definition and management system of disaster protection and rescue measures.
¤ What are the basic characteristics of the strategic management approach to disaster protection and rescue measures?
¤ Explain the basic characteristics of the operational management approach to disaster protection and rescue measures.
¤ What are the responsibilities of the disaster intervention manager?
¤ Explain the basic characteristics of safety assessment procedures in disasters.
¤ Describe the management and control methods of disaster-affected areas.
¤ Explain the methods of managing information and resources during disasters.
¤ How is reporting conducted after disasters and what is its significance?
¤ List and explain the importance of logistical support in managing disaster protection and rescue measures.
¤ List and explain the relevant departments for supporting the management of disaster protection and rescue measures.
¤ Explain the differences in the disaster protection and rescue management systems in Russia, the USA, Germany, China, and Serbia.
¤ How are disaster protection and rescue measures planned?
Recommendations for further reading
¨ Voronoй, S., Darmenko, A., Korяžin, S., Mažuhovskiй, Z., Nikonova, N., Paramonov, V.,.Čičerina, V. (1995). Spravočnik spasatelя. Kniga 2. Spasatelьnыe rabotы pri likvidacii posledstviй zemletrяseniй, vzrыvov, burь, smerčeй i taйfunov. M.: VNII GOČS.
¨ Cvetković, V. (2012). Upravlјanje u vanrednim situacijama izazvanim zloupotrebom oružja za masovno uništavanje. Kriminalističko-policijska akademija, Beograd.
¨ Cvetković, V., & Petrović, D. (2015). Integrisano upravlјanje katastrofama. Suprotstavlјanje savremenom organizovanom kriminalu i terorizmu (pp. 291-325). Beograd: Kriminalističko – policijska akademija.
¨ Tobin, G. A., & Montz, B. E. (2004). Natural hazards and technology: vulnerability, risk, and community response in hazardous environments. Geography and technology (pp. 547-570). Springer, Dordrecht.
¨ Toth, I., Čemerin, D., & Vitas, P. (2011). Osnove zaštite i spašavanja od katastrofa. Velika Gorica: Veleučilište Velika Gorica.
¨ Riley, J., & Meadows, J. (1997). The role of information in disaster planning: a case study approach. Disaster Prevention and Management, 6(5), 349-355.
¨ Hawley, C., Noll, G. G., & Hildebrand, M. S. (2002). Special Operations, for Terrorism and Hazmat Crimes. Chester, MD: Red Hat Publishing.
¨ Asghar, S., Alahakoon, D., & Churilov, L. (2006). A comprehensive conceptual model for disaster management. Journal of Humanitarian Assistance, 1360(0222), 1-15.
¨ Meissner, A., Luckenbach, T., Risse, T., Kirste, T., & Kirchner, H. (2002). Design challenges for an integrated disaster management communication and information system. Paper presented at the The First IEEE Workshop on Disaster Recovery Networks (DIREN 2002).
¨ Pine, J. (2008). Natural hazards analysis: reducing the impact of disasters: CRC Press.
¨
IV ROLE AND TASKS OF EMERGENCY RESCUE SERVICES IN DISASTERS
Chapter Summary
In the fourth chapter of the textbook, various roles and tasks of emergency-rescue services (police, fire and rescue units, emergency medical services, military, civil protection units) in the process of preventing or mitigating disasters are comprehensively, logically, and systematically examined. Special attention is given to considering all direct and indirect protective and rescue measures taken to protect the personnel of emergency-rescue services during their activities within their jurisdiction. Additionally, the equipment that members of these services can use to prevent or mitigate the consequences of natural or technological hazards is described in detail. Without neglecting the importance of specific training, various activities and training methods for members of these services are outlined. Taking into account the importance of communication functioning during disasters, the author describes the functioning of various communication networks during disasters. Finally, an overview of various procedures for implementing decontamination and terrain sanitation operations is provided. Activities for emergency and mass decontamination are discussed in the context of different disasters.
Keywords: emergency-rescue services; organization and tasks; police; fire and rescue units; emergency medical services; military; rescue teams and non-governmental organizations; disaster risk reduction system entities; civil protection units; personnel protection; equipment; training; communication in disasters; decontamination and cleanup operations; emergency decontamination; mass decontamination.
Goals of learning
v Understanding the organization of work of emergency rescue services in disasters;
v Familiarizing with the tasks of emergency rescue services in disasters;
v Comprehensive overview of the responsibilities of the police in disasters;
v Acquiring knowledge about the responsibilities of firefighting and rescue units in disasters;
v Understanding the responsibilities of the military in disasters;
v Acquiring knowledge about the responsibilities of emergency medical services in disasters;
v Understanding the responsibilities of rescue teams, civil defense units, and other subjects of the disaster risk reduction system;
v Acquiring knowledge about personnel protection and equipment of emergency rescue services in disasters;
v Understanding communication methods in disasters;
v Familiarizing with basic decontamination and site cleanup procedures in disasters.
4.1. Organization and tasks of emergency rescue services
When it is obvious that the goals cannot be achieved, do not adjust the goals, adjust the action steps.
– Confucius
Given the characteristics and harmful effects of various disasters, it is necessary to undertake a greater number of operational, tactical, and technical measures for protection and rescue in the shortest possible time, regardless of day or night. Before undertaking any protection and rescue measures, it is necessary to conduct general and specific reconnaissance of the situation. General reconnaissance involves obtaining and sharing general information about the situation. On the other hand, specific reconnaissance involves engaging specialized experts in various fields of work.
Regardless of the origin of the disaster, emergency rescue services share common goals to be achieved in the process of taking protection and rescue measures: saving and protecting human lives; alleviating suffering; controlling the disaster by limiting its escalation; warning the public and enterprises, advising, and providing information; protecting the health and safety of emergency rescue service personnel; preserving the environment; protecting material goods (property) as much as possible; maintaining or restoring critical activities; maintaining regular services at an appropriate level; promoting and facilitating self-help in the local community; facilitating investigations and inquiries; facilitating community recovery (humanitarian aid); assessing the resources and means invested in response and recovery; identifying and initiating initiatives to implement lessons learned (Cvetković, 2013a).
Therefore, in every disaster, different forces and subjects of protection and rescue will be engaged. Subjects include organs of state administration, organs of autonomous provinces and units of local self-government, public services, business entities, and other legal entities and entrepreneurs, civil society organizations, educational institutions, and scientific research organizations, public agencies, and others who, in accordance with the law, other general acts, plans, programs, and other documents, participate in determining measures and activities of importance for risk reduction and disaster management. On the other hand, the forces of the protection and rescue system include emergency situation headquarters, civil protection units, firefighting and rescue units, Service 112, Police, Serbian Armed Forces, Red Cross of Serbia, Mountain Rescue Service, Firefighters’ Association of Serbia, Radio Amateurs Association of Serbia, commissioners, or deputy commissioners for civil protection, citizens, citizen associations, and organizations whose activities are of special interest for the development and functioning of the system.
Subjects of the disaster risk reduction system are obliged to prepare a Risk Register, and the responsibility for its preparation is assigned concerning the criterion of the type of natural or technical-technological hazard (Regulation on the obligations of subjects of the disaster risk reduction and management system in the procedure of preparing the Disaster Risk Register, the manner of preparing the Disaster Risk Register and entering data, Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 122, dated October 9, 2020, Article 2): a) for earthquakes – the organ of state administration competent for seismology affairs; b) for landslides, landslides, and erosion – the organ of state administration competent for mining affairs and the organ of state administration competent for geological affairs; c) for floods – the organ of state administration competent for water management affairs; d) for extreme weather phenomena (extreme precipitation, hail, stormy wind, snowstorms and snowdrifts, extreme temperatures, drought) – the organ of state administration competent for hydrometeorological affairs; e) for drinking water shortage – the Environmental Protection Agency, the organ of state administration competent for water management affairs, the organ of state administration competent for health affairs, the Institute of Public Health of Serbia “Dr. Milan Jovanović Batut”; f) for epidemics and pandemics – the organ of state administration competent for health affairs, the Institute of Public Health of Serbia “Dr. Milan Jovanović Batut”; g) for plant diseases – the organ of state administration competent for plant protection affairs; h) for animal diseases – the organ of state administration competent for veterinary affairs; i) for fires and explosions, open fires – the organ of state administration competent for forestry affairs, the organ of state administration competent for disaster affairs; j) for technical-technological accidents – the organ of state administration competent for environmental protection affairs, the organ of state administration competent for construction affairs, the organ of state administration competent for traffic affairs, the organ of state administration competent for mining affairs, the organ of state administration competent for energy affairs, and the organ of state administration competent for disaster affairs; k) for nuclear, radiological accidents – the Directorate for Radiation and Nuclear Safety and Security of Serbia.
4.1.1. Role and tasks of the police in disasters
Police will undertake a full range of emergency measures necessary to eliminate immediate danger to people and property in all phases of the disaster. Moreover, they will take certain measures that cannot be taken by competent authorities. Uniformed and non-uniformed employees who apply police powers will be involved in mitigating the consequences of disasters, and if the situation requires, employees in specific or designated positions whose duties are directly related to police work, such as fire protection, registrations, and permit issuance (Cvetković, 2014). The significance and role of the police in disasters have received considerable attention from numerous researchers and organizations (Caplow, Bahr, & Chadwick, 1984; Drabek & Haas, 1969; Walsh, 1973). An analysis of numerous works reveals that authors’ attention is grouped into several directions: a) specificity of police procedures in natural and technological disasters; b) organization and responsibilities of various police teams; c) conducting preparatory activities for performing official police duties in challenging work conditions; d) communication of police officers before, during, and after disasters; e) equipment and tools of police officers; f) cooperation with other emergency services, and so on.
In Germany, police units in disasters have the following tasks: warning the population of dangers; protecting lives, health, and property; blocking endangered areas; clearing roads for emergency service vehicles participating in protection and rescue actions; cooperation during the rescue of endangered individuals and bringing them to safety; traffic police measures; property protection; prevention of theft; determining causes of death; identifying unknown helpless individuals and deceased persons; accommodating the injured; reporting on the accommodation of the injured; investigating the course and causes of damage, particularly for establishing possible criminal offenses; identifying suspects and witnesses (Mladjan & Cvetković, 2012).
Additionally, it is important to note that research on the role of police in disasters is not as extensive (Drabek & Haas, 1969; Janković & Cvetković, 2020). The majority of research focuses on police operations during disasters (Cvetković, 2014). It is significant to highlight that authors examine the role of police in individual disasters caused by hurricanes (Adams & Anderson, 2019; Adams & Stewart, 2015; Deflem & Sutphin, 2009a; Hobbs, 1971; McCanlies, Gu, Andrew, & Violanti, 2018; Rojek & Smith, 2007), floods (Milojković et al., 2015), and earthquakes (Adams & Anderson, 2019).
Apart from natural disasters, a certain number of studies consider the role of police in disasters caused by terrorist attacks (Mendonça et al., 2014; Mladjan & Cvetković, 2012; Sommera, Njåb, & Lussandc, 2017; Sukabdi, 2016), while several works examine the role of police in disasters caused by natural hazards and terrorist acts (Brinser & King, 2016; Varano & Schafer, 2012). Regardless of whether they are natural disasters (earthquakes, droughts, floods, storms, volcanic eruptions, landslides) or terrorist acts (chemical, biological, nuclear, radiological terrorism), it has been established that police officers experience high levels of stress during work (Adams & Anderson, 2019; Bonkiewicz & Ruback, 2012; Deflem & Sutphin, 2009a; McCanlies et al., 2018; Sommera et al., 2017; Sukabdi, 2016; Varano & Schafer, 2012). The level of stress is evident from the fact that between 9% to 11% of police officers left their jobs during disasters for various reasons (Adams & Stewart, 2015; Janković & Cvetković, 2020).
One of the main police tasks during disasters is evacuating citizens from endangered areas (Bonkiewicz & Ruback, 2012). In contrast to evacuation, during the COVID-19 pandemic, government authorities demanded that citizens stay in their homes, self-isolate, and suspend all social activities to prevent further virus transmission. Police units are mentioned as one of the subjects responsible for implementing these measures. No research has been conducted on the police’s manner of operation, its role, method of performing tasks, citizens’ perception of it in disasters caused by epidemics (Janković & Cvetković, 2020).
According to the Law on Disaster Risk Reduction (Article 25), it is envisaged that a special organizational unit shall be formed within the Ministry for performing tasks in the field of disaster risk reduction and management of protection and rescue measures in disasters. Additionally, it is prescribed that the Ministry in the field of disaster risk reduction and disaster management shall: 1) develop and propose the Strategy; 2) develop and propose the Action Plan for implementing the Strategy; 3) coordinate the preparation of the Disaster Risk Assessment of the Republic of Serbia and the Protection and Rescue Plan of the Republic of Serbia; 4) develop and propose the National Disaster Risk Reduction Plan; 5) establish and maintain the Disaster Risk Register in the Republic of Serbia; 6) approve risk assessments, protection and rescue plans, and accident protection plans; 7) organize, plan, and conduct training for the forces and subjects of the disaster risk reduction and disaster management system; 8) in cooperation with the ministries responsible for defense and telecommunications, take measures to organize and secure telecommunications and information systems for the needs of disaster management and coordination, data and information transmission, and their protection; 9) consolidate and manage a unified database of human and material-technical resources of subjects and forces of the disaster risk reduction and disaster management system; 10) establish, train, equip, mobilize, and engage specialized units of civil protection for the territory of the Republic of Serbia; 11) initiate scientific research in this area; 12) directly participate in programs, projects, and other activities for improving the systems in the field of risk reduction and disaster management; 13) order partial mobilization of civil protection units at the republic level; 14) cooperate directly, exchange information and data with services of the same activity of other countries and international organizations; 15) establish international cooperation in this area; 16) coordinate the reception and provision of international assistance; 17) plan and implement sustainable financing of material-technical equipment, procurement, donations, and projects to ensure the functioning and improvement of the disaster risk reduction and disaster management system; 18) ensure the organization and functioning of civil protection measures; 19) implement measures for the protection and rescue of persons and property threatened by disasters; 20) collect and process data and information on disasters, exchange information and data with competent services of other countries or international organizations on hazards, cross-border incidents, disasters, and other accidents; 21) organize and conduct early warning, informing, and alerting in case of disaster; 22) organize and manage a unified public alert system in the Republic of Serbia; 23) approve project documentation for the public alert system; 24) perform planning, organization, training, use, and control tasks of the forces of the disaster risk reduction and disaster management system; 25) organize and conduct reconnaissance, marking, finding, excavation, identification, removal, transportation, storage, and destruction of explosive remnants of war; 26) ensure the participation of the police and other organizational units in the implementation of measures and activities envisaged by this law; 27) prepare and implement security protection of areas, infrastructure, and facilities of importance for taking measures and performing tasks of protection and rescue; 28) perform other tasks determined by law.
In the research conducted by Janković and Cvetković (2020), a wealth of data was obtained regarding the role of the police in disasters. According to them, the first measure taken by the state authorities of the Republic of Serbia to combat the coronavirus pandemic was the complete closure of border crossings towards neighboring countries to prevent the spread of the virus (Decision on the closure of all border crossings for entry into the Republic of Serbia, 2020), as done by most European countries (Turanjanin & Radulović, 2020). They also emphasize that Serbian citizens stranded abroad were allowed entry into the country.
At the beginning of the state of emergency, citizens coming from countries heavily affected by the coronavirus pandemic (China, Italy, Switzerland) were subjected to a measure of self-isolation for 28 days based on the decision of a sanitary inspector delivered at the border crossing (Algorithm/Standard Operating Procedure No. 1, 2020; Janković & Cvetković, 2020). In the early days of the pandemic, the greatest pressure was on border police officers whose task was to determine the countries from which citizens were coming because travel documents did not always clearly indicate this. Some travel documents did not have stamps from certain borders, or those stamps were overlaid one on top of another and were not clearly visible. A number of citizens provided false information to avoid self-isolation measures (Janković & Cvetković, 2020). Due to the large influx of Serbian citizens at border crossings, for the first month, there was no time for standard checks. Profiling of passengers was conducted individually by each border police officer based on their previous experience, conversations held, and vehicle and luggage checks (Janković & Cvetković, 2020).
Citizens who were handed a decision on self-isolation or an epidemiologist’s decision due to suspicion of COVID-19 illness or suspicion of contact with an infected person had to stay in their homes for 14 or 28 days (Janković & Cvetković, 2020). The police used multiple methods to verify whether citizens were in their homes at the addresses they provided when they were handed the self-isolation decision. Police officers called citizens several times a day via landline phones they provided upon entry into the country or those for whom self-isolation was determined by epidemiologists (Janković & Cvetković, 2020). This was a massive task because at certain times, there were between 70,000 to 100,000 citizens in self-isolation.
Due to the shortage of police personnel to conduct telephone checks, a reorganization of tasks was implemented, with employees from administrative positions starting to perform these checks. In cases where the individuals being checked did not answer the phone calls, police patrols would visit their residential addresses to verify their presence (Janković & Cvetković, 2020). Both checks were conducted intermittently to prevent the individuals from knowing the exact timing of the control. A third method of control, especially for Serbian citizens returning from abroad, involved tracking their movements based on foreign mobile phone numbers. If the individuals being checked were not found, a search was initiated, and upon their discovery, criminal charges were filed against them for the offense of “Failure to comply with health regulations during an epidemic” (Janković & Cvetković, 2020).
Another significant measure introduced by state authorities was the restriction and prohibition of movement (curfew) (Order on Restriction and Prohibition of Movement of Persons in the Territory of the Republic of Serbia, 2020), with police officers responsible for enforcing it. The first type of movement restriction applied to elderly citizens over 65 years old, whose movement was permanently restricted. The second restriction applied to all citizens, regardless of age, every day from 17:00 to 05:00 the next morning. According to data from the Ministry of the Interior of the Republic of Serbia (Curfew is most respected in Prijepolje, least in Novi Pazar, 2020), 4% to 5% of Serbian citizens violated the movement ban during curfew hours, with approximately 25 out of every 100,000 citizens not adhering to the restriction, leading to appropriate misdemeanor charges being filed against them (Janković & Cvetković, 2020).
In one interesting study focusing on the behavior, attitudes, and perceptions of police officers regarding their activities during the aftermath of hurricanes in Louisiana and Mississippi in 2005, the research focused on (Rojek & Smith, 2007): possession of planning documentation and preparatory activities for implementing measures during hurricanes; efforts, activities, and tasks of police officers during the hurricanes. Additionally, six months later, the authors examined the role of the police in the community recovery phase after the hurricanes.
The results of the study showed that (Rojek & Smith, 2007; Cvetković, 2016): police officers were not adequately prepared for the catastrophe; most police departments did not have a written hurricane plan; police officers were not trained and prepared for the catastrophe and did not know what to do when the storm occurred; when communication lines were cut, police officers were left on their own, and some of them acted heroically; there were no plans for evacuating entire areas; initially, a unified command structure was established, which later fell apart; police officers needed assistance due to the high volume of calls they received; many police officers were in hurricane-affected areas and were not available for duty; police communications were disrupted; many police officers lacked food, water, fuel, and additional equipment such as batteries, gloves, radios, etc.; after the hurricanes, many police officers worked 12-18 hour shifts, seven days a week, for weeks.
In a very interesting study, “Chaos Theory and Organizational Crisis: Theoretical Analysis of Challenges Faced by the New York Police Department” (Adams & Stewart, 2015), the authors examined the impact of Hurricane Katrina on the functioning of the New York Police Department during and immediately after the disaster using chaos theory as a model for analysis. The results showed that before the disaster, the New York Police Department had a developed plan for police action during hurricanes. Police officials had timely information about its trajectory and instructed police officers to evacuate their families from affected areas within 48 hours and return to their duties. Police vehicles were relocated to underground garages atop hills to prevent damage from potential floods and to be ready for response (Adams & Stewart, 2015; Cvetković, 2016).
To prevent criminal activities and violations, police officers were ordered to occupy key locations in the city until the hurricane reached a critical speed of 70 to 75 km/h. Before the hurricane hit, numerous meetings were held where police leaders gave clear instructions for execution in accordance with the prepared plan. Interestingly, each police officer brought clothing, food reserves, and water for three days of uninterrupted work. Over time, warnings became increasingly serious as the hurricane’s strength increased from moment to moment. All shelters were opened, and evacuation began. The flood, which occurred as a secondary disaster, destroyed a large number of vehicles and communication equipment. It became clear that the critical infrastructure of the police was inadequately protected. All police stations in the vicinity suffered significant damage, and personnel had to be relocated to other locations (Adams & Stewart, 2015; Cvetković, 2016).
In media and official reports, information circulated about an increase in thefts and violence in the city. Basic necessities weren’t stolen; rather, various electronics were targeted. Since the circumstances were completely unexpected, in relocated facilities, police officials devised new plans. The lack of communication destroyed the chain of command; orders from the top couldn’t reach anymore. Reports also circulated about 12 police officers who behaved poorly in the given situation (Cvetković, 2014b). Characteristically, during this time, the President of the United States enacted a legal act delegating a significant number of police functions to the military, which provided immense assistance in their duties. Stress was prevalent among police officers; several committed suicide or left their jobs (Adams & Stewart, 2015; Cvetković, 2016).
Hence, depending on the type of disaster (natural or technological), the police will have different tasks (Cvetković, 2014b; Vargo, Brooks, & Kennedy, 1969; Cvetković, 2016). In sudden impact and large-scale disasters, as well as in local sudden impact disasters, the police will undertake search and rescue operations, traffic control, property protection measures; in progressive large-scale disasters, the police will often issue warnings, conduct emergency evacuations, actively regulate traffic, take active and passive property protection measures, and initiate search and rescue operations. Unlike the latter type, in progressive local disasters, the police will primarily conduct traffic control and crowd management, search and rescue operations, and to some extent, property protection.
Nevertheless, regardless of the type of disaster, there are certain tasks that police officers typically undertake. However, each disaster will present specific challenges to which police officers must adapt (Cvetković, 2016). Tasks can be everyday and routine, but also largely unusual and extraordinary. Examples of unusual tasks would include: securing food and water, conducting patrol and policing activities in altered conditions (with or without protective gear) such as floods, earthquakes, landslides, extreme temperatures, identity verification, apprehension, and transportation of individuals using protective gear and auxiliary equipment and appropriate transportation means (Cvetković, 2014b).
In some situations, as mentioned, some phases of police response may be absent (e.g., in earthquakes). In such cases, citizens cannot be timely alerted, and evacuation often fails. Eventually, in such disasters, evacuation might occur if secondary disasters are expected, such as flooding caused by dam breaches due to the earthquake’s intensity.
Considering the demands placed on police organizations in disaster situations, the police organization will undergo minor structural and organizational changes (Vargo et al., 1969). That is, the police organization has a bureaucratic structure with clearly defined lines of responsibility, communication systems, and decision-making systems. In such situations, the police organization must adapt to new circumstances. Supervisory staff must mobilize the entire workforce, regardless of regular working hours. Work schedules could change and adapt to the characteristics of disasters. Therefore, we say that the police organization is very efficient in disaster situations because it can adapt to various professions. Regardless of how prepared the police are for such situations, tactical and technical-operational measures undertaken in such situations will encounter serious problems due to the evolving environment in which they operate (Cvetković, 2016). The police will have to work in a completely altered environment. Particularly important characteristics related to police work in disasters include: conditions of great uncertainty, conditions of great urgency, and loss of autonomy during disasters. All these conditions would greatly affect the administrative structure of police organizations and communication channels. Determining the impact of disasters on decision-making is also a very important issue. This impact is most evident when considering different phases, such as the warning phase, the mass involvement phase, the reorganization phase, and the cleanup phase (Cvetković, 2016).
The decision-making process during the warning phase is influenced by the amount of time available for issuing warnings and evacuating people. If there is enough time to establish appropriate protective measures and procedures, there shouldn’t be difficulties. At this moment, the decision-making process will be influenced by high tension and aroused emotions. However, practice has shown that the decision-making process at this moment is highly structured, but largely depends on the availability of plans. The main measures that will be implemented relate to ways of warning the population, evacuation, and protecting the property of people leaving their homes. In theory, this could seem quite simple, but in practice, it’s a significant problem. Police officers will have to make a large number of decisions themselves in a short period (Cvetković, 2016).
In the mass engagement phase of the police, which begins when the consequences of the disaster are already present, it is necessary to make a huge number of different and sometimes diametrically opposed decisions regarding the execution of various tasks within one’s own and others’ jurisdictions. Conflicts between different organizations often arise. For example, conflicts between the police and local civil protection often occur when priority is given to civil protection in response. In this phase, a special problem will be the work of police officers in their own responsibility. The police will perform their functions, but without verification or control by superiors. It often happens that senior officers issue a large number of unusual orders (Cvetković, 2016).
In literature, there are numerous examples of hasty and insufficiently considered actions. For instance, in a city where police officers lacked experience with disasters, most of them went to a shopping center hit by a tornado. This resulted in a lack of control and traffic regulation, creating problems for transporting people to the hospital. Similarly, personnel and equipment were dispatched to the zone where the first damage was reported (Carr, 1932). Immediately after the disaster, within a range of two to five hours, with the possibility of lasting over twenty-four hours, the reorganization phase begins. Duties are formally assigned, shifts often undergo reorganization, and police officers perform tasks that are not within their jurisdiction.
After this period, police officers return to their usual duties in patrol and surveillance areas. Decision-making becomes much more rational, with most activities primarily under control. The police often deploy a large number of people to protect property by forming cordons and other formations. However, it is little known that theft is a secondary problem in such situations. What seems like a rational decision to engage a large number of people and resources for security tasks turns into a decision based on a false concept of catastrophe. Such a decision can even hinder the start of the fourth cleaning phase (Cvetković, 2016). Following this phase, the recovery phase usually begins twenty-four hours after the disaster and can last a long time. Before the start of this phase, most police officers are returned to their regular duties and schedules. Police involvement in this phase is minimal and often consists of traffic supervision. Of course, they continue to carry out routine security tasks with a special focus on the changed environment.
The primary task of the police will be to coordinate the work of all intervention and rescue services. Naturally, all of this will be realized with the assistance of appropriate headquarters responsible for disaster management at the local, regional, or national level. Meanwhile, other organizations are mobilized and begin to intensively arrive at the scene. Over time, the role of the police diminishes, and as specific phases of the disaster approach, they slowly return to their usual police duties. From the first to the third phase, the police have a significant role, which involves executing unusual police tasks or routine tasks under unusual circumstances. The recovery phase is characterized by the main role of secondary services, which usually did not have a higher priority in previous phases (Cvetković, 2016). During this phase, the police are forced to contact many more organizations than usual, although the number of these contacts is small compared to the experiences of other relevant organizations dealing with disasters. Some of these contacts span all phases of the disaster, while others are most relevant only during certain phases.
The facilitated adaptation of the police relates to the following facts (Cvetković, 2014b, 2016): the police encounter extraordinary events daily, so they are trained to adapt to a higher degree of task complexity; the police usually have excess trained personnel that can be engaged; organizational predispositions encourage a quick and efficient response to all types of disasters; they possess extensive material resources in the form of transportation and communication means; daily community contacts have made police officers more aware of all dangers; it is assumed that they have taken a more serious approach to plan development.
Table 1. Overview of police activities in various phases of disaster response. Source (Bonkiewicz & Ruback, 2010).
| Disaster Phase | Pre-Disaster Phase (Alarm Phase) | Acute Phase (During the Disaster) | Recovery Phase |
| Citizen Behavior | Citizens are likely to:
– Seek information about disaster access. – Watch TV or listen to the radio regarding the disaster. – Consult on social media platforms. – Assess the risk of the disaster. – Evaluate available resources. – Decide on evacuation. – Evacuate or not. |
Citizens are likely to:
– Seek information about the duration of the disaster. – Watch TV or listen to the radio regarding the disaster. – Fear theft and property destruction. – Evacuate at the last minute. |
Citizens are likely to:
– Seek information about the damage caused by the disaster. – Watch TV or listen to the radio regarding the disaster. – Consult social media. – Return after evacuation. – Return to their homes. – Fear of theft and other forms of criminality increases. – Demand various types of assistance. |
| Priorities of Citizens | • Information about the disaster;
· • Information about warnings and protective measures; • Information about safe and quick evacuation/transport. |
· Protection of property;
• Search and rescue measures; |
• Information about the consequences of the disaster;
• Information about safe and quick return to the settlement; • Information about safe and quick return to own households; • Information about assistance to affected citizens; • Protection of property; • Return to normalcy; |
| Efficient Police Work Style | Legalistic | Guard | Service |
| Emphasis: hierarchy/centralized command, job distribution;
Advantages: cohesiveness, well-established command structure, similarity to disaster protection and rescue management systems, less discretion for officials. |
Emphasis: decentralization of command, ordered maintenance.
Advantages: greater discretion for officials, greater flexibility during the onset of a disaster. |
Emphasis: service for citizens, informal sanctions, community policing.
Advantages: reduce citizens’ fears, facilitate return to normalcy, restore community bonds. |
In accordance with the table presented above, activities in disasters are divided into three phases: pre-disaster (alarms), during the disaster (acute phase), and post-disaster (recovery phase). In each of these phases, citizens have different priorities and exhibit different behaviors. The police response to disasters depends on the priorities and behavioral changes of people in each of these phases. Moreover, the phase itself determines the style of police work: legalistic, sentinel, and service-oriented (Wilson, 1978). Not every disaster will always be accompanied by all three phases. The duration of each of these phases depends on numerous factors: intensity, slow or rapid onset of the disaster, response and recovery capacities, etc. For instance, the hurricane warning phase may last several days unlike the example given of an earthquake. Hence, all phases with clear priorities and expected citizen behaviors are summarized in Table 1. Furthermore, an appropriate style to be applied for each phase of the disaster is indicated (Cvetković, 2016).
During the pre-disaster phase (warning phase), citizens will face threats and seek information about the impending natural disaster and potential threats to life and property. They will intensively listen to warnings provided through all possible means of public information. Social networks often play a significant role in spreading various information. In this phase, the most recommended style of police work is legalistic. Such a style emphasizes hierarchy and centralized command, with clear task distribution. This approach allows police organizations to respond to the disaster in a unified manner instead of delegating responsibilities to lower police organizational units. The advantages of such a style include cohesion, a well-established command structure, similarity to the disaster management system, and less discretion of officers (Bonkiewicz & Ruback, 2012; Bonkiewicz, Ruback, & Practice, 2010).
During the phase that occurs during the disaster (acute phase), primary disasters (e.g., earthquakes) may escalate into secondary disasters (landslides, fires, floods, landslides, etc.). Citizens will continue to demand information about the current disaster issues (causes of such conditions, direct and indirect dangers, protective measures, evacuation necessities, etc.). When the immediate danger passes, citizens will automatically change their priorities and behaviors in line with the newly emerged circumstances. They will demand that police officers initiate search and rescue operations for injured people, provide all possible medical assistance, and protect their property, which is often left behind due to emergency evacuations. In this phase, the most recommended style of police work is sentinel. Such a style emphasizes command decentralization (waiting for all decisions from the strategic level is impossible in a short time, which could hinder the efficiency of police actions). The advantages include greater officer discretion and flexibility during the onset of the disaster (Cvetković, 2016).
Finally, in the phase after the disaster, citizens will return to their local communities and homes. Therefore, to significantly enhance the efficiency of police work, a community policing style is recommended. Disaster victims will demand food, water, first aid supplies, temporary accommodation, etc. Additionally, the return of citizens to evacuated areas will entail an increase in the crime rate. Police officers in the field will have to identify all concerns and problems of citizens, provide answers to questions about recovery, supplies for meeting basic life needs, etc. Hence, the service-oriented style of police organizations is recommended in this phase, which emphasizes citizen service, informal sanctions, and community policing. The advantages of such a style include greater opportunities for reducing citizens’ fears, facilitating the return to normalcy, rebuilding social networks in the community, etc. (Cvetković, 2014b, 2016; Deflem & Sutphin, 2009b).
The daily encounter of the police with extraordinary events may contribute to the misconception that the police are capable and powerful enough to face disasters without prior preparations and plans. Usually, the police are not adequately prepared and do not possess appropriate plans and developed procedures for dealing with disasters. Additionally, they lack suitable equipment for working in hazardous environments, and police officers are not adequately trained and prepared to work in such environments. Moreover, police organization and decision-making are based on traditional values, which often hinder effective work, and it is necessary to decentralize units in such situations to prevent the blockade of the entire system. Furthermore, the police perform traditional tasks but in an altered environment and working conditions; physical and psychological unpreparedness of police officers for longer work in hazardous environments (Cvetković, 2016, p. 5).
From these arise the following recommendations: critical police infrastructure (police stations located in safe locations; communication functioning during disasters; systems resilient to all types of disasters; vehicles adequately protected and equipped, etc.) must meet standards for the smooth performance of functions; general and individual plans for evacuation of parts or entire areas, search and rescue operations, traffic control and regulation, securing the affected area, maintaining public order, preventing and combating deviant and criminal behavior, etc., must be developed; police officers must have developed awareness and undergo appropriate training for handling disasters; police organization and fieldwork must be decentralized and adapted for each phase of the disaster; provide psychological support to police officers in the field (Cvetković, 2014b).
4.1.2. The role and tasks of firefighting and rescue units in disasters
For the purpose of fire protection and rescuing people and their property, firefighting and rescue units are organized, which can be professional (Ministry firefighting and rescue units) and voluntary (established by local government units, legal entities, and associations). Mlađan (2015) emphasizes that firefighting and rescue units continue to occupy a central place in the protection and rescue of the population in disasters. The organization, equipment, and readiness of such units enable, besides fire protection, the execution of other emergency interventions and rescues (Cvetković, 2017).
At one point, the firefighting and rescue service was solely responsible for fires. However, besides tasks directly or indirectly related to fires, firefighters-rescuers encountered various other security demands, such as various technical interventions, hazardous materials, etc. It was necessary, in fact, to organize an entity that could prevent and respond to all types of emergencies, for the purpose of saving lives and property. According to their obligations, firefighting and rescue units are capable of adapting to any situation and problem.
Initially, rescue actions were considered exclusively their task. However, besides them, the entire community (municipality, city, state) bears responsibility. One of the undoubtedly most challenging tasks these units will face is protecting people from potential terrorist threats, especially attacks with weapons of mass destruction. Training and planning, aimed at ensuring successful coordination and achieving maximum possible safety, will help make the response of these units as efficient as possible. This will enable the protection of people to be accomplished with maximum success (Cvetković, 2017).
When firefighting and rescue units arrive at the disaster area and after a risk assessment is conducted, they must be able to select appropriate personal protective equipment. Tactical actions in response to consequences can be (Mlađan, 2009, p. 194): a) preparatory tactical actions, creating conditions for the execution of basic tactical actions; b) basic tactical actions, achieving human safety and fire extinguishment; c) securing actions, creating conditions for the execution of preparatory and tactical actions. Firefighters-rescuers who intervene in hazardous environments, without the necessary knowledge of hidden dangers and correct procedures for dealing with hazardous materials and incidents, risk their lives. Ignorance may be the reason for not recognizing the dangerous potential of some hazardous materials, but incompetence is often the cause of failure or omission to provide appropriate protective measures that could prevent or mitigate accidents (Hawley, Noll, & Hildebrand, 2002; Cvetković, 2012).
Firefighting and rescue units, in addition to the police and emergency medical services, are intervention-rescue services that are constantly preparing to respond to various security situations, regardless of their nature. The tactical actions are basically the same, with certain modalities of difference. However, it is very important to recognize the difference in the response of these units to typical interventions and catastrophes caused by other hazards such as floods, earthquakes, tsunamis. The main difference is in the type of services usually needed for successful consequence management (Cvetković, 2017). Typical response requires fire extinguishing and medical assistance. These services are traditionally provided by firefighting and rescue units with various levels of ability, depending on the amount of training and experience they have, as well as one or two police patrol cars. In contrast, in some disasters, consequence management may require the provision of an unlimited number of technically complex and highly diverse services (Cvetković, 2012).
After receiving the notification, an alarm is raised, which is of great importance for initiating the tactical action of firefighting and rescue units (Mlađan, 2009, p. 196). Unit alarm can be performed by audible or visual signal. After the alarm, members of firefighting and rescue units, equipped with personal protective equipment, take their places in firefighting and rescue vehicles designated for intervention and ready to depart to the scene. The number of vehicles, engaged personnel, and equipment are determined according to the type and size of the fire or other intervention and possible hazards at the intervention site. The departure time mainly depends on the training and psychophysical abilities of the firefighting and rescue unit members and should be no more than 45 seconds during the day and 60 seconds at night. In disasters, it is vital to safely determine whether hazardous materials are present, as well as to identify other hazards (Cvetković, 2012).
Early recognition and identification of harmful actions in various disasters will enable firefighting and rescue units to determine the dimensions of danger, as well as precautionary measures that will be required. With this goal in mind, a disaster response plan should consider the following: potential critical infrastructure locations; types and characteristics of harmful actions; equipment and supplies needed to prevent or mitigate the consequences; possible resources of various services for consequence management.
The primary task of firefighting and rescue units is to arrive at the scene of the disaster in the shortest possible time and commence the implementation of their tactical actions (Mlađan, 2009). The choice of the route is determined according to its shortest length or maximum speed of movement. The optimal route is the one that ensures the shortest arrival time of firefighting and rescue units at the intervention site. All firefighting and rescue unit vehicles are required to adhere to traffic regulations and use visual and auditory signals while moving to the intervention site, except in cases where auditory signaling is not used (at night, near hospitals). The tactical actions of firefighting and rescue units will be limited by various factors such as (Hawley, Noll, & Hildebrand, 2002): lack of specialized training; unavailability of relevant information regarding the situation; the necessity of making decisions in a fraction of a second, with consequences hazardous to life (Cvetković, 2012).
Upon arrival at the intervention site, firefighting and rescue vehicles must be positioned close enough to the intervention site but also at a safe distance from the effects of heat, smoke, and other hazards associated with the intervention. The placement of firefighting and rescue unit vehicles at the intervention site must ensure smooth traffic flow. Citizens present at the scene are likely unaware of the dangers and harmful actions of various disasters and will expect swift action without understanding the need for deliberation. For example, imagine an intervention commander arriving at the scene of a fire caused by flammable liquids. He realizes that he has an insufficient quantity of foam needed for extinguishing. He requests additional quantity and waits for it to arrive. Meanwhile, a carrier or fixed operator for installations (realizing that each gallon of flammable liquid involved in the fire increases financial loss) may urge the firefighters-rescuers to begin extinguishing as soon as possible. Firefighting and rescue unit members may also wish to take quick action. The intervention commander must remain calm enough for his decisions to be effective, not impulsive (Cvetković, 2012).
In order to efficiently mitigate the consequences of various disasters, firefighting and rescue units must: recognize threats; take personal protective measures; isolate the problem; evacuate endangered individuals from prohibited and restricted access zones; inform superiors of all information regarding disaster characteristics. The operational priorities of firefighting and rescue units would be (Kahn & Frank, 2004): to save the lives of people and intervention-rescue service staff; contain the spread of hazardous materials within the area of origin; preserve the environment and property. The quantity of equipment carried by hazardous materials response teams has increased by adding detection equipment, as well as numerous decontamination equipment. Many disasters, such as incidents involving hazardous materials, require the use of specialized equipment and firefighting agents (Heyer, 2006).
As firefighting and rescue units approach the scene, during movement to the intended location, they gather information about the intervention, which may be related to: external features of the scene obtained by on-site reports and transmitted to them by the command-operational center via radio communication, and personal conclusions of the intervention commander about the operational-tactical characteristics of the object (Cvetković, 2012).
The goal of reconnaissance is to collect data based on which the intervention commander can correctly assess the situation and, accordingly, make correct decisions about the use of appropriate means and equipment for intervention, and take appropriate protection measures in accordance with the hazards at the scene. The primary tasks of intervention reconnaissance are: determining the location of people, the threats to them, paths and methods of their rescue, determining the location and size of fire or other intervention, identifying burning objects, as well as the direction and speed of fire spread, identifying dangers of explosion, poisoning, collapse, and other hazards complicating firefighting action, determining possible routes and directions for the introduction of forces and means (Cvetković, 2012).
Firefighting and rescue units must approach the scene extremely cautiously, taking personal safety into account. They must carefully assess which area is affected by various harmful actions. Binoculars are recommended and avoiding getting too close. Based on available information, it is necessary to provide a minimum safe distance. Reports and information about the new situation must be given to the command-operational center if necessary. These units should take the initiative to make control of the scene more effective. This may include the following steps: calling for a traffic accident protection plan, regrouping teams that have arrived at the scene, calling for additional assistance if needed, etc.
When the fire and rescue unit arrives at the scene, it is necessary to determine a safe parking spot for the vehicles. Vehicles should be parked away from warehouses, spilled flammable liquids, or buildings that could explode. Immediately thereafter, it is necessary to establish the necessary supervision: fire and rescue units should set up a command post in a location that is easily visible and accessible; they should mark the space for the arrival of required specialized teams; designate danger zones, if necessary, and mark their boundaries with tape, ropes, signs (Hawley, Noll, & Hildebrand, 2002; Cvetković, 2012).
It is crucial that fire and rescue units, in cooperation with police officers, prohibit entry into the prohibited and restricted access zones to anyone who does not meet the following criteria: does not possess appropriate personal protective equipment, does not possess personal decontamination equipment, is not familiar with the procedure regulating behavior and actions in the mentioned zones. After all these activities, fire and rescue units proceed to assess the incident itself. They must identify all harmful actions based on all available information and traces. Based on this information, they will assess all other risks and make appropriate decisions. Fire and rescue unit members will not secure the scene, as these tasks will be performed by police officers with appropriate personal protective equipment (Cvetković, 2012).
Firefighters who first arrive at the scene will be overwhelmed by the number of tasks they need to perform in the shortest time possible, as well as the complexity and magnitude of the disaster (Kramer, 2009). Even most experienced leaders of fire and rescue units will find themselves in trouble because they need to make a decision as quickly as possible, yet they also need to consider a large number of factors influencing the same decision. The key to these incidents should be the establishment of a command mode of operation, i.e., establishing an appropriate management system. Reconnaissance must be conducted immediately to determine the extent of damage and begin assessing injuries and the number of casualties. Restricted areas and access routes are established to allow firefighters and police officers to carry out their tasks and prevent further chaos at the scene (Cvetković, 2012).
Fire often occurs after the collapse of a building. A critical decision must be made regarding the response method. For example, whether to release a large amount of firefighting water into the building, which can lead to drowning of victims, or do nothing, allowing trapped victims to burn. It often happens that stable firefighting systems need to be turned off, leaving firefighters without water from the city water supply, so they must bring firefighting vehicles (water trucks) only to the burning area. This will ensure that the amount of firefighting water in the building is limited, thus preventing victims from drowning in the water. Turning off electrical power and natural gas increases the safety of victims and firefighters (reduces the risk of electric shock and gas explosion) (Cvetković, 2012). For the intervention manager, it is of paramount importance to assess and treat the area affected by a terrorist attack. Although evacuating a large number of victims in a short time is practically impossible, it is possible to move them to a convenient location (Bellany, 2007). If victims approach firefighters and obstruct them by seeking care, they can be directed to a suitable location. Depending on the intensity of the damage, collapse rescue teams should be called as soon as possible. Depending on the team involved, a structural and building demolition expert should determine which places are safe for firefighters and which are not (Cvetković, 2012).
Although firefighters want to rush to provide assistance, they must understand that secondary, subsequent building collapses pose a significant danger. Most mobile victims will leave the dangerous area if directed. If firefighters use a megaphone to direct victims to exit the rubble and accurately assess the danger, many victims who could become trapped in the building will be avoided (Cvetković, 2012). It is very important for fire and rescue units to take all defensive measures in the area affected by the manifested harmful actions of the disaster (Manley, 2009): locate a command post away from the most endangered danger zones; locate the command post preferably inside a building rather than a vehicle. Buildings provide better physical protection and are easier to seal off. Since dangerous gases are heavier than air, an interior space on the middle floor would be a good choice; turn off central fans and ventilation equipment; establish a decontamination station at the entrance to the building; if possible, create a room where purified air will exist; create an evacuation and rescue plan from the scene. Response planning must occur before such an event occurs. It is always important to think ahead and have a plan even for the worst-case scenarios (Cvetković, 2012).
In the near future, fire and rescue units will increasingly face more serious disasters. Accordingly, precious time must not be wasted, but it is necessary to tackle the job more efficiently: develop procedures and make appropriate plans, train and equip fire and rescue unit personnel, test the readiness and capabilities of these units through frequent exercises. Education of staff on all possible hazards, protection, and tactics for dealing with the consequences of a terrorist attack should be a top priority (Cvetković, 2012).
Dealing with the consequences of disasters also depends on the quality coordination and cooperation of emergency response and rescue services, whose responsibilities overlap and complement each other. Unifying the responsibilities of multiple engaged emergency response and rescue services can be achieved by enacting appropriate laws and regulations that would provide a basic foundation for developing adequate procedures. Therefore, protecting citizens from potential threats will undoubtedly be one of the most challenging tasks faced by this staff. Training and planning to ensure successful coordination and achieve the highest possible efficiency (Cvetković, 2012).
4.1.3. The role and tasks of the emergency medical service in disasters
In addition to the police and fire rescue units, emergency medical services play a significant role in protection and rescue. In more complex situations, such as disasters, the role of emergency medical services would consist of (Cvetković, 2013, p. 34): a) saving people’s lives, along with other emergency rescue services; b) treating and caring for the injured; c) ensuring appropriate transport, medical staff, equipment, and resources; d) establishing an effective triage system to determine the priority needs in evacuating the injured and providing a safe place for the removal of victims; e) providing communication capabilities at the scene, with direct radio contact with hospitals, control centers, and, if necessary, other relevant authorities; f) determining and informing hospitals from the official list that they will receive the injured and informing other relevant authorities accordingly; g) ensuring transportation in the disaster-affected area, mobilizing mobile medical surgical teams and equipment; h) determining the most suitable means of transportation for the injured referred to specialist hospitals; i) taking a central role in coordination with other health services, including regional health advisors for emergency planning, and in the event of chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear disasters, assembling a health team that can provide advice on health service delivery.
Many people may require medical assistance following rescues in various natural and technological disasters. There are cases where there is a significant number of victims with varying degrees of injuries, so it is necessary to conduct a triage process, which is a process of prioritizing patients based on the details of their injuries, treatment, and transport (Heyer, 2006, p. 23). Medical personnel, on the one hand, can be of great assistance if well-trained and ready for effective cooperation. However, if doctors and nurses act autonomously or seek to take command, they become a serious threat to the entire disaster management system (Bevelasqua et al., 2009, p. 23). Despite all the efforts invested in the planning process, medical personnel often may not be adequately adapted to working under structural command. Accordingly, they need to be supervised, guided, and assisted. In disasters, adequate and timely preparation for the implementation of medical measures to protect the population is crucial for providing assistance to the injured (Cvetković, Aksentijević, & Ivović, 2015).
For adequate preparation, it is necessary to do the following (Cvetković, 2013): 1. timely develop trained emergency medical services, specialized medical units of civil protection, and specialized teams in hospitals; 2. equip and ensure readiness for work in hazardous environments; 3. prepare to provide and determine additional hospital beds in hospitals; 4. provide a storage of medical protective equipment, reserves of medical material and equipment of medical units and teams, and facilities where they are located; 5. prepare the population and rescuers to provide first aid.
In disasters with a large number of injured people, one of the weakest links within the tactical operations of emergency rescue services is the inadequate readiness and training of emergency medical services (Cvetković and colleagues, 2015). The fact is that many hospitals are not prepared to deal with patients who, in addition to being injured, are contaminated (Burke, 2007, p. 134). Accordingly, only through preparation, coordination, and training can effective response of emergency medical services be achieved (Hawley et al., 2001, p. 45). Emergency response in disasters is primarily entrusted to persons from the police, fire rescue units, and other security services. However, in recent times, health organizations and public health institutes have become more intensively involved in all aspects of management.
Recent disasters have shown that medical personnel consisting of doctors and technicians must be prepared and able to provide assistance to the injured who are mobile (Kramer, 2009). At the same time, immediately after providing assistance, decontamination of victims must be carried out to prevent others from being contaminated. It is especially necessary to ensure that the decontamination process does not endanger the people conducting it and that it must be performed outside the building or entrance to defined spaces.
Expectations that people will be willing to voluntarily undergo decontamination are not realistic (Cvetković, 2013). Accordingly, it is very important to explain to these people that the decontamination process will help them. Plans relating to the process of providing first aid and decontamination must be tested in advance due to a potential lack of medical personnel. Different disasters complicate the actions of emergency medical services because such events can last for days; medical services and their capacities can become victims of terrorism; bomb attacks usually contain secondary explosive devices (Cvetković and colleagues, 2015).
All measures that medical personnel will undertake in areas affected by the harmful effects of disasters relate to: a) reconnaissance – examination of the disaster area; b) search and rescue of the injured; c) medical triage; d) provision of first aid and initial medical care to the injured and patients; implementation of evacuation to medical treatment facilities.
Providing first aid involves a complex of the simplest medical measures, carried out directly at the site of injury or in its vicinity in the order of self and mutual aid, as well as by participants in rescue operations using improvised control or makeshift means (Cvetković, 2012). First medical aid represents a type of medical assistance that includes a complex of preventive treatment measures performed by doctors aimed at alleviating the consequences of injuries (illnesses) that directly threaten the lives of the injured, as well as preventing complications and preparing the injured for further evacuation (Cvetković and colleagues, 2015).
At the site where the disaster occurred, first medical and medical care is organized for the injured, while professional and specialized medical care is provided to others outside this area, in medical treatment facilities. Those responsible for planning must take into account both the area of the disaster and the hospitals and clinics (Tomio et al., 2003). Based on the Law on Health Care (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia No. 107/2005, Article 18 point 9), the Law on Protection of Population from Infectious Diseases (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 125/2004, Article 14, paragraph 3), the Law on Environmental Protection (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 135/2004), the Institute of Public Health of the Republic of Serbia has adopted a “Guide for the Activities of Public Health Institutes in Disasters”.
According to the mentioned Guide (2010), the main general measures for protection and rescue in disasters are: 1. maintaining a healthy living environment; 2. surveillance of diseases, mass poisonings, and injuries with an early warning mechanism and rapid response; 3. immediate detection of the threatened population and suppression of epidemics, mass poisonings, and injuries; 4. triage, care of cases, and evacuation of the population; 5. specific protection of individuals and populations by vaccination, medication, antidotes; 6. providing basic clinical services.
Within the healthcare system in the Republic of Serbia, the most significant role in addressing the health consequences of disasters would be played by: 1. public health institute; 2. emergency medical service; 3. National Poison Control Center of the Military Medical Academy; and 4. Mobile Toxicological Laboratory (Cvetković, 2012).
The Institute of Public Health monitors, investigates, and studies the health status and health culture of the population, the state and quality of the environment, samples, occurrences, and spread of infectious and other diseases of social medical significance, implements anti-epidemic measures, conducts bacteriological, chemical, and hygienic testing of water and monitors the state of food production, traffic, and storage facilities, monitors and analyzes non-infectious diseases, etc. The organization includes: epidemiology sector with microbiology, parasitology, and virology, hygiene sector with environmental protection and sanitary chemistry, social medicine sector with organization of health statistics, informatics, health education, and sector of common affairs (Guide for the activities of public health institutes in emergencies, 2010). The emergency medical service performs triage, provides emergency medical assistance, and transports injured persons to appropriate healthcare facilities (Cvetković and colleagues, 2015).
The National Poison Control Center of the Military Medical Academy collects all clinically relevant data, systematizes them, and distributes them to interested institutions, medical professionals, and in some cases to the general public. In the event of terrorist disasters, its tasks would be particularly important (Cvetković, 2012): risk assessment of accidents (location, direction of toxic cloud spread), care for mass poisonings in accidents (symptoms and signs, direction and location of evacuation), procedures and measures for decontamination of accident site personnel. Within the National Poison Control Center, there is a Mobile Toxicological Laboratory of the Military Medical Academy in Belgrade. The team performs detection and identification of toxic chemical agents and organizes on-site accident care (Cvetković, 2012; 2015).
According to the “Guide for the Activities of Public Health Institutes in Disasters,” in the Republic of Serbia, all activities in disaster areas are divided into three phases, depending on the time they are implemented: a) emergency interventions (from 0 to 2 hours after the accident); b) expanded interventions (from 2 to 6 hours or from 6 to 12 hours) and c) control and maintenance of activities (from 12 to 24 hours).
According to the guide (2010), the following activities are implemented in the first two hours:
1) Situation assessment (prepared mobile teams from public health institutes begin a rapid assessment of the situation and ask a number of questions: is public health endangered, should public health institutes react to the situation, which territories are affected, how many people are exposed to the agent, how many are infected, injured, or deceased, how they were exposed to the agent, are evacuation corridors for the population determined, open, and accessible, how current meteorological conditions will affect situation remediation, is the operational disaster headquarters activated at the national level, the county coordination body, and municipal headquarters, as well as other questions);
2) Connecting responsible persons in health (it is necessary to connect managerial staff and responsible persons from health institutions involved in disaster activities);
3) Establishing an action plan (responsible persons in the Institute of Public Health of the Republic of Serbia need to urgently create an action plan based on situation assessment, based on existing guides and operational plans, specified in relation to the type of agent);
4) Participation of public health institutes in disaster operational headquarters (responsible persons from public health institutes participate as obligatory members in disaster operational headquarters);
5) Checking the safety of the disaster site and the feasibility of implementing the operational plan (it is necessary to establish cooperation with field experts to identify hazardous substances and conditions that led to the disaster and immediately alert and inform competent authorities);
6) Establishing communication with key health and other organizations (establish communication with primary healthcare organizations and medical centers as well as organizations responsible for disaster response);
7) Compile a list of priorities in the disaster (constant problem localization, compiling a priority list, and monitoring health resources, which requires 24-hour engagement);
8) Requesting additional assistance and information flow (within the community activity, check requests for additional assistance);
9) Organizing communication channels (within each healthcare institution, designate individuals who will have direct telephone communication to provide information to responsible persons in public health institutes);
10) Documenting all activities (all activities must be documented in the form of announcements, based on records that will be kept on already prepared forms) (Cvetković and colleagues, 2015).
During expanded interventions (2 to 6 hours), it is necessary to continue with the following activities: situation assessment, re-analysis, and assessment of recommendations within healthcare institutions, checking the safety of the disaster area, continuous communication with key health and other organizations, submitting requests for assistance and supplementary actions, continuous communication via emergency messages, compliance with legal regulations, and documentation of all disaster activities.
During expanded interventions (6 to 12 hours), it is necessary to: collect data from laboratories and health surveillance, update and forward information for the next shift, provide support to representatives of state authorities in the field, and provide additional health resources and equipment (Cvetković, 2020; Cvetković and colleagues, 2015).
4.1.3.1. Triage of the injured
Under triage, in medical and social services, implies a system of rationalization and prioritized response (Taylor, 2000, p. 23). As such, triage (from French “triage” – selection, sorting) involves the sorting of injured and sick individuals into appropriate groups based on the examination conducted: a) according to the type of injuries – illnesses and conditions of the injured; b) according to the type and urgency of needs and measures for first aid and medical assistance; c) according to the method and urgency of transport (Cvetković, 2013).
Triage is very significant due to the timely distribution of medical and other services to the largest number of injured. It is implemented according to the standards of professional methodology. In the area affected by a disaster, it is crucial to perform triage of the injured, as the success of providing assistance depends on it. Most emergency rescue services are capable of conducting such assessments when dealing with a small number of victims. However, when dealing with a large number of victims, it often happens that the care of less injured individuals is delayed in order to focus all attention on critically ill patients (Cvetković et al., 2015).
The sorting of the injured is carried out according to the following criteria (Cvetković, 2013): 1. red sector – first-category injured (in immediate life-threatening condition due to injury); 2. yellow sector – second-category injured (have severe injuries but are not immediately life-threatening); 3. green sector – third triage category injured (minor injuries, lightly injured); 4. black sector – fourth-category injured (dead or without hope of recovery).
It is important to note that the triage process should be conducted by the most experienced medical personnel. The team responsible for triage should not treat and transport victims until the triage process is completed. If medical personnel are unable to independently perform their tasks, those responsible for planning must assess the possibility of using other emergency rescue services to provide assistance. Accordingly, it is very important to provide appropriate training for these emergency rescue services so that they are at least minimally informed in case such assistance is needed (Cvetković et al., 2015).
In disaster areas, it is very important, at the very beginning, to separate the deceased from the injured. Injured individuals who can walk are directed for further treatment (Communicable disease control in emergency situations, 2001). Before any triage or treatment can begin, it must be determined whether the disaster site is safe for intervention. The staff of emergency rescue services providing assistance must be adequately protected (Bowman, 2007). Inadequate protection will worsen the situation at the scene of the incident and direct the emergency medical service towards its own staff rather than towards disaster victims.
Emergency rescue services must respond efficiently and determine which patients need immediate protection and which could wait (Cvetković et al., 2015). On-site, the doctor must familiarize themselves with the signs and symptoms of people exposed to hazardous materials as quickly as possible. They must also analyze the dose and time of exposure to hazardous materials in order to make appropriate decisions regarding the treatment of the injured (Cvetković, 2013). Moreover, it is crucial to have an expert who will convey information to the disaster headquarters, hospitals, and emergency rescue services responsible for evacuation. Another person should be responsible for identifying victims. This is very important when the situation arises that families start inquiring about their loved ones. The triage supervisor must be aware of their resources, as well as the number and type of victims at the scene of such a disaster. They must also be aware of the availability of medical supplies, transportation capacity, and the capacity of local hospitals to accommodate that number of injured individuals (Cvetković, 2012).
It is very important to mention that determining the triage category implies solid knowledge of factors directly or indirectly related to the injured patients (Cashman, 2003). For example, age can be an indicator of a patient’s ability to cope physically with injuries. Therefore, older victims with heart and respiratory health problems may have less optimistic prospects than younger individuals without such problems. Triage and treatment must be carefully coordinated to ensure that the most vulnerable receive assistance as quickly as possible (Cvetković et al., 2015).
After a designated team has performed triage of the injured, a medical assistance team steps onto the scene (Bellany, 2007). This team does not act haphazardly but selectively. Initially, it provides medical assistance to those in urgent need, while teams for less endangered individuals will be formed later. Typically, the medical assistance team comprises the highest quality medical personnel. The key individual in the medical assistance delivery system is responsible for coordinating activities at the first aid site. Their responsibilities include (Hazardous Materials Emergency Response Planning Guide, 1987): 1. defining areas where emergency cases will be separated; 2. determining patients who can receive medical assistance with some delay and injured individuals who can move; 3. engaging the most experienced and educated medical workers; 4. ensuring the achievement of triage goals and documenting patient information on a table; 5. coordinating the transfer of individuals from the triage area to the transportation area (Cvetković et al., 2015).
In addition to all the activities they will undertake in areas affected by disaster-related harmful actions, emergency medical teams will need to possess personal protective clothing because they will be dealing with patients exposed to various types of exploited hazardous materials. In this regard, one of the main problems for medical response after the Tokyo subway attack was the lack of personal protective equipment worn by medical personnel in ambulances (Cvetković, 2012). This resulted in numerous injuries to these units. Moreover, the injured individuals must be decontaminated to minimize the impact of exposure to hazardous materials (Cvetković et al., 2015).
4.1.3.2. Transportation of the injured and hospital preparation
The staff responsible for transporting the injured plays a crucial role in areas affected by manifest harmful effects of disasters. It is essential to provide access to disaster victims as quickly as possible. Access is facilitated by ensuring a clear passage for emergency medical service vehicles (Stilp, 1997). In addition to securing vehicle passage zones, it is necessary to designate helicopter landing zones. These zones must be in safe areas, away from triage and medical aid provision zones, to avoid interference between these two activities. Organizing quality transportation for the injured requires categorizing and organizing transportation options (Guidance on Emergency Procedures, 2009). Specifically, several lightly injured victims can be transported in the same vehicle. However, cases requiring urgent medical intervention, i.e., continuous life-saving measures, can only be transported individually. Less severely injured individuals whose lives are not at risk can receive medical assistance on-site, and if transportation is necessary, it can be done using vehicles other than ambulances (Cvetković & colleagues, 2015).
In addition to the aforementioned triage categories, categorization of transportation for injured individuals will be conducted. These categories include: 1. urgently needed rapid transport; 2. priority patients transported within 4 hours; 3. routine patients transported within 24 hours (Cvetković, 2013). Therefore, the transportation of victims will be based on the degree of injuries. In disasters of this nature, close collaboration between triage, treatment, and victim transportation is required. Many measures will be taken simultaneously. Furthermore, it is crucial to identify public and private ambulances and their resources during the response planning process. Communication with hospitals is also essential to determine how many patients can be admitted for assistance. These facilities have limited space and staff. The limitations applicable in normal situations are, of course, expanded, but not beyond a certain feasibility measure (Cvetković & colleagues, 2015).
Transporting the injured is by no means simple, especially because numerous factors must be considered. The precondition for any transportation of the injured, whether it involves emergency medical service vehicles or civilian vehicles, is good access and direct guidance to the designated area for them. The transportation group leader must keep track of how many patients are directed to specific medical facilities and how many are in transit. Of course, hospitals must be prepared and willing to increase their capacities. If there are too many injured individuals, only emergency cases will be transferred to hospitals. It is more efficient to organize field hospitals to treat patients for whom intervention is not urgent (Cvetković & colleagues, 2015).
Experience has shown that hospitals in disasters were inadequately prepared to care for victims due to the specificity of the situation (Taylor, 2000). Therefore, hospitals and emergency medical service personnel must be prepared to receive a large number of injured individuals while taking measures to prevent contamination and ensure personal protection. Thus, victims must be decontaminated first and foremost, if not already done, before their treatment begins.
In specific disasters, hazardous materials teams will need to decontaminate the injured at the scene or in the hospital itself. This type of decontamination should also be available outside hospitals. During the incident in Tokyo, more than 5,500 people sought medical care. Emergency services transported only 688 of these patients. All others went to the hospital on their own. It is easy to imagine the chaos in such a hospital if even 10 patients appear in a panic, thinking they have been exposed to nerve agents (Cvetković, 2012). Emergency medical personnel must be trained to recognize signs of chemical, radiological, and biological exposure.
When a large number of injured individuals arrive at a hospital, decisions will be made regarding which patients will benefit most from immediate treatment. Some injured individuals may be so seriously endangered that there is nothing that can be done to save them. Therefore, when resources are limited, medical staff must determine who can be saved and who cannot. Time spent treating injured individuals who will inevitably lose their lives can be used to help those who have a chance of survival. Making decisions about who will receive treatment and who will not is very difficult. This decision can be further complicated by the arrival of relatives at the medical facility. However, when there is a large number of patients and resources are limited, resources must be used for the benefit of the majority, not for the benefit of individuals (Cvetković & colleagues, 2015).
Additional problems will be caused by those who are not sick but face psychological beliefs that they are infected. The person in the hospital responsible for triage will play a crucial role. This individual should be the most experienced in terms of treatment, decontamination, and evaluation (Cvetković, 2013). For example, if dealing with traumas, the most suitable and experienced person for triage could be a surgeon. However, if dealing with toxic materials such as nerve agents or biological toxins, the most suitable and experienced person for triage could be a toxicologist. A problem arises from the fact that the majority of disaster victims arrive at a healthcare facility within the first 90 minutes after the event (Win et al., 2009), and many of them have only minor injuries.
Given all the facts presented so far, it is most important that plans for such disasters are implemented quickly. In this regard, it is equally important for hospitals to be notified early when a large number of injured individuals appear. However, not all victims will be transported by emergency rescue services; instead, a large number of them will arrive unexpectedly and unsynchronized. Namely, victims may arrive on foot, as was the case with the bombing of a shopping center, or they may arrive by bus, personal vehicle, or taxi. Most victims from the Tokyo subway arrived in this manner. Such a situation of coordinated and uncoordinated arrival at healthcare facilities can create chaos and hinder the work of emergency medical services (Cvetković & colleagues, 2015).
Due to the need for mutual coordination and cooperation, communication systems between hospitals will need to be efficient. This is not only done to alleviate congestion but also to facilitate the exchange of information about symptoms and diagnoses among patients. Preparation of hospital staff, especially doctors and medical personnel, along with appropriate planning, training, and personal protective equipment, would ensure that they are well-equipped to efficiently and safely deal with victims. Considering the large number of deceased individuals and limited space in hospitals or morgues, there will be difficulties in providing accommodation capacity. Refrigerators can be used for this purpose. The entire staff working with corpses must be familiar with the use of appropriate protective equipment and decontamination procedures. It is critically important to properly secure morgues during this process to preserve the security of evidence.
4.1.4. The role and tasks of the military in disasters
Military units have specific characteristics that make them suitable and highly adaptable for engagement in various disaster operations. Combat units designed for quick response and high mobility can be easily utilized in such situations. Additionally, these units can rapidly establish communication networks in any area of the country using specific engineering units within a short period. Moreover, they are equipped with abundant resources crucial for an effective and swift response and recovery from various natural and technological disasters.
Building on the basic predispositions of military units to be resilient in combat situations, they also demonstrate resilience in disasters. Such resilience is essential for actions in situations like disasters, enabling them to take all necessary measures for protection and rescue. The literature on military forces in disasters focuses on various analytical aspects: legal issues, civil-military cooperation, military assistance efficiency in disaster response, leadership problems, coordination, different civil and military organizational cultures, and public perception of military aid.
The participation of the military in short-term protection and rescue measures and post-disaster recovery operations may include: search and rescue, emergency medical aid, urgent transportation of people, mass feeding, distribution of food, clothing, and other necessary goods, epidemiological work and disease control, decontamination (in hazardous material or radiological circumstances), temporary shelter, firefighting, assistance in restoring electricity and other communal services, debris clearance for road reopening, bridge repair or temporary bridge replacement, as well as providing assistance in safety and property protection.
It is significant to emphasize that national and international military forces undoubtedly play an essential, expansive, and undisputed role in supporting civilian structures during disasters due to their logistical and organizational advantages. The military, as an organized armed force responsible for defense against external threats and other tasks, is one of the most significant forces for disaster management, considering its human, material, and other operational capacities for performing a wide range of tasks both in peacetime and wartime.
However, it is important to note that, in line with the National Strategy for Protection and Rescue, the Ministry of Defense and the Serbian Armed Forces are not obliged to develop specific capabilities for engagement in protection and rescue missions but are required to provide support to civilian authorities and operators of protection and rescue when needed. Specifically, in the field of protection and rescue, the Ministry of Defense and the Serbian Armed Forces can provide logistic support services, aviation units, as well as engineering teams and units for atomic, biological, and chemical defense.
In circumstances where other resources of the system are insufficient for the protection and rescue of people, materials, and other goods from the consequences of disasters, at the request of the Republic Disaster Staff, the Ministry of Defense provides the participation of its organizational units, commands, units, and institutions of the Serbian Armed Forces in providing assistance in protection and rescue, in accordance with the law, except in wartime and states of emergency. Furthermore, when units of the Serbian Armed Forces are involved in protection and rescue, they are commanded by their competent superiors, in accordance with the conclusions and recommendations of the disaster staff, which directs and coordinates protection and rescue.
It can be rightly said that military organizations are very complex and as such have enormous human resources, specialized equipment, and reserves that are crucial in disaster relief operations. On the other hand, military organizations have bureaucratic structures that include specialized roles, a hierarchy of authority, and rules and regulations that allow for effective and rapid coordination and control of large human forces in such emergency situations.
During the implementation of various missions during disasters, there are three aspects that make the military a suitable force for response: a) specific skills that match protection and rescue operations; b) communication in terms of command and control in disaster situations; and c) organized forces providing general support in numerous actions. It is also worth noting that the primary skills and capabilities of the military in disaster response consist of their transportation advantages (helicopters, transport ships, field vehicles) and technical advantages and experience in urban search and rescue, mobile hospital construction, personnel and surveillance technology, radiation monitoring, situation assessment, and damage assessment. The military is the first force to acquire updated equipment and trained personnel in response to establishing communication in disasters.
In the event of a disaster, the request for military assistance can be based on several factors, such as: the scope and urgency of response to a specific disaster; the level of preparedness; previously established relationships between the affected host and assisting countries; global politics and the current policies of the host country; geographic proximity; and the availability of military equipment in the assisting country (Rietjens, Voordijk, & De Boer, 2007). Given that the military is organized at the strategic, operational, and tactical levels into commands, units, and institutions, its activities in disaster conditions will depend on these levels mentioned.
In disaster studies, there are often highlighted similarities regarding military and humanitarian logistics (Balcik, Beamon, Krejci, Muramatsu, & Ramirez, 2010): a) both have dynamic and uncertain demand patterns; b) they face difficulties due to the degradation of local physical infrastructure, as well as due to the absence of certain government functions, while dealing with injured and traumatized victims; c) they constantly monitor the media. Additionally, much emphasis is placed on the role of the military in managing supplies due to various aspects of instability and uncertainty regarding numerous issues such as: a) fleet management; b) reception, allocation, and distribution of supplies; c) methods of stock distribution and delivery; d) maintenance of inventory in good condition.
In responding to disasters, the primary role of the military is to provide a safe environment in which humanitarian aid organizations and emergency rescue services can work, providing them with transportation, communication, and other logistical support. The secondary goal is to create conditions for the affected region to return to normalcy. However, this is a contentious task that requires the military to take on responsibilities not directly related to its main role of ensuring a safe environment. Yet, in disasters, the lines between these two tasks are often blurred. Although this is a fundamental issue for examination, it applies only to military troops participating in international operations and primarily in wartime situations, rather than in disasters (Barber, 2011).
The tactics employed by various military forces will depend on numerous factors. Different activities are undertaken in the period preceding a disaster (planning activities), during the disaster (phase of taking operational tactical and technical measures and actions), and after the disaster (reconstruction phase, aid provision). For all three mentioned phases, various logistical needs and resources are required for disaster relief, which is not surprising. Preparedness is the key to a successful disaster response and requires meeting five key requirements: a) establishing comprehensive coordination and disaster management frameworks; b) establishing logistical operations and process management; c) managing human resources; d) managing knowledge; and e) preparing financial resources (Wassenhove, 2006).
During the phase of implementing protection and rescue measures, military forces use rapid responses to save lives and help prevent further damage by providing various types of assistance to preserve lives, improve health, and boost morale among affected populations. During the reaction phase, humanitarian operations heavily rely on logistical assistance, and the scale of such response and dependency can be directly related to the types of disasters. Military organizations must have qualified personnel, appropriate communication, information flow, and financial lines for effective response (Eriksson, 2009). One of the important logistical issues is the design of material transport for first aid, food, equipment, and rescue personnel from points to a large number of destination nodes geographically distributed over the disaster area, as well as evacuation and transfer of disaster-affected people to health centers in a fast and reliable manner (Barbarosoğlu, Özdamar, & Cevik, 2002). Additionally, decision-makers responsible for commanding and controlling aircraft require a quick and efficient process to determine the best crew/fleet composition and flight paths. This process not only aims to shorten preparation time to improve decision-makers’ capacities to react quickly but also seeks to generate a cost-effective choice (Rappoport, Levy, Golden, & Toussaint, 1992). In such circumstances, complex and difficult decisions need to be made, such as routing aircraft with multiple stops and partial service, fuel consumption limitations and refueling, and cargo and rescue scheduling.
In the post-disaster phase, the goal of reconstruction is to bring the situation under control so that affected people can take responsibility, restore systems to normal or better conditions, and return the community to pre-disaster conditions (including means of livelihood, homes, and infrastructure). For this reason, during the reconstruction and rehabilitation phase, the military adapts its actions in relation to changing logistical needs to support rehabilitation and long-term recovery.
When seeking military assistance from another state, the following factors should be taken into account: legality – implying whether the legal basis of military engagement is in accordance with laws and regulations; b) cost – corresponding to potential costs of military engagement and their impact on the defense budget; c) lethality – defining the possibility of using lethal force when providing assistance; d) risk – which entails the risk that may threaten the defense forces in providing military engagement; e) suitability – interpreting whether existing military services and resources are appropriate for providing assistance; and f) readiness – which corresponds to the readiness status of military forces to provide assistance that will not harm the primary mission of the Ministry of Defense (Buchalter, 2007).
It is important to note that in recent years, the role of the military in responding to technical and technological disasters caused by terrorist attacks using some types of weapons of mass destruction has significantly increased. In such situations, the military has a centralized position in providing counterterrorism actions, such as identifying and monitoring potential threats from biological or chemical attacks, securing control over the affected area, establishing communication among states and government, providing technical advice, implementing evacuation processes, and providing assistance (Kapucu, 2011).
Brake (2001) highlights that military activities in such situations boil down to: a) providing expert advice on various issues related to weapons of mass destruction; b) checking the security of areas suspected to have traps or are unprotected from explosive devices; c) monitoring and inspecting suspicious biological, chemical, or nuclear materials/devices; d) providing specialized equipment, personnel, or vehicles; e) participating in the examination of suspects to determine the characteristics of the suspected weapon of mass destruction device, its components, or elements; f) seeking and providing evidence of potential threats using hazardous materials; g) cleaning and searching hazardous areas upon the request of various organizations.
4.1.5. Civil protection units
In order to carry out general and specific tasks in the protection and rescue of people in disasters, besides the intervention and rescue services mentioned, civil protection units are also engaged. They represent established, specially organized, and trained operational forces and formations that directly take the prescribed measures for the protection and rescue of people. Depending on their purpose and capabilities, they can be a) general-purpose civil protection units and b) specialized civil protection units.
To enable their work, civil protection units are equipped and trained according to various programs and regulations. General-purpose civil protection units and specialized alarm-raising units are formed by the local self-government unit. If there is a voluntary fire brigade with at least 20 members in its area, there is no legal obligation to form general-purpose civil protection units. In contrast, specialized civil protection units are formed by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and are filled from the active reserve. Additionally, the allocation of military conscripts to civil protection units is carried out by the competent territorial organ of the Ministry of Defense, according to the needs expressed by the Ministry and local self-government units.
Civil protection units are formed in accordance with the Disaster Risk Assessment and the Assessment of Military and Non-Military Challenges, Risks, and Threats to the Country’s Security. As operational formations for protection and rescue, they are formed as squads, teams, departments, and groups. In accordance with Articles 80 and 81 of the Law on Disaster Risk Reduction and Disaster Management, a Decision on the Formation of Civil Protection Units is made, which includes the type, number, and size of civil protection units, with determined personnel and material formations, methods of personnel recruitment, mobilization sites, mobilization executor, deputy mobilization executor, mobilization duration, and other details.
The local self-government unit, in order to keep records of civil protection units, submits to the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Ministry of Defense the adopted Decision on the Formation of Civil Protection Units, as well as data on the degree of staffing of civil protection units with personnel and their training, material-technical equipment, data on planned and executed training and exercises, inspection of mobilization gathering places, and other data necessary for keeping records of civil protection units in accordance with prescribed forms.
Volunteers are assigned to civil protection units according to their previously acquired knowledge, abilities, inclinations, and expressed desires. Before being assigned to civil protection units, it is necessary to submit a list of individuals and duties to which they are assigned in civil protection units to the territorial organ of the Ministry of Defense. The Ministry and local self-government units may issue a public call through the media for the recruitment of volunteers for civil protection units. An interview is conducted with the registered volunteer regarding their inclinations and desires. The interview is conducted by the Ministry or local self-government units. The volunteer signs a written statement of voluntary acceptance of the rights and obligations of civil protection unit members for a period of five years, is informed of their duties, and thereby becomes a member of the civil protection unit. The volunteer submits a written statement along with a certificate of medical fitness issued by the chosen physician in the Health Center in the area of the parent branch or the area of residence or domicile, and other relevant data and documents for assignment to civil protection units.
Specialized civil protection units are used in accordance with their equipment, capabilities, purpose, and tasks, namely:
- a) Firefighting units – for firefighting; for pumping water from flooded objects and strengthening protective embankments; for clearing debris; for participating in the rescue of people and animals from damaged objects and undertaking other activities in evacuation and protection of lives and health of endangered people, animals, material and cultural goods, and the environment;
- b) Water and underwater rescue units – for performing tasks and missions in rescuing endangered people, animals, material and cultural goods from flooded areas; for monitoring water levels of watercourses; for transporting people, animals, and material goods from flooded areas, and across rivers and lakes; for performing works to strengthen protective embankments; for finding drowning victims and collecting dead animals;
- v) Care units – for performing tasks and duties related to caring for and providing emergency shelter for endangered and evacuated persons; providing accommodation for members of specialized civil protection units and firefighting and rescue units; for establishing tent settlements; for preparing and using facilities and spaces for the needs of care – accommodation and for the distribution of food and water;
- g) First aid units – for providing first aid; transporting the injured and establishing mobile reception points for the care of the injured; participating in the implementation of hygiene and epidemiological protection measures;
- d) First aid and care units – for providing first aid, transporting the injured and establishing mobile reception points for the care of the injured; for performing tasks and duties related to caring for endangered and evacuated persons; for preparing and using facilities and spaces for the needs of care – accommodation and for the distribution of food and water;
đ) Radiological, chemical, and biological protection units – for reconnaissance; dosimetric control; decontamination of people; disinfection and decontamination of material-technical means, equipment, land, and facilities; for participating in terrain sanitation;
- e) Urban search and rescue units – for participating in locating and rescuing people and animals buried in rubble and damaged structures; for undertaking other activities for protecting the lives and health of endangered people, animals, material and cultural goods;
Furthermore, the legislator has provided for general-purpose civil protection units. They are intended to participate in extinguishing open fires, building and strengthening protective embankments and water pumping, clearing debris, undertaking activities during evacuation, caring for and protecting the lives and health of endangered people, animals, material and cultural goods, and the environment, as well as undertaking preventive measures and activities to reduce risks and threats to human life and health, animals, and material goods. Specialized civil protection units are equipped and trained to operate across the territory of the Republic of Serbia.
Assigned members of civil protection units are issued a certificate of engagement in civil protection tasks, containing information about the start and end time of the member’s engagement, based on which compensation for engagement of the unemployed, or reimbursement of salary costs paid to the employer for employed members of civil protection units, is made in accordance with the law. Members of civil protection units engaged in protection and rescue tasks are engaged for up to 12 hours daily, and exceptionally, if the lives and health of citizens are endangered, engagement can be extended beyond 12 hours. Daily rest for a member of a civil protection unit is organized according to the conditions in the field, either in a solid structure or tent conditions. In cases where possible, a member of a civil protection unit may be allowed daily rest at home for up to ten hours. The mobilization executor may allow a mobilized member of a civil protection unit to take a short absence from the unit for personal needs.
4.2. Protection of personnel of emergency rescue services in disasters
One of the most important things you can do on this earth is to let people know they are not alone.
Shannon L. Alder
In disasters, members of emergency rescue services face significant and serious risks to life and health when taking protective and rescue measures. Members of emergency rescue services engaged in disaster relief may be contaminated in one of the following ways (Hawley, Noll, & Hilderbrand, 2002): a) by inhalation, through the respiratory system; b) absorption through the skin; c) ingestion; d) injection. Depending on this, the protective measures taken by members of emergency rescue units will also vary.
Protective measures for members of emergency rescue services may vary depending on the tasks to be performed and the location at the disaster site, and may change depending on the activities at the site. Protective equipment directly depends on the physical and chemical properties of harmful agents present in the disaster area.
Based on experiences with interventions involving various harmful agents in disasters, it is essential to note that standard firefighting gear is not designed for chemical hazards, and protective clothing is the last line of defense. Members of these services can use respiratory, thermal, and chemical protective equipment, as well as specialized protective gear.
In every disaster, there will be certain hazards and harmful effects: a) thermal (cold and heat); radioactive (alpha, beta, gamma, X-rays, neutrons); b) chemical (corrosive and toxic materials); c) biological (bloodborne pathogens and biological toxins); d) mechanical (risk of slipping, tripping, explosion, impact from objects); e) suffocation (simple suffocation – oxygen displacement and chemical suffocation – the human body is unable to use oxygen).
When selecting protective clothing, the type of hazard and the response strategy to be implemented must be considered. Protective suits will change depending on several factors, mostly on the task, i.e., whether emergency rescue service members will undertake offensive, defensive tasks or perform certain measures and actions without appropriate intervention. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the following (Levy, 2006): a) the hazard to be faced; b) specific tasks to be performed; c) the level and type of protective clothing to be used, as well as d) the physical and psychological condition of the user of the protective clothing. The following types of typical protective clothing are available to members of these services (Payl, 2000): a) standard protective uniform (firefighting and rescue gear); b) clothing for protection against liquid chemical substances; c) clothing for protection against chemical vapors; d) specialized clothing (bomb suit).
The safety and health of members of emergency rescue services in disaster areas, which may contain hazardous materials, are of paramount importance for effectively mitigating the consequences of these disasters (Kahn, 2004). Although prevention of exposure to hazardous materials is often the primary concept, threats from possible additional hazards at the disaster site must be considered, taking into account the stress of working in personal protective equipment, physical and mental condition, and appropriate decontamination procedures based on the scope and size of the disaster itself (Kayem, 2003). Disasters involving hazardous materials entail working in a hazardous environment that may pose an immediate threat to life and health, which is not obvious or easily identifiable as such.
Personal protective equipment is any type of clothing or device worn by rescue and protection forces to protect themselves from hazards that may be present in the area (Hawley et al., 2002). Operational tactical measures and actions by the police will require some form of respiratory protection and skin protection. Wearing personal protective equipment can pose significant psychological and physiological risks, especially if these forces are not accustomed to wearing personal protective equipment. The consequences of wearing protective equipment can manifest in various ways, such as claustrophobic reactions, hyperventilation, heat stress, contact dermatitis, and reduced physical performance. The time spent working in personal protective equipment is limited. Members of emergency rescue services undertaking protective and rescue measures must undergo all medical examinations to confirm their ability to work in personal protective equipment.
To adequately protect members of emergency rescue services when taking necessary measures and actions, the following is necessary: conduct hazard assessment; conduct health control; select appropriate equipment; implement training programs; regularly maintain equipment. Respiratory protection is the most critical individual part of chemical protection for personnel involved in forbidden zone operations.
Respiratory protection can be achieved using: a) air-purifying devices (limitations: cannot be used in atmospheres directly hazardous to life and health, contaminating materials must be known and have good warning properties, limited protection duration); b) air-supply devices (limitations: limited mobility, limited length of supply hose, hose may be chemical resistant, withdrawal reserve is time-limited to 5 minutes).
Chemical protective clothing is fabric that provides protection from chemicals because it is resistant to them. It is essential to note that no chemical suit provides protection from all chemicals, and most of these suits offer weak or no protection from heat and flame. There are several general factors that influence the selection of a protective clothing ensemble, which relate to the individual, mission, and environment in which certain measures are taken. Chemical protective clothing consists of a suit, gloves, and boots. There are four levels of clothing for chemical protection known as A, B, C, and D. Ensuring the safety of police officers who will be engaged at the scene of a terrorist event is of paramount importance. Inappropriate hazard assessments can compromise or disrupt the integrity of evidence collection.
4.3. Equipment of emergency rescue services.
Do what you can, with what you have, where you are.
Theodore Roosevelt
For performing various activities in protection and rescue operations, appropriate and adequate equipment is needed, primarily: rescue equipment, firefighting equipment, personal protective equipment, and equipment for logistical support. Rescue equipment used in carrying out protection and rescue operations includes the following equipment: for shoring and other support; devices for stabilizing damaged or destroyed parts of buildings; digging, cutting, spreading, and other handling devices; vehicles (trucks, boats, helicopters, airplanes); ropes, harnesses; equipment and devices for recording and listening; and other equipment whose function is to extract victims from difficult-to-access locations (Coppola, 2015).
Protective firefighting and rescue equipment includes: a) equipment for protection from flames and heat (protects from intense thermal radiation, shields from flame contact and hot air, made of asbestos or aluminum fibers); b) respiratory protection equipment (differentiated into filtration – protective mask, breathing apparatus, respirators, and isolation equipment – compressed air apparatus and oxygen apparatus; a complete isolation apparatus consists of a bottle, reducing valve, connecting tubes, lung machine, mask, and carrying equipment); c) equipment for protection from aggressive substances (complete – coverall suits and partial protection – coveralls, boots, gloves, protective mask); d) equipment for work in radioactive environments.
Equipment can be personal or collective and requires appropriate cleaning, decontamination, and storage. At specified intervals, they are visually inspected, tested for impermeability, and the proper functioning of various connections. Certain types of protective equipment are made of various materials such as rubber, rubberized fabrics, and plastic materials. It should be noted that with respiratory protection equipment, the autonomy of work depends on the size and capacity of the bottle, the overall physical and mental condition of the rescue service members (for example, during rest, between 10 to 15 liters per minute are consumed, while during strenuous work, between 50 to 85 liters per minute are consumed).
Regardless of the activities, every member of the intervention and rescue units should have a protective mask used in environments where there is at least 17 percent oxygen in the air. A protective mask shields the mouth, nose, face, and eyes of the members during interventions in areas with high concentrations of harmful dust, gases, and vapors. The basic parts of a protective mask are: facepiece; straps; visor; filter, and exhalation valve. Intervention managers at operational and tactical levels must be well acquainted with all circumstances, advantages, and disadvantages of using individual parts and types of protective equipment. The following questions need to be considered: what are the reasons for using protective equipment and what danger is being faced?; what types of equipment are available, and what is the upper safety limit of their use?; what are the specific limitations of individual protective equipment?
Intervention and rescue unit members performing their daily tasks in hazardous environments will face the following limitations due to the use of protective equipment: a) significant stress levels due to high temperatures or heat; b) limited mobility due to protective suits and equipment; c) unclear and limited visibility with technical specifications of protective visors in mind; d) hindered communication due to isolation from the external environment with hermetically sealed suits and dependence on the technical integrity of communication equipment; e) very limited dexterity, preventing members from being as effective as they are without protective equipment; f) lack of experience in taking measures and actions in protective equipment.
Every intervention manager must consider all relevant circumstances and hazards, take into account the health status of members sent on intervention, as well as equipment specifications. Given that protective masks are widespread personal protective equipment, it is essential to ensure that the filters used are intended for different types of hazardous materials, have their expiration date, serve for single-use, and are not intended for use in environments with flammable atmospheres.
In certain situations such as disasters caused by specific chemical materials, intervention and rescue service members entering a prohibited zone must be absolutely and completely isolated from the external environment. For these reasons, they will be compelled to use full respiratory isolation protection, which will greatly hinder the undertaking of operational, tactical, and technical measures and actions: apprehending criminals; providing first aid to injured individuals; rescuing and evacuating injured people, etc.
When selecting protective equipment, care should be taken of numerous mentioned factors, especially the following: a) the person undertaking measures and actions (level of training, psycho-physical readiness, and experience); b) the goals and mission of the intended activities; c) the characteristics of the environment in which activities are undertaken. It should be noted that all protective equipment can lose its qualitative properties over time and lead to leaks or penetration. For these reasons, it is advisable to maintain appropriate records of personal and collective protective equipment maintenance.
In addition to personal and collective protective equipment, members of relevant services also have access to certain technical equipment. In specially designated vehicles, members can access various tools without which certain interventions cannot be resolved, such as traffic accidents, rescuing people during earthquakes or floods, explosions, rescuing people from depths and heights, etc. In practice, the following tools are most commonly used: a) hydraulic shears and hydraulic spreaders; b) thermal (oxyacetylene) cutting devices; c) motorized saws for cutting wood and metal; d) pulling and lifting devices; e) electric fuel pumps; f) pneumatic cushions. These types of tools can be used in various tactical situations and can also be extensively combined. Their primary purpose is cutting metal, making openings in specific surfaces, severing thick concrete reinforcements, sealing holes in leaking hazardous material tanks, etc.
Technical lifting and pulling equipment is used for moving, lifting, and pulling larger loads, tensioning, and extraction from depths. In disasters caused by hazardous materials, available personnel also have specifically designed electric fuel pumps, which can be used with their own power source as well as by connecting to the city’s electrical grid. Pneumatic cushions can be used for lifting loads from 10 to 70 tons, with a thickness of 20 millimeters, and a maximum working pressure of 8 bar, which can be filled with water or air.
In a large number of situations, there will be a pronounced need for acquiring larger quantities of water for various needs of affected people, but also for firefighting needs. In such circumstances, rescuers can use appropriate equipment to obtain water from greater depths. These are various pumps used for pumping water, and their purpose is to push water to the surface to firefighting and rescue vehicles. Depending on their construction, they can be rotary pumps on mechanical (rotary pump submerged in water while the driving motor is on the surface), hydraulic (common housing for the water turbine and centrifugal pump), or electric drive.
Firefighting and rescue hoses are also part of the equipment, which can be suction or discharge hoses. Suction hoses are intended for supplying water from a source to the firefighting pump and are made of rubber with specific textile weaving and internal metal spiral threads. On the other hand, discharge hoses are intended for discharging water from the pump to the intervention site. Depending on their dimensions, they differentiate into suction and discharge hoses type A, B, C, and D. All hoses are tested and periodically checked: a) inspection of the condition of the metal spiral; b) inspection of the lining; c) inspection of water pressure; d) inspection of negative pressure. Of course, other parameters such as stretching, wear, aging, frequency of use, etc., are also taken into account. Additionally, it is significant to emphasize the existence of couplings (transition or reducer and blind), collectors (having two input and one output openings), dividers (one input and multiple output openings – 2 or 3), pressure regulators, suction strainers (housing, non-return valve, inlet part, and non-return valve opening mechanism), nozzles (ordinary, universal, and special-purpose nozzles – pistol, monsoon, deep, flexible, monitor), which have a body, head, suction, and stable coupling.
Various electrical equipment is used in interventions (voltage tester, screwdriver, combination pliers, electrician’s belt, climbers, high voltage shears, rubber gloves, fuse wrench), lighting equipment (handheld portable lamps in regular and “Ex” versions, spotlights, handheld, stable on tripods, and stable on vehicles), and ventilation. Essential equipment due to the lack of electrical power are also generators, which can be portable and stable on vehicles.
Rescue equipment for people includes: a) open descent rope (lengths of 25, 30, and 35 meters); b) closed descent rope (up to 20 meters in the form of a bag or rectangular shape); c) rappelling harness; d) air cushion (the safest device, allows jumps from 30 meters, has air chambers with built-in fans and side vents for air discharge during jumps); d) rescue and cross-use harness (for rescue and self-rescue, for extracting equipment along the building facade, from 12 to 16 millimeters, lengths of 15, 20, and 25 meters, without knots, should not be abruptly loaded, must be adequately maintained, control is performed twice a year); đ) self-rescuer (consists of a specific bag made of synthetic materials, steel cable with a carabiner for attaching the plate with the pulley, a plate with a three-times-wrapped rope, two guides and a safety lock, a smaller pulley with a carabiner, a special rope length of 60m, and a mechanism for extraction and speed regulation).
In addition to firefighting and rescue equipment, indispensable equipment used by the police in carrying out their tasks is also necessary for undertaking protection and rescue measures in disasters. Intervention – protective equipment consists of the following parts (Milojević and Janković, 2022, p. 255): leg and arm guards; intervention (anti-trauma) vest; protective mask; helmet with visor and intervention shield. In addition, protective intervention gloves and protective vests intended for protection against firearms are used. During border checks, police officers use appropriate technical means and devices, equipment, tools, and service dogs. Technical means used include (Milojević and Janković, 2022, pp. 343-348): mobile scanners with X-rays – used by customs for cargo control, but also applied in cooperation with border police for detecting persons and items hidden in vehicles; digital video endoscope – digitally recorded material of vehicle cavities inspection with high-resolution image; devices for measuring material density – detection of non-structural cavity on vehicles, for quick and efficient scanning of objects, for finding drugs, weapons, undeclared currency, explosive devices, and other objects; heart rate detector – detects the presence of persons hidden in vehicles using data from special sensors, detecting shock waves generated from heartbeats, which bounce off any surface or object in contact with the body; thermal imaging vehicle – the recording and observation system consists of several elements: thermal imaging cameras, day cameras, laser rangefinders, digital video recorder for archiving recorded materials; tactical aerostatic system – consists of a balloon, to which a color camera, thermal imaging camera, various sensors, and communication system with the ground are attached. The balloon is fixed with ropes to a stationary point on the ground, where the ground control station is located, which receives video signals and telemetry information from the equipment on the balloon and sends commands for equipment operation.
4.4. Training of members of intervention-rescue services
Who knows nothing, loves nothing. Who can do nothing, understands nothing. Who understands nothing, is worthless. But one who understands, loves, notices, sees… One loves more what one knows more about… Whoever imagines that every fruit ripens at the same time as strawberries, knows nothing about grapes.
Paracelsus
Training members of intervention and rescue services for taking measures of protection and rescue in disasters undoubtedly constitutes an essential step in the process of their professional education. Education implies the process of acquiring knowledge, building skills and habits, developing abilities, adopting value systems, and behavioral rules (Trgočević, 2003, p. 11). Education can be formal, non-formal, and informal (Allen, 2007). Formal education occurs within the school system, ranging from elementary schools to postgraduate studies at universities, based on approved education programs leading to obtaining diplomas (certificates), or national recognitions of acquired qualifications, competencies, or education levels. On the other hand, non-formal education refers to all education and learning programs and activities outside the school system. Like formal education, it is organized and institutional but does not culminate in social verification of acquired knowledge and achievements in terms of national qualifications and education levels (Jakovljević, Cvetković, & Gačić, 2015, p. 97). Educational activities are conducted by trained and competent educators (Marjanović, 2003, p. 27).
In general, non-formal education serves to complement formal education and gives us the opportunity to access all those contents that are inaccessible or even completely untouched in formal education (courses of various skills, practical business knowledge, personal development) (Jakovljević, Cvetković, & Gačić, 2015). Non-formal education is conducted through activities such as courses, seminars, lectures, conferences, workshops, various types of training, as well as volunteering (Petal & Izadkhah, 2008). Unlike formal and non-formal education, informal learning may not occur consciously, which individuals may not recognize as contributing to their knowledge and skills. Informal learning is a lifelong process that contributes to personality development, forming opinions, adopting certain values and virtues, occurring in the family, workplace, everyday life, through contacts with others. Informal education thus involves learning from everyday life and represents a specific combination of life and learning (Jakovljević, Cvetković, & Gačić, 2015, p. 97).
The objectives of training for appropriate and effective response to disasters can be multiple (Alexander, 2002; Cvetković, 2020): a) testing and evaluating the allocation and coordination of local and regional resources; b) demonstrating the public alertness capabilities at certain intervals; c) testing alternative communication systems to be activated and functional within 90 minutes of the disaster occurrence; d) demonstrating the staff’s ability in headquarters to function and make valid decisions at the operational level; e) testing the capability to provide initial disaster assessment within four hours; f) demonstrating the ability to provide food, communication, and administrative and logistical support to staff at headquarters; g) demonstrating the ability to verify the existence of certain events or hazards; and h) assessing the participation capabilities of various intervention and rescue services.
The Regulation on Training, Curricula and Programs, and Norms of Teaching Aids and Equipment for Training Members of Civil Protection (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 8/2013 of January 25, 2013) regulates the training method, training curricula and programs, and norms of teaching aids and equipment for training members of civil protection. It is prescribed that a course represents a form of training through which members of civil protection are trained for tasks performed by specialized units of civil protection (Article 2). On the other hand, it is envisaged that a seminar is a form of training through which members of civil protection are trained for performing specific duties in specialized units of civil protection, while training is a form of training organized for the purpose of refreshing and practicing acquired knowledge and skills of individuals or specific parts of specialized units of civil protection (Articles 3 and 4).
The mentioned regulation stipulates that the training of members of civil protection is planned in five-year cycles. In contrast, it is determined that the training of specialized units of civil protection is planned and conducted annually. Training can also be organized ad hoc, based on identified needs, for conditioning individuals or specific parts of specialized units. Before conducting civil protection exercises, training is organized as preparation for the exercise. Civil protection unit exercises are conducted at least once in a five-year cycle. It is specifically prescribed that if a specialized unit of civil protection is engaged in implementing civil protection measures and tasks during the year, it is not called for planned training, except in cases where readiness for performing designated tasks during that engagement has been expressed (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 8/2013).
The organization and implementation of all types of training for specialized units of civil protection and authorized legal entities for protection and rescue in the Republic of Serbia are based on the annual training plan, prepared by the National Training Center for Protection and Rescue. The plan contains basic elements for planning and drafting reports, organization, management, and implementation of tasks during training. Local self-government units plan the training of commissioners, general-purpose units, and authorized legal entities significant for local self-government. Companies and other legal entities plan the training of commissioners and civil protection units they form (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 8/2013).
One of the important tasks in the training of rescue teams is the establishment of an information system that enables the use of hardware and software support systems during training under normal or specially simulated conditions. The components of the information system may include computers, special devices, equipment, elements of influencing factors, tables with disaster data, training programs for rescuers of various profiles, and a set of legal documents related to the activities of such services in such extreme circumstances (Lipkovich et al., 2014a).
4.5. Communication in disasters
You will rarely regret the things you didn’t say, but you will often regret the things you said, and even more so if you knew all the consequences of your words.
Leo Tolstoy
Depending on the size and complexity of a disaster, it is possible to establish multiple channels and networks of communication. Furthermore, a distinction should be made between communication within the disaster-affected area among members of engaged units and communication about disaster risks. Based on various definitions of disaster risk communication, it can be emphasized that it involves an integrated and multidimensional process of collecting, analyzing, and disseminating information about various aspects (preparedness, mitigation, response, and recovery) of risks from natural and anthropogenic disasters. This includes clearly defined senders (competent authorities, subjects, and disaster risk reduction forces), messages (clear, concise, unambiguous, scientifically grounded, and verifiable), and recipients (citizens).
The function of disaster risk communication involves raising awareness, educating the population, encouraging people to act, reaching agreements, maintaining trust in communicators, spreading information during disasters, and assisting in post-disaster recovery and learning from the situation. Key elements of the disaster risk communication process include senders or sources (e.g., risk managers issuing warnings), messages (e.g., warning content: information in text, speech, sound, image, etc.), channels (television, telephone, warning sirens), recipients, and effects, i.e., changes in recipients’ behavior as a result of the communication process.
An integrated communication system represents a system based on a unified communication plan, standard operating procedures, the use of “clean” text, unique frequencies, and standardized terminology. Moreover, it is crucial to have interoperability of communication systems in disaster areas, which implies various capabilities or abilities of disaster response services to exchange all information and data and have mutual communication. Communication between such services includes the exchange of voice and written messages, video content, images, and other multimedia content to undertake operational-tactical and technical measures and actions.
It is important to note that a unified management approach does not diminish or take away authority or responsibility from a particular disaster response service. Rather, the concept of a unified management chain means that all participants contribute to the process by determining common goals, maximizing the use of all available resources, jointly planning operational activities, implementing actions in an integrated manner, adhering to a unified action plan, establishing a unified management system, and assigning responsibility for implementing the action plan.
Interoperability of communication systems in disasters must be ensured at three different levels: technical (standards and protocols for linking individual communication systems and services), semantic (clarity of data, messages, decisions, orders, and tasks), and process (defining common goals, modeling communication processes, and achieving cooperation among different disaster response services). Shortcomings in quality communication between services can significantly impede rescue operations and, in the worst-case scenario, contribute to the suffering of a large number of people.
In all phases of disaster management, it is necessary to consider the following: develop various communication strategies in case the primary means of communication becomes ineffective; anticipate language barriers and issues with translation services; ensure continuous communication with local leaders for the exchange of situational facts and to help develop trust relationships. It should be kept in mind that unified terminology is essential in all management systems, especially when joint work of unrelated services, agencies, and teams is necessary. Terminology related to disaster risk management systems is standardized and consistent for all participants. One of the greatest challenges in contemporary disaster management is developing the capability and conditions to identify and describe the most significant characteristics of a manifested disaster in a short period and informing the public as soon as possible in the phases before, during, and after the manifestation of disaster consequences.
In practice, it’s not uncommon for members of emergency response units to complain about the lack of “accurate information, in real time.” Any delay in obtaining such information automatically translates into a delay in the aid delivery process, directly leading to an increase in consequences. Nowadays, thanks to automatic and intelligent systems, life has been significantly facilitated, especially during emergencies. Smartphones are an example of technology that offers a range of beneficial functions for their users and the entire community before, during, and after disasters. The use of smartphones in disaster management has significantly improved the tracking of affected individuals, employees from governmental and non-governmental organizations, volunteers, and all other active stakeholders through the Global Positioning System (GPS). These capabilities are realized in two ways: either through mobile network signals, where signals transmitted to the base will indicate the location, or through platforms with built-in position calculation sensors such as those detecting the user’s location on the map, depending on the strength of the geomagnetic field (Maryam et al., 2016, p. 301). Additionally, smartphone users have the opportunity to send and receive updated information about the current disaster not only via wireless communication, using long-range protocols but also through wireless sensor networks characterized by short-range protocols. When using various applications, different sensors embedded in smartphones such as accelerometers and magnetometers are also utilized (Svrdlin & Cvetković, pp. 168-169).
4.6. Decontamination and sanitation operations
While strategy is abstract and focused on long-term goals, tactics are concrete and concern decisions about which move is currently the most appropriate.
Gary Kasparov
Decontamination is a process in which equipment, personnel, and supplies are freed from the influence of harmful materials present during entry into or work in contaminated areas. On-site decontamination is necessary to ensure the safety of emergency response services and the public by reducing the amount of contamination on individuals, equipment, and in the environment. Decontamination itself must be coordinated with the tactical operations of the aforementioned services and appropriately implemented. It should be part of every action plan in terrorist attacks.
Decontaminating a large number of people will be a challenge for rescue services. One of the most significant methods of decontamination is undeniably removing clothing and properly disposing or destroying it. Removing outer clothing removes up to 80% of contaminating material. On the other hand, rinsing with water for three minutes provides excellent removal effects of contaminating material. Decontamination needs to be carried out quickly and without delay. In certain cases, decontaminating clothing can be very complex, necessitating its disposal (Cvetković, 2013).
Decontamination is conducted by fire and rescue units or other emergency response services assigned to perform this task. The goal of decontamination itself is to increase and ensure safety at the disaster site by minimizing the potential for secondary contamination outside the disaster site. The decontamination area is typically located in a restricted access zone, preferably upwind. It is well-marked and identified. Establishing emergency decontamination capabilities should be part of the action plan for any tactical operation involving hazardous materials. Victims must be decontaminated before transport (Cvetković, 2013).
Decontamination methods can be divided into physical and chemical. Physical methods include: 1. brushing and scraping; 2. dilution; 3. absorption; 4. heating; 5. using low or high air pressure (compressed air can cause contaminants to separate from the ground and result in favorable conditions for inhalation and spreading of contamination). Chemical decontamination methods include: 1. chemical degradation (use of bleach, solvents, cleaners, etc.); 2. neutralization; 3. solidification; 4. disinfection and sterilization. The success of decontamination is directly related to how well the disaster manager can control personnel and the operation on-site. The manager should recognize that sometimes urgent decontamination of clothing and equipment is not possible and that these items may require disposal (Cvetković, 2013).
Decontamination processes are based on methods that take into account the characteristics of different types of contamination, such as surface and penetrating contamination. Surface contamination occurs when hazardous material is not absorbed into the material and, normally, it is easier to detect and remove than penetrating contamination (dust, powders, and asbestos fibers). Penetrating decontamination occurs when hazardous material is absorbed into the material and is often difficult or impossible to detect and remove. If contaminants that have penetrated the material are not removed by decontamination, they can continue to penetrate through the fabric and pose a risk to the “interior” of the protective suit. While decontamination is performed to protect health and ensure safety, it can also pose a danger in certain situations. For example, decontamination methods may be inappropriate in a hazardous undertaking and can thus provoke a strong reaction. Furthermore, they can directly endanger the health of personnel from inhaling hazardous fumes. The physical and chemical properties of the decontamination solution must be determined before use.
Personnel belonging to the decontamination group must be adequately protected. In some situations, decontamination personnel should wear the same level of personal protective equipment as personnel working in the restricted zone. In most situations, decontamination personnel are adequately protected by wearing personal protective equipment one level lower than the entering team. An air monitoring device may allow the degree of protection to drop to the level of air purification (Cvetković, 2013).
4.6.1. Emergency decontamination
In disasters, it is very common for sudden contamination of people and emergency responders to occur with hazardous materials. In such situations, emergency decontamination is initiated with the aim of quickly and efficiently removing contamination. Specifically, emergency decontamination is required when someone who is not wearing personal protective equipment is contaminated, or when the personal protective equipment of emergency responders is breached, resulting in contact between the body and the contamination. This issue is typically associated with routine incidents where the presence of hazardous materials is not suspected. When a person is accidentally contaminated, emergency decontamination must be performed efficiently and promptly.
Emergency decontamination can be improved, but the primary goal is to clean the contaminated individual as soon as possible. Soap and water are universal solutions and should be used in large quantities. When acids or bases are on bare skin, the minimum duration of water flushing is 20 minutes (Cvetković, 2013).
4.6.2. Mass decontamination
In disasters, contamination of a large number of civilians as well as emergency response personnel is most likely to occur. With the increasing problem of terrorism, the probability of facing tens, hundreds, or even thousands of contaminated individuals is very possible. Clothing removal is part of decontamination that has proven to be very effective in the case of mass contamination.
Mass decontamination can be conducted in various ways, including: 1. creating mass decontamination corridors; 2. using mobile showers; 3. utilizing indoor and outdoor pools through which victims can pass into water; 4. using pouring cans in buildings with fire protection systems; 5. using showers in bathrooms, such as a locker room in a high school. In cold weather conditions, victims can be washed outdoors in the cold and survive hypothermia if moved to a warm building or vehicle as soon as possible. If a victim can die from contamination, they should be washed regardless of how cold it is. They should be moved to an enclosed space with a high temperature as soon as possible to avoid injuries (National Council on Radiation & Measurements; Cvetković, 2012).
Discussion questions
¤ How does the organization of emergency response services function in disasters?
¤ Specify and explain the role and tasks of the police in disasters caused by natural and technical-technological catastrophes.
¤ Specify and explain the role and tasks of firefighting and rescue units in disasters caused by natural and technical-technological catastrophes.
¤ Specify and explain the role and tasks of emergency medical services in disasters caused by natural and technical-technological catastrophes.
¤ Specify and explain the role and tasks of the military in disasters caused by natural and technical-technological catastrophes.
¤ Specify and explain the role and tasks of rescue teams and non-governmental organizations in disasters caused by natural and technical-technological catastrophes.
¤ Specify and explain the role and tasks of civil protection units in disasters caused by natural and technical-technological catastrophes.
¤ What equipment do emergency response services use in disaster prevention and mitigation activities?
¤ How does communication function in disasters?
¤ Explain decontamination and site remediation operations in disasters.
Recommendations for further reading
¨ Varano, S. P., & Schafer, J. A. (2012). Policing Disasters: The Role of Police in the Pre-Disaster Planning and Post-Disaster Responses. In M. Deflem (Ed.), Disasters, Hazards and Law (Sociology of Crime, Law and Deviance) (Vol. 17, pp. 83-112). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
¨ Rappoport, H. K., Levy, L. S., Golden, B. L., & Toussaint, K. J. (1992). A planning heuristic for military airlift. Interfaces, 22(3), 73-87.
¨ Cvetković, V. (2016). Policija ikatastrofe. Beograd: Zadužbina Andrejević.
¨ Cvetković, V., Aksentijević, V., & Ivović, M. (2015). Uloga službe hitne medicinske pomoći u vanrednim situacijama izazvanim terorističkim aktima. Suprotstavlјanje savremenim oblicima kriminaliteta – analiza stanja, evropski standardi i mere za unapređenje (pp. 355-367). Beograd: Kriminalističko – policijska akademija i Fondacija Hans Zajdel.
¨ Lipkovič, I., Petrenko, N., & Oriщenko, I. (2014). Organizaciя i vedenie avariйno-spasatelьnыh rabot. Zernograd: Azovo-Černomorskiй inženernый institut FGBOU VPO DGAU.
¨ Milojković, B., Milojević, S., Vučković, G., Janković, B., Gligorijević, M., & Jokić, N. (2015). Certain aspects of provoding use of police units in actions of protection and rescuing in case of natural disasters. In Archibald reiss days (pp. 407-422). Belgrade: The Academy of Criminalistic and Police Studies, Belgrade.
¨ Janković, B., & Cvetković, V. (2020). Public perception of police behaviors in the disaster COVID-19 – the Case of Serbia. Policing An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management. doi:10.1108/PIJPSM-05-2020-0072
¨ Kapucu, N. (2011). The Role of the Military in Disaster Response in the US. European Journal Of Economic & Political Studies, 4(2).
¨ Anderson, W. A. (1970). Military organizations in natural disaster: established and emergent norms. American behavioral scientist, 13(3), 415-422.
¨ Balcik, B., Beamon, B. M., Krejci, C. C., Muramatsu, K. M., & Ramirez, M. (2010). Coordination in humanitarian relief chains: Practices, challenges and opportunities. International Journal of production economics, 126(1), 22-34.
¨ Barbarosoğlu, G., Özdamar, L., & Cevik, A. (2002). An interactive approach for hierarchical analysis of helicopter logistics in disaster relief operations. European Journal of Operational Research, 140(1), 118-133.
¨ Cvetković, V. (2013). Interventno-spasilačke službe u vanrednim situacijama. Beograd: Zadužbina Andrejević.
V TACTICS OF PROTECTION AND RESCUE IN DISASTERS CAUSED BY LITHOSPHERIC HAZARDS
Chapter summary
In the fifth chapter of the textbook, an overview of the most significant tactical principles and recommendations regarding protection and rescue, i.e., taking concrete operational, tactical, and technical measures and actions in disasters caused by lithospheric hazards such as earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, and volcanic eruptions is provided. Within this chapter, tactical principles for the protection and rescue of people in disasters caused by lithospheric hazards such as earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, and volcanic eruptions are examined. Special attention is paid to conceptual definitions and characteristics of such hazards significant for protection and rescue. The organization and specific protective measures in such disasters are reviewed, formulated, and studied. Additionally, the organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, and volcanic eruptions is elaborated and described. Therefore, for each of the mentioned hazards, the characteristics of the hazards themselves, organization and protective measures, as well as the organization of rescue activities, are examined.
Keywords: tactics of protection and rescue; conceptually defined; characteristics; earthquake; landslides and avalanches; volcanic eruptions; organization; protective measures; rescue activities.
Learning objectives
v Understanding the conceptual definition and characteristics of hazards (earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, and volcanic eruptions) relevant to protection and rescue;
v Familiarization with the organization and measures of protection and rescue in disasters caused by earthquakes;
v Familiarization with the organization and measures of protection and rescue in disasters caused by landslides and avalanches;
v Familiarization with the organization and measures of protection and rescue in disasters caused by volcanic eruptions;
v Acquiring knowledge about the organization of rescue activities in earthquakes;
v Acquiring knowledge about the organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by landslides and avalanches;
v Acquiring knowledge about the organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by volcanic eruptions;
v Gaining basic understanding and information about the coordination of protection and rescue activities in earthquakes, landslides, avalanches, and volcanic eruptions.
5.1. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by earthquakes
When earthquakes occur in the world, they are talked about and discussed extensively. Every detail is noted while it lasts. Human casualties and victims’ names are recorded. And the extent of the damage to houses is also known. However, after several years, the number of human casualties is forgotten, sometimes exaggerated, and only the places where earthquakes occurred are remembered.
Milos Crnjanski
5.1.1. Concept and characteristics of earthquakes relevant to the organization of protection and rescue efforts.
Earthquakes represent seriously destructive and deadly natural phenomena that can directly or indirectly cause significant disruptions to the functioning of local communities. One of the most severe earthquakes occurred in China in 1976, resulting in the destruction of an entire city and the loss of over 255,000 lives in less than six minutes. Additionally, during 2008 in China’s Sichuan province, an earthquake destroyed all bridges connecting the affected area with other parts of the community and blocked approximately 70 roads, hindering rescue units from reaching injured and trapped individuals (Phillips, 2009). In the Alaskan earthquake, which lasted about five minutes and measured 9.2 on the Richter scale, an area of about 260,000 square kilometers experienced significant shaking.
On January 17, 1995, an earthquake measuring 6.9 on the Richter scale struck the city of Kobe at 5:46 in the morning. More than 6,000 people were killed, and at least 300,000 were injured. Over 1.5 million homes (about a fifth of the city) were damaged, with 103,521 buildings destroyed, leaving only 20% of structures habitable after the earthquake. Preliminary estimates suggest that this disaster was at least 10 times more devastating than the Northridge earthquake that struck Southern California in 1994 (Kitano et al., 1999).
Earthquakes are caused by the sudden movement of large rock plates along fractures within the earth (Bradford & Carmichael, 2007, p. 97), resulting from the shifting of tectonic plates, which generate stress within the Earth’s crust, leading to the release of immense energy. They can occur due to natural (volcanic eruptions, landslides) or artificial activities (nuclear tests). The point of energy release within the earth is called the hypocenter, while the point on the surface is called the epicenter. They are recorded using specific instruments such as seismoscopes and seismographs.
The destructiveness and fatality, or consequences of earthquakes, depend on their magnitude, depth, direction of faults, distance from populated central areas, nature and characteristics of the surface soil layer, as well as prevalent engineering and construction practices. Therefore, earthquakes of different intensities can have varying effects on people and their property. Seismic shaking generally decreases with increasing distance from the earthquake epicenter.
Currently, it is impossible to provide an exact earthquake forecast; however, even a few seconds of early warning time for various vital objects would be beneficial for pre-planned actions in the event of a disaster. Since earthquakes occur without warning, they present a serious challenge for all security services. Consequently, designed systems produce so-called shaking maps, which graphically depict measured ground vibrations immediately after an event to establish and organize emergency measures in areas requiring assistance (Gasparini & Manfredi, 2014; Hsiao, Wu, Shin, Zhao, & Teng, 2009; Kanamori, Hauksson, & Heaton, 1997).
In the spatial plan of the Republic of Serbia for the period from 2021 to 2035 (2021), it was determined that the most vulnerable cities in terms of population and seismic hazards are: Jagodina, Kragujevac, Kraljevo, Čačak, Novi Pazar, and Loznica. Approximately 700,000 inhabitants live in the broader area around these cities. The highest intensity of level VIII is associated with zones with high basic seismic hazards and unfavorable local soil conditions (26.58% of the total area of Serbia) in the following areas: central Serbia (the valleys of Velika, Zapadna, and part of Južna Morava, southern Serbia towards the border with North Macedonia – Preševo and Bujanovac), AP Kosovo and Metohija towards the border with Albania (Đakovica, Peć), and in AP Vojvodina towards the border area with Romania (part of Banat).
Half of the territory of the Republic of Serbia (58.07%) is in zones from levels VII to VIII, with the entire central Serbia area. Seismic hazard is lowest in eastern Serbia and in parts of Bačka in Vojvodina. Considering the regional division, the highest category of level VIII is most prevalent in the Pomoravlje region (83.63% of the total territory), followed by the Raška (74.51%), Podunavlje (73.78%), and Šumadija (68.95%) regions, as well as in AP Kosovo and Metohija, the regions of Prizren (64.2%) and Peć (63.2%).
5.1.2. Organization and protective measures in disasters caused by earthquakes
The basis for planning and implementing preventive measures is seismic zoning of the country’s territory and micro-zoning of urban and industrial areas into areas of different seismic hazards, which must be taken into account when constructing and implementing measures to prevent and reduce earthquake damage. Simultaneously, maps are created delineating the boundaries of zones of potential earthquakes of a certain intensity, the location of seismic active faults, areas of possible landslides and soil liquefaction, and other necessary data (Nassa, 2014).
Research conducted in recent decades has brought significant innovations in the field of earthquake protection and damage prevention. Japan has implemented cutting-edge innovative measures to protect people and property from the consequences of earthquakes. Much of the progress achieved is related to understanding the phenomenon called “liquefaction,” whereby the ground on which the construction foundation rests behaves like a liquid when subjected to significant geological pressure.
The most common methods of protecting structures from earthquakes (Mutor, 2019, p. 170) are: a) flexible structure. One of the key elements of this method is achieving a certain degree of flexibility in concrete and steel structures to avoid their destruction. For example, in Japan, beams are intertwined to behave like joints. Additionally, steel plates coated with latex membranes are used; b) counterbalancing pendulums. The collapse of skyscrapers is a devastating event to be avoided at all costs. Therefore, heavy pendulums are installed on some tall buildings to act as counterweights in the event of seismic shocks. If the building leans left, the counterweight will move right, and vice versa. An example of such a mechanism can be found in a skyscraper in Taiwan, China; c) isolation and energy dissipation system. A separation system is used to isolate the construction from the ground on which it is built. Therefore, movement affects only the isolation system, not the structure above it. Dampers are devices for damping or preventing structural fluctuations that occur during seismic activity.
To protect people and their property from earthquakes, it is necessary to design and construct resilient structures that can withstand certain supports without experiencing damage and specific fractures. Improving structural resilience involves using resilient materials (reinforced concrete structures) and enhanced design that allows a higher level of flexibility of the structure itself, and thus its resilience. In practice, it is crucial to raise awareness among investors and responsible authorities in relevant services about the need to improve the resilience of structures during their construction. In some local self-governments in Serbia, certain enhancements of residential buildings can be observed, such as installing additional supporting columns that take the weight of the upper structure and roof (Cvetković, 2020).
Following the earthquake that struck the area of Skopje, North Macedonia in 1963, causing devastating consequences, the first regulations in Yugoslavia were adopted, regulating construction in earthquake-prone areas. Shortly thereafter, the Regulation on Technical Norms for the Construction of High-rise Buildings in Seismic Areas was adopted in 1981 (Official Gazette of the SFRY, 52/90). According to this regulation, high-rise buildings are classified into four categories (Cvetković, 2020):
- a) Category I – buildings with premises intended for larger gatherings of people (cinema halls, theaters, sports, exhibition, and similar halls); faculties; schools; health facilities; fire and rescue service buildings; connection facilities not included in the previous category, industrial buildings with valuable equipment; buildings containing objects of exceptional cultural and artistic value, and other buildings where activities of special interest for socio-political communities are carried out;
- b) Category II – residential buildings; hotels; restaurants; public buildings not classified in the first category, industrial buildings not classified in the first category;
- c) Category III – auxiliary-production buildings; agro-technical facilities; and
- d) Category IV – temporary facilities whose collapse cannot endanger human life.
It is envisaged that for the purposes of designing high-rise structures classified in categories II and III, the seismological map of the SFRY made for the return period of earthquakes of 500 years should be used (Cvetković, 2020). Certain authors (Sengezer & Koç, 2005) have determined that reinforced concrete has the worst resistance while masonry buildings have greater resistance. It has also been found that significant damage occurs to wooden structures. Furthermore, it has been determined that objects built on soft soil suffer more damage than those on hard soil. Regarding the number of floors, it has been established that the least damage is caused to two-story buildings, while as the number of stories increases, the vulnerability of the structure increases. It has been confirmed that objects built after 1980 suffer the most damage. Paradoxically, the most affected objects are those built by the state (Sengezer & Koç, 2005).
The earthquake protection and rescue plan includes: a) schematic representation of entities involved in protection and rescue; b) overview of entities and forces for protection and rescue, only for specific danger; c) overview of the capacities of entities and forces; d) extract from the review of expert-operational team members, for specific danger; e) reminder for the work of disaster management staff and leaders of expert-operational teams, responsible persons; f) overview of measures and activities of participants in protection and rescue; g) overview of locations for the disposal of construction waste material and other material collected during terrain clearance (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 80/2019). In addition to the above, it contains a textual explanation of the organization of earthquake protection and rescue based on the assessed risk to people and objects.
For the protection of people, disaster risk managers must provide citizens with specific guidelines on how to protect themselves (Cvetković & Filipović, 2017; Cvetković, 2020): considering that during earthquakes, people are often injured by objects hanging from the ceiling or on the wall, it is necessary to securely fasten all chandeliers in the house, shelves, boilers, mirrors, etc. It is necessary to ensure that no shelves, mirrors, pictures, etc., are placed above the bed in bedrooms, as they could fall on the head in the event of a tremor; it is necessary to prepare supplies of food (canned) and water (bottled or otherwise stored drinking water) for four or more days and replenish them from time to time, depending on the recommendations of the manufacturer of canned food or bottled water. After a certain period, food and water supplies should be consumed, and before that, new ones should be purchased; citizens should have a battery-powered lamp with spare batteries, a transistor with spare batteries, a mobile phone, a first aid kit, medications, identification documents, a fire extinguisher, and a multi-purpose knife; it is necessary to inform oneself about protection and rescue plans in the event of earthquakes in the local community and continuously educate oneself about how to react in such situations; citizens should be educated not to attempt to flee and to remain calm and composed in such situations. They should not panic but should brace themselves at the first jolt, as stronger jolts often follow; if citizens find themselves indoors during an earthquake, they should lie down on the ground and assume the fetal position by lying on their side, curling up, and covering their eyes with their hands. This position will provide optimal protection, and if they have enough time to choose an appropriate place, they should move away from windows, glass objects, and exterior walls, or anything that could injure them. Of course, the space under internal load-bearing walls is the optimal place, and they should remain in the aforementioned position as long as the tremors last.
If citizens are in a ground-floor house and have enough time, they should evacuate such a building, but only if they assess that they can do so quickly. They should never exit the building through windows; they should be educated to assume the described position even outdoors, after leaving the building. A safe open space implies one where citizens cannot be endangered by falling banners, electrical installations, objects from building terraces, etc. Earthquakes often awaken citizens. In such cases, as soon as the tremor is felt, they should get out of bed and lie down beside it, assuming the fetal position; if citizens find themselves in a public building (supermarket, cinema, theater, etc.), they should be educated to remain calm and not allow panic to overtake them. In those moments, people often rush to leave the building, making themselves more susceptible to potential injuries (Cvetković, Filipović, 2017; Cvetković, 2020).
Due to this, it is necessary to move away from the crowd that is chaotically attempting to go outside; if citizens find themselves in a moving vehicle during an earthquake, and if road conditions or traffic conditions allow for safe stopping, it is recommended to stop the vehicle in a safe space (away from trees, overpasses, power lines, etc.). Then, it is necessary to exit the vehicle and assume the fetal position beside it; citizens are advised that, if they are not under rubble, they should carefully stand up, ensuring beforehand that nothing will fall on them. Under no circumstances should electrical devices be turned on or matches and lighters be lit (damaged gas installations or gas appliances can explode) (Cvetković & Filipović, 2017; Cvetković, 2020).
If citizens possess a radio transistor, it should be turned on to listen to the advice of the competent authorities. Also, if they have access to mobile phones, they should pay special attention to messages from the competent authorities, if received, regarding the course of action—provided that telecommunication systems are not interrupted; citizens should not leave their apartment or house or use stairs and elevators until it is established that they are safe and not damaged by tremors. It is mandatory to switch off the central switches of electrical energy and close the water and gas valves. Tap water should not be consumed, but rather stored water and food; if there were multiple members in the household during the tremors, it is necessary to check if anyone is injured. If there are injured individuals, first aid should be provided to them (hence every household must have a first aid kit). If someone is seriously injured or trapped, they should not be extracted as this could cause even more serious injuries; in the event of a fire, citizens should, if possible and if not in danger of life, extinguish the fire before leaving the premises or providing first aid. When the tremors cease, citizens should evacuate the building in the following manner: mothers with children should be evacuated first, followed by the elderly and persons with limited mobility, and finally themselves; after evacuation to a safe space (outside the building, away from power lines, electrical installations, etc.), it is necessary to check if all household members have left the premises. If they haven’t and the tremors have stopped, it is necessary to return to the building and find them (Cvetković & Filipović, 2017; Cvetković, 2020).
Before deciding to use motor vehicles in the mentioned situations, care should be taken to note that critical infrastructure (bridges, overpasses, etc.) is often damaged. Additionally, it is necessary to ensure that the vehicle does not cause a traffic blockade, thus preventing emergency and rescue services from adequately and effectively responding; citizens who are capable and willing can join the emergency and rescue service members (police, fire and rescue services of the military, emergency medical services, and civil protection units) and together with them provide assistance to the affected population. In doing so, citizens should adapt to the organization and command of the competent services. Affiliated citizens should not take any actions on their own initiative, except when emergency and rescue services have not arrived and someone’s life depends on their help.
5.1.3. Organization of rescue activities in earthquakes-induced disasters
The basic requirements for organizing and conducting rescue and other interventions in earthquake aftermaths are as follows: focusing the main efforts on saving people; organizing and executing tasks within a timeframe that ensures the survival of the affected and the protection of the population in the danger zone; applying methods and technologies for emergency rescue operations that correspond to the current situation, ensuring the fullest utilization of rescuers’ capabilities and technical means, as well as the safety of the affected and rescuers; responding to changes in the situation (Kusainov, 2013, p. 46).
In areas affected by such disasters, it is necessary to prioritize, divide zones into sectors, and define the means to be applied. For this reason, rescue from rubble is divided into seven phases (Gorički, 2014, p. 63): 1. Phase – liberation of surface victims: searching and sweeping the area around the rubble, simultaneous extraction and care of victims depending on injuries; 2. Phase – searching in less damaged parts of the objects; 3. Phase – detailed terrain search with search dogs; 4. Phase – detailed search with listening devices and viewing devices using telescopic cameras in inaccessible parts of the rubble: the search is based on search results; 5. Phase – selective removal of collapsed parts: according to search dog and listening device results; 6. Phase – complete removal of rubble: by human labor or mechanization; 7. Phase – marking or labeling of searched sectors and the entire object: information for other rescue teams about hazards, actions taken, and victims found in the rubble.
During rescue operations and rubble clearing, numerous techniques are used to secure the disaster area (marking, shoring), discover victims and determine their position (listening, marking, lighting), and approach their liberation (rescue, probing, lifting, dragging, etc.). Moreover, such intervention techniques are based on the use of tools and equipment that every member of the rescue and clearing team must be familiar with (Gorički, 2014).
Within the framework of rescue operations in earthquake-induced disaster areas, the following actions are necessary: a) searching for victims; b) working on unblocking victims; c) providing first aid; d) evacuating victims from hazardous areas to designated reception centers. After an earthquake, the search begins by specially trained specialized teams for rescuing people from the rubble. Search encompasses a set of measures and actions aimed at directly or indirectly discovering, identifying the location and condition of people, establishing communication with them, and determining the nature and extent of necessary assistance to be provided (Voronoy et al., 1995a).
More specifically, rescue operations in earthquakes-induced disasters include: searching for victims; unblocking victims from rubble of buildings, enclosed spaces, from damaged and destroyed floors of buildings and structures; providing first aid and medical assistance to victims; evacuating the endangered from danger zones (blockade locations) to collection points for victims or to health centers; evacuating populations from hazardous places to safe areas; implementing priority measures for maintaining the population’s livelihoods (Kusainov, 2013). Furthermore, such measures include: equipping and clearing roads in the disaster zone; demolishing and reinforcing structures that are at risk of collapsing; localizing and extinguishing fires, implementing smoke control measures in rescue action spaces; localizing and decontaminating sources of chemical hazardous and radioactive materials; localizing damage to communal energy infrastructure. alongside construction and installation work, the following works are carried out: debris removal and transportation of damaged structures and construction waste to landfills; sanitary cleaning of cities and settlements; delivery of cabin cars from unloading stations to designated locations; collection and delivery of scrap metal; other activities in the interest of securing the lives of the population.
During reconnaissance missions in earthquake zones, it is important to determine the following: the location, number, and condition of people buried under rubble; the size, characteristics, and extent of damage to buildings and structures; the condition of roads, bridges, hydraulic structures, railways, and other elements of road infrastructure; the appearance and characteristics of rubble, the condition of roads and approaches to the intervention site, the degree of damage to communal energy infrastructure. All types of reconnaissance have the same basic goal: to discover where people are hiding under the rubble. There are many types of reconnaissance, and the commander determines the objectives and tasks of reconnaissance, as well as the composition and number of reconnaissance bodies to be sent, the data to be collected and within what time period, the terrains (objects) on which the main forces will concentrate, and the order in which reconnaissance forces report according to the reconnaissance organization’s schedule (Kopilov and Fedyanin, 2005).
In all phases of rescue, rescuers encounter physical hazards (noise, vibrations, weak lighting), unfavorable weather conditions (extreme cold and heat, high humidity), biological hazards (viruses, bacteria, fungi, parasites, insects) causing infectious diseases, which are prevented by preventive vaccination. Constant physical exertion and non-physiological body positions hinder work. Situations involving severe injuries, mutilated dead bodies, unpredictable and life-threatening circumstances result in experiencing strong stress (Gorički, 2014, p. 67): when victims are found, they are approached for their liberation from rubble of building structures, various enclosed spaces, as well as between certain structural floors of buildings. In some situations, it will be necessary to perform the mentioned unblocking of people, which involves enabling access to people trapped under rubble, their liberation, or evacuation. Certainly, providing first aid is necessary in all aspects of protecting and rescuing people to prevent their condition from deteriorating and to successfully transport them to appropriate disaster victim hospitals. In certain situations, first aid will be provided at the victim’s location, and if possible, they will be transported to a designated center for this purpose.
After the Kobe earthquake, a large number of buildings were collapsed, resulting in a huge number of casualties or injuries. Immediately after the earthquake, over 300 fires were observed spreading rapidly. Due to water supply interruptions and bursting of local reservoirs, firefighting was ineffective, and there was no water for hours. Since the charred remains of burnt houses and trees were exposed to the elements, roads and open spaces designed to hinder the spread of fires actually fueled their spread. Due to traffic jams, collapsed buildings, and a large number of evacuees, medical and rescue personnel had difficulty reaching the disaster area. Additionally, there was a lack of clarity and accuracy in locating where such services should be deployed. The situation was monitored by aerial surveillance, but without comprehensive efforts to address the underlying causes of the problem. Helicopters and planes create significant noise problems. Sometimes, a request for quietness is made for victims, the sole source of information, and aircraft noise interferes with the search and rescue operation of those trapped under rubble (Kitano et al., 1999).
To liberate victims, rescuers can use various operational, tactical, and technical means: a) manual rubble removal using appropriate tools (saws, drills, cutters, etc.); b) expansion of natural voids using specific mechanization; c) horizontal and vertical drilling; d) dismantling of certain structures, etc. Before engaging in specific protection and rescue activities, the current situation is surveyed to make appropriate strategies: the general condition of specific areas; the extent of damage to objects, types of buildings and their functional purposes, storeys, construction quality, etc.; access capabilities of light and heavy mechanization and equipment for engineering works realization; possibilities of applying different technologies; possibilities of conducting rescue operations; environmental contamination level; environmental characteristics – relief, hydro-meteorological characteristics (precipitation, wind speed and strength, air temperature). Mechanized groups ensure the establishment of passages in rubble and clear paths. Primarily, access routes to work objects, maneuvering, and evacuation are prepared. To perform tasks, mechanized groups are equipped with universal machines for various activities.
In mitigating the consequences of earthquakes, first, second, and third teams can be organized, as well as reserves of personnel and resources. The first rescue team comprises forces and means ready in less than 30 minutes. The main tasks of the first rescue team are: firefighting, organizing radiation and chemical control, conducting search and rescue activities, providing first medical aid to the injured. Based on tasks addressed in the first rescue team, the disaster-rescue units, fire-fighting units, emergency medical teams, smaller formations of permanent civil defense personnel, standby search and rescue units, and other formations enter the first rescue team. Practically, all forces and means found in the earthquake zone or in the immediate vicinity can be included in the first rescue team (Kopilov and Fedyanin, 2005).
Practice has shown that existing forces and resources will be insufficient in the event of significant-scale disasters. To reinforce forces, and in individual cases for partial replacement, a second rescue team is formed. Its composition includes forces and resources with readiness for action not exceeding 3 hours. The primary tasks of the second rescue team are: conducting emergency rescue and other urgent activities, radiation and chemical reconnaissance, urgent provision of conditions for the survival of affected populations, provision of expert medical aid. In the event of a shortage of forces and resources to mitigate the consequences of earthquakes, and in individual cases, a third rescue team can be formed. The main tasks of the forces and resources of the third team are: establishing normal living conditions in the earthquake zone (water distribution, electricity, heating, establishing transportation communications, food supply) (Kopilov and Fedyanin, 2005).
When performing work in destroyed and damaged buildings and objects, it is necessary to (Kusainov, 2013, p. 51-52): enter the destruction zone in the designated safest direction; do not approach at a dangerous distance from the walls of destroyed buildings and objects that are about to collapse; enter damaged buildings and objects from the least dangerous side, enter inflamed and smoke-filled objects from the windward side; inspect the interior spaces and basements of damaged objects by a group of at least 3 persons, moving inside the spaces, providing mutual security; before entering a room, carefully inspect and assess the stability of walls, ceilings, floors, choose the safest route; when climbing stairs, stay close to the wall, and move carefully along undamaged walls in closed spaces; do not open doors to adjacent rooms for inspection (especially in buildings that are inflamed and gas-contaminated) to avoid releasing flames and heated gases; when climbing to higher floors of damaged objects using damaged stairs, as well as during inspection and search for victims in smoke-filled and darkened spaces and basements, use safety equipment, while the free end of the safety rope should be in the hands of the rescuer. who is at the entrance to the spaces in a safe place; use short-range radio communication for communication; in inflamed and smoke-filled spaces, move, bending low or crawling, closer to windows, maintaining the ability to quickly exit the danger zone; when inspecting the interior and basements for lighting, use only portable electric lights of mining type, open fire use is prohibited; when using isolation protective masks, it is strictly necessary to adhere to the rules for their use, control the time spent in them; when inspecting and searching for victims in large damaged buildings and basements, especially at night, in smoke-filled or dark spaces, it is necessary to remember the path of movement, place well-visible signs (markings) along the path of movement; it is prohibited to touch, remove, or move objects (furniture, structures, pipes, doors, beams) that support damaged or collapsed walls, ceilings, and other building elements; entry into spaces, especially basements, without isolation protective masks and personal skin protection is prohibited; if there is a gas smell and other suspicious factors, smoking is prohibited, as well as lighting and extinguishing electric lights that are not provided with non-sparking devices; performing work in the safety zone of electrical power transmission without permission is prohibited; do not go to unstable elements, as well as to areas with increased temperature of the dam elements, smoking areas, as well as areas where deformation of reinforcement is observed; reconnaissance and search for victims in smoke-filled and gas-contaminated spaces should be carried out using personal protective equipment; during the search operations using official dogs, carefully observe the behavior of the search dog; when its behavior changes (refusal to work, anxiety, change in breathing, coughing, etc.), stop searching in this area until the situation is clarified; when using technical means for detecting victims, place equipment on stable blockade elements, prevent listening equipment lines from crossing over interrupted electric power lines, prevent accumulation of people and equipment in a limited part of the blockade; when on piles near large fires, as well as on piles where flammable elements smolder, work using isolation protective masks and safety equipment to prevent rescuers from losing consciousness due to lack of oxygen or carbon monoxide poisoning; when detecting gas contamination, flooding, unstable objects, and other hazards, place warning signs (Kusainov, 2013, p. 51-52).
5.2. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by landslides and avalanches
The wasting and destruction of our natural resources, stripping and exhausting the land instead of increasing its usefulness, will result in our children’s having a diminished capacity for progress, which we should bequeath to them – greater and more developed.
Theodore Roosevelt
5.2.1. The concept and characteristics of landslides and rockfalls of importance for the organization of protection and rescue
Landslides occur as a result of the mutual interaction of certain natural conditions and processes, as well as technological influences. The movement of surface layers leads to significant changes in the land and relief conditions in a certain area, causing residential buildings to collapse and subsequently reducing and preventing the use of land in that area (Cvetković & Miladinović, 2017). They represent a rocky or loose rock mass separated from the substrate, which, under the influence of gravity, slides down a slope. In this process, sliding does not necessarily occur along a clearly defined surface (sliding surface). The medium through which the landslide body moves is called the sliding zone (Miladinović, Cvetković, & Mlašinović, 2018).
In the spatial plan of the Republic of Serbia for the period from 2021 to 2035 (2021), it has been determined that manifestations of terrain instability in the form of landslides are most prevalent in areas built of lake sediment complexes (hills and edges of Neogene basins), as well as of rocks of the diabase-ophiolite formation (ophiolite mélange of southwestern Serbia), the rock complex of flysch (mountainous area of central Šumadija and east-southeast Serbia), and low-grade metamorphic rocks (northeast Serbia, Vlasina basin, upper Ibar river, Drina river basin). The most endangered regions are Kolubara (33.9%), Prizren (33.4%), and Zlatibor (32.9%).
Most landslides are small and slow-moving, but there are also large and fast ones. Both types mentioned can cause serious consequences, especially in urban environments. In general, sliding is primarily the result of breaking the bond between the moving mass and the substrate. Experts believe that the initiation of sliding occurs when the forces of down-slope movement and resistance, representing the sliding resistance of the rock at the base, are balanced. Usually, there are multiple factors or causes of layer movement on slopes. The initiator can be a single factor or multiple factors that trigger sliding. Very often, the causes are in the soil (rocks) themselves, their mode of formation, and the conditions currently established in them. They are contained in their pedological-geological composition, tectonics, relief, underground and surface water. All causes of this type can be divided into causes that lead to changes in rock composition, changes in structure and texture, mechanical disintegration due to loss of bond strength, fragmentation of monoliths, and weathering (Miladinović and colleagues, 2018).
The best predictors of future landslides are past landslides, as they tend to occur in the same places. However, caution should be exercised due to the complexity of geographical factors determining landslide risk. Predicting landslides requires the expertise of geologists and engineers who must conduct investigations into soil conditions, slopes, drainage, climate, earthquake and volcanic eruption prevalence, vegetation, erosion, industrially-induced vibrations, construction, and other land changes, among many other factors (Pine, 2008).
Additionally, the use of a landslide cadastre is very important, which implies a database of basic information on conducted terrain studies susceptible to landsliding and all landslide characteristics, formed based on a unique methodology that will enable further research and presentation at the local, state, and international levels. By conducting field research on general slope processes and identifying areas at risk of landsliding, zoning and preparation of maps of landslide-prone areas, hazard maps, and landslide risk maps are carried out (Miladinović and colleagues, 2018).
The first maps of this kind began to be used in the 1970s. The most important elements that the database should contain relate to the conditions of landslide occurrence and development. According to Ibrahimović (2013), significant database elements can be classified into seven groups: a) geographic elements; b) genetic elements; c) morphometric elements; d) occurrence elements; e) development elements; f) classification elements; g) categorization elements.
In the Danube River basin, there is an active and deep landslide in Vinča, developed in Neogene sediments, threatening settlements and roads. Landslides in Kaluđerica, Mali and Veliki Mokri Lug encompass the Leštan River basin and the headwaters of the Mokroluški Stream, endangering settlements and highways. The terrain and settlements of Beli Potok and the circular road, partly damaged, are affected by landslides. In the Resnik area, Avala Road, and Rakovica, there are moderately deep landslides with secondary shallow sliding, partly threatening the highway. On the valley sides of the Srem and Sibovička streams, unstable slopes with secondary landslides, partially endangering the settlement of Sremčica, are found. The old deep active landslide in Duboko and Barič, as well as extensive active landslides in the Umka area, threaten the road and settlement of Umka. In the Barica River valley and the Sava basin, there are extensive deep active landslides posing a danger to Baric and Mala Moštanica. In the Sava, Kolubara, and Marica river valleys, extensive active and moderate landslides are found, as well as in the Mislođin area (Mislođin River basin), endangering settlements and roads. In the Meljak, Vranić, and Boljevac area, moderate and active landslides are found on the valley sides of Vrbovica, which are a potential danger to rural and weekend settlements (Miladinović, Cvetković, & Mlašinović, 2018).
5.2.2. Organization and measures for protection in disasters caused by landslides and rockfalls
In order to protect people and their property from disasters caused by landslides, specific preventive measures are taken to directly or indirectly influence the prevention of landslide processes. After identifying problematic regions, the simplest tactical approach involves avoiding any construction works in such areas. It is necessary to refrain from carrying out any construction projects and undertakings in areas prone to landslides. The implementation of a so-called safety belt, which may be subject to expansion in the near future due to potential landslides, can be realized in the vicinity of such zones (Miladinović et al., 2018).
The width of the protective belt is determined depending on the terrain morphology, the manner and severity of potential landslides, expected safety reasons, and the consequences of each potential landslide. It is difficult to predict the precise width of the belt that will be required in advance. To be effective, it is necessary to conduct an assessment by a geologist and geotechnical engineer. A complete and precise technical and economic analysis and assessment must be carried out before the start of any works on the slope. This should include considering all necessary remediation that may need to be carried out in the future. Since the number of hazards and threats in urban environments is multiple times greater than in rural environments, urban remediation is also technically more complex and much more expensive (Miladinović, Ćvetković, & Milašinović, 2018).
Cutting on slopes in urban areas is prohibited due to significant risks, technical difficulties, and financial costs of reconstruction associated with such activities. As a consequence, if possible, it is desirable to prevent the formation of cuts on the slope surface. This can be achieved on roads using expert road guidance and more frequent use of engineered structures, both of which are available (tunnels, viaducts).
Contrary to natural infrastructure, artificial infrastructure increases the construction costs of roads, providing long-term durability and security that the road will be built to withstand. Infrastructure construction and remediation works as preventive measures before the onset of landslides constitute another concept of preventive measures. Much attention is paid to controlled surface water drainage from open channels constructed using various techniques depending on the available time and the rate at which the landslide process is moving. Concrete, plastic, metal, and other materials, as well as other techniques, can be used in channel construction (Miladinović, Ćvetković, & Milašinović, 2018).
Another alternative, besides digging and lining with clay or stone, is the use of prefabricated channels. Drainage channels should be constructed in a manner that conforms to the direction of sliding, follows natural valleys, and drains water from the surface of potential landslide areas in the shortest possible time. The slope of the channel must allow free flow of water without any retention, as otherwise there would be sedimentation of particles, water accumulation, and damage due to strong hydrodynamic forces acting on the channel, and the channel slope would be compromised. This is done to prevent water from their beds from reaching the landslide body and accelerating sliding down the slope. Additionally, it is necessary to insert a water-resistant clay plug into the tension cracks to prevent surface water from infiltrating into the main body of the landslide. Agricultural activities, such as crop cultivation, afforestation, and weed control, receive special attention in this region. Special attention is given to plant cultivation, afforestation, and weed control (Miladinović, Ćvetković, & Milašinović, 2018).
The technique involving mass redistribution of soil mass or changing the slope and resulting in a new, more stable distribution of forces within the landslide is one of the most accessible available remediation methods, while achieving sufficient efficiency. However, the application of this remedial technique in small urban areas has the drawback of requiring a larger surface area, which is not always feasible. Territorial remediation through mass redistribution involves first relieving the upper part of the slope, where instability is manifested, by excavation, and then loading the lower part of the slope with mass filling, which will act as a stabilizer to restore slope stability. If the implementation of the terrain drainage procedure does not result in acceptable soil consolidation parameters, another mechanical remediation technique, known as soil injection, can be used to achieve the desired soil consolidation. Injection cleaning is achieved by using pressure injection.
Soil injection is used to improve soil resistance characteristics by injecting a mass of suitable properties into the soil during the entire process. After creating wells of a certain diameter in the soil, a nozzle is used to break up the structure of the existing soil, and the binder mass is dispersed together to form a more homogeneous and durable substance. In the construction industry, a retaining structure is a structure built to protect other structures or to protect open space from movement of people on the ground. It is possible that protection may be required in the event of a disruption in natural stability or as a preventive measure. During excavation or cutting of the terrain, as well as during loading, it is common for supporting structures to be constructed to prevent deformation and movement of layers on the earth’s surface. When working on Quaternary or Tertiary formations, a large part of the work is done on the surface of the earth, which is called surface work (Miladinović, Ćvetković, & Milašinović, 2018).
The landslide and rockfall protection and rescue plan include: a) a schematic representation of the entities involved in protection and rescue; b) an overview of the entities and forces for protection and rescue; c) an overview of the capacities of the entities and forces; d) an excerpt from the review of the professional-operational teams’ members, for specific hazards; e) a reminder for the work of disaster management staff and leaders of professional operational teams, responsible persons; f) an overview of the measures and activities of participants in protection and rescue. In the review of measures and activities, it contains elaborated operational procedures and temporary measures to reduce the consequences of landslides, road rehabilitation (clearing from rock masses, earth) (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 80/2019).
In every situation, before proceeding with the implementation of protection from such disasters, a detailed study is conducted to identify the most effective method of remediation, halt the process of soil movement, and stabilize the landscape. Before attempting to achieve the desired result, it is necessary to define the current circumstances of the landslide and identify the factors contributing to its periodic activation. Detailed research of the geological structure of the terrain where the landslide occurred, as well as the reconstructed geological history from the latest geological period, is needed to determine the state of landslide development (neotectonic activity, paleoclimatic conditions, intensity of endo- and exo-dynamic processes in recent geological history). Soil drilling, excavation, geophysical technologies, and other techniques are used to collect information about the geological material (Miladinović, Ćvetković, & Milašinović, 2018).
The history of the terrain and tectonic disturbances can be determined by studying layers within rock formations. It is particularly important to identify the slope’s susceptibility to landslide processes to prevent its occurrence. Natural and anthropogenic processes that can alter the equilibrium of the landslide body by increasing active forces or decreasing forces and resistance properties need to be investigated to determine the causes and conditions of periodic landslide activation. These processes include erosion, landslide movement, and landslide reactivation. Additionally, it is important to understand the physical and mechanical characteristics of rock masses within the landslide body, as well as the landslide surface. We must pay attention to past landslide activities to predict when they will reactivate and how they will behave in their precise determination. An optimal strategy for removal can be found by removing known sources of problems (Miladinović, Ćvetković, & Milašinović, 2018).
During landslides, surface water drainage is carried out within the landslide surface, above the landslide front and on the side of the landslide area. Surface water flows are diverted from the landslide via a network of protective channels that collect rainwater and divert it away from the landslide. Preventing water from entering the landslide body reduces pressures and dries the soil, thereby increasing the resistance and stability of the landslide. The next segment of remedial measures can be used to achieve set goals: construction of protective channels to capture surface water around the landslide mass; construction of a network of branching channels on the landslide body to collect and drain atmospheric water; regulation of nearby surface water flows and securing their banks. Crack sealing and water absorption from fissures, as well as surface landslide design and organization, are examples of erosion control (Miladinović et al., 2018).
onstructing various types of remediation structures around landslide areas will yield the best results in terms of eliminating landslide processes, i.e., increasing slope stability, while reducing landslide risks in the future. Permanent remediation measures include the construction of various types of remediation structures around landslide areas. Techniques such as drainage, soil and rock mass displacement to create stable topography, supporting structures, improved river flow control, and other permanent remediation procedures are used in the processes of permanent remediation. All these measures should be in effect for a longer period, at least as long as the slope and its structures are in use (Miladinović et al., 2018).
5.2.3. Organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by landslides and rockfalls
Rescue operations in disasters caused by landslides represent specific and complex events that involve taking numerous operational, tactical, and technical measures to locate and rescue injured individuals. In order to rescue people who are hidden in shelters or other structures, it is necessary to take certain measures as quickly as possible to carefully inspect the rubble and find buried individuals. Given that people may be underground or buried under rubble, acoustic devices are used, similar to those used in earthquakes, which can identify weak sound signals and determine their directions to identify the location of injured individuals. In such rescue operations, official dogs can also be used, as they have the ability to identify locations where people may be found beneath rubble.
Further actions of rescuers in the field depend on various factors and circumstances such as: the type of damage or rubble; the characteristics of the built structure; the time period from the manifestation of danger to the occurrence of consequences, and so on. Once victims are found, or once the location of their burial is determined, extraction procedures begin. Extracting the injured can be realized using manual tools to create horizontal galleries. After excavation, first aid is provided, and the injured person is extracted. Suitable tools and mechanization can be used for these purposes. The entire procedure can be divided into the following phases: a) search for victims; b) work on freeing victims; c) evacuation of victims from the restricted area; and finally, d) providing assistance (Mihajlov et al., 2006).
General rules for safely conducting search and rescue operations in mountainous terrain include: continuous monitoring of slope conditions in landslide zones; providing shelter for personnel in case of danger, and if shelter is not possible, implementing safety measures; moving through rubble (snow, earth) with prior probing of the surface with a pole to avoid sinking into voids; moving on slopes in several groups of 2-3 people. When passing through avalanche-prone areas, it is mandatory to: avoid moving down the avalanche slope; not cross the slope below or in the middle of the avalanche track; avoid sudden movements or shouts that may cause movement of avalanche layers; avoid moving concave areas of the terrain; observe maximum distances between group members; when moving on slopes with a gradient greater than 20 degrees, use reliable self-protection (Kusainov, 2013, p. 57).
Rescue operations in disasters caused by landslides include: a) scouting the site and work area; b) search for victims; c) freeing and rescuing the injured from rubble and destroyed structures; d) providing first aid to the injured; e) evacuating to medical facilities; f) implementing measures to protect the population in landslide-affected areas; g) performing primary life support tasks for affected populations; h) conducting works to localize and mitigate the effects of harmful factors hindering rescue operations (disabling electrical power, gas, localizing and extinguishing fires); reinforcing and strengthening objects at risk of collapse; arranging entrances and passages to work areas; temporary restoration of roads and other transportation structures; sanitary cleaning of disaster-affected areas; strengthening and building additional anti-erosion, anti-landslide, and anti-avalanche protective structures; creating conditions for maintaining the lives of rescuers; and restoring supplies (Olishevski, 2015).
Before conducting rescue activities, it is necessary to assess the situation in landslide-affected areas: a) scope and structure of the landslide (collapses), presence of threats, and direction of further development; b) nature of secondary harmful factors that have occurred (floods, pollution), level of risk to settlements and other important objects; c) status of the population, total number of people affected by landslides (and secondary harmful factors), expected number of casualties, their condition, survival time, self-rescue capabilities, and potential population losses; d) condition of economic objects, residential buildings, and other infrastructure objects with the most significant damage and their characteristics; e) required scope and nature of emergency rescue operations; f) status of vital roads, transportation objects, power lines, pipelines, and material-technical resources; g) required number and composition of forces and means for conducting emergency rescue and other interventions; h) weather conditions and terrain nature, their possible impact on work execution (Olishevski, 2015).
Rescue operations in the case of landslides are conducted with the aim of saving lives and are divided into four main phases (Kusainov, 2013): a) discovery of victims; b) securing access for rescuers to victims; c) providing first aid to victims; d) evacuating victims from danger zones. Proper determination of the search area involves tracking the route of victims and accurately marking the location of their disappearance. To determine the boundaries of the search, it is necessary to establish the characteristics of the landslide. If the landslide descends on a steep slope where speed is significant, then the victim is usually closer to the central line of descent; on a gentle slope, they are further away from the central line. If a person is trapped on the upper edge, they are typically carried down one-third of the total length of the landslide. Surface inspection of the landslide is carried out sequentially, from where it “stops” to where people “disappear” (Kusainov, 2013, p. 56).
5.3. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by volcanic eruptions
Take a handful of fresh ash or anything that has passed, and you will see that it is still fire or that it can be.
Branko Miljković
5.3.1. The concept and characteristics of volcanic eruptions relevant to the organization of protection and rescue.
Destructive and deadly volcanic eruptions are relatively rare occurrences in human history but quite common in geological time. As geophysical catastrophes, they increasingly endanger human safety and property. Therefore, they are attracting more attention from disaster researchers who seek to better understand and describe them. Volcanoes attract people to live on their slopes for multiple reasons, including fertile volcanic soil. Warning systems can reduce the risk, but the vulnerability of people living near volcanoes is difficult to mitigate except through inevitable evacuation (Cvetković, 2014a).
Due to the movement of magma at high temperatures and pressure from the depths of the Earth towards its surface, volcanoes are formed, representing places or openings from which volcanic materials are ejected, leading to the formation of volcanic cones. About fifty volcanoes erupt every year, and catastrophic eruptions typically occur once every 100 years. Approximately 200,000 people have died in the last five centuries due to volcanic eruptions. Three-quarters of these fatalities were caused by only 7 extremely violent eruptions (Stoltman, Lidstone, & Dechano, 2007). In recent decades, not only is there a trend of increasing volcanic eruptions, but also an increase in their destructiveness. Events like volcanic eruptions, which have a significant and tragic impact on society, disrupt normal ways of life, impede economic, cultural, and sometimes political conditions, slow community development, and require special measures by disaster response services (Cvetković, 2014a).
Generally, volcanoes are classified as active, inactive, or extinct. However, in real life, cases of eruptions of supposedly extinct volcanoes have been observed, such as the eruption of the Lemington volcano in New Guinea, which killed about 5,000 people, even though it was considered extinct. Therefore, it is necessary to consider as active volcanoes all those that have erupted in the last 25,000 years. During 1902, the Pelée volcano in the Caribbean killed 29,000 people, while the Nevada volcano in Colombia killed about 23,000 people (Smith & Petley, 2009). The occurrence of tectonically unstable zones in the Earth’s crust coincides with the geographical distribution of volcanic areas on the Earth’s surface, and this mutual connection is not accidental. Therefore, the most active volcanic areas on the Earth’s surface are located along the rim of the Pacific basin, called the “Pacific Ring of Fire,” which stretches in the form of a ring along the eastern, northern, and western edges of the Pacific basin (out of a total of 624 active volcanoes, the Pacific Ring of Fire includes 418, or almost 70%). The total energy of volcanic eruptions can be broken down into four phases: a) energy released by volcanic earthquakes; b) energy required to break the overburden; c) energy expended to eject material; and d) energy expended to create atmospheric shockwaves and occasional tsunamis.
The second volcanic region encompasses a belt from the Mediterranean Sea to the Sunda Islands (Mediterranean volcanic region), while the third extends meridionally, through the central part of the Atlantic Ocean, from the Jan Mayen Islands to the southern Atlantic, overlapping with the extension of the Central Atlantic ridge. Serbia does not have active volcanic phenomena, but it is significant to mention that forms of tertiary volcanism are present on its territory: the Kosovo-Kopaonik-Rudnik, Crnorečka, and Južnomoravska volcanic regions (Petrović & Manojlović, 2003). Although there are no active volcanic phenomena in Serbia, there are some forms of tertiary volcanism, such as the Kosovo-Kopaonik-Rudnik, Crnorečka, and Južnomoravska volcanic regions (Petrović, 2003).
5.3.2. Organization and measures of protection in disasters caused by volcanic eruptions
Due to volcanic eruptions, pyroclastic flows occur, which are mainly responsible for fatalities and result from the surging and flowing of liquid magma. This leads to the expansion and bursting of bubbles of hot gases and remnants of pyroclastic materials. Gas mixtures often contain carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, chlorine, and hydrogen chloride. The molten magma then flows and spreads across lower-lying terrains. Explosions also generate a shockwave that ignites combustible materials in the vicinity, causing severe external and internal burns combined with asphyxiation for those nearby.
A serious problem for human protection and rescue is presented by tephra, which encompasses all fine or larger materials ejected by volcanoes. In practice, most volcanic eruptions eject less than one cubic meter of tephra, which can be in the form of ash and dust (less than four millimeters) or as so-called bombs (larger than 32 millimeters in diameter). For this reason, in the immediate vicinity of volcanoes, which can be highly attractive for settlement, larger tephra particles fall near the crater, while finer particles can travel over 400 km depending on meteorological conditions. Fine tephra particles covering roofs can cause their collapse when the thickness exceeds one meter. Often, these particles are still hot and can ignite forests and other combustible materials near people. Huge amounts of ash, dust, and smoke can disrupt air traffic, reduce visibility, and cause serious breathing problems for people. Additionally, massive areas of crops and drinking water sources can be contaminated, posing secondary hazards to people and their normal functioning.
In most cases, management relies on careful monitoring and a thorough understanding of the history of previous volcanic eruptions. A successful formula for redirecting lava flows was developed on Mount Etna in the early 1990s, using earthmoving equipment, reinforced concrete tetrapods, and large quantities of explosives. The release of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide poses a serious problem considering the harmful characteristics of these gases for living beings. Due to their toxic effects, even at low concentrations, they can cause the death of a large number of people in their immediate vicinity. Conversely, carbon dioxide is an even more deadly gas that is colorless, odorless, and denser than air. Consequently, it accumulates in lower-lying areas around volcanoes, endangering a much larger number of people, as in the case of evacuating the village of Java in Indonesia when more than 140 people were evacuated.
People’s safety can also be compromised by various soil deformations and lahars. Due to the increase in volcanic magma and the accumulation of new lava layers, fertile soil degrades. Mudflows (lahars), composed of sedimentary sand, mud, and other finer or larger volcanic materials, can threaten local populations, leading to massive displacements of people. Following mudflows, after the eruption of Mount Kelut in Java, more than 5,000 people perished.
There are no ways to prevent volcanic eruptions, but certain measures can be taken to redirect lava flows on the earth’s surface. By using appropriate explosives or aerial bombs, openings can be made on volcano craters to divert lava flows in specific directions, thus reducing pressure on other endangered areas. Artificial barriers can also be used to divert flows, especially at the community and household levels, to protect people and their property. It is important to emphasize that barriers should be constructed from resilient materials such as rock pieces or large quantities of compacted soil. For example, in Hawaii in 1995, a temporary barrier was used to divert the lava flow, thus bypassing two larger settlements. Cases of using large quantities of water to create barriers have also been recorded.
There are passive and active defenses in disasters caused by volcanic eruptions. Passive defense consists of preparing, supplying, and using personal protective equipment and masks. Active defense involves operations bombing moving lava and crater walls. Barriers are created in the path of lava flows. Tunnels are made to the crater for water release, necessary to prevent lahars (mud flow on volcano slopes, consisting of a mixture of water and volcanic ash) (Lashmanova & Antonov, 2020).
It is important to emphasize that there are the following phases of protection from such hazards: a) preparation for eruption: after being informed about a possible eruption, the population and animals are evacuated to safe places; if evacuation is impossible, windows and doors are sealed; preparation of autonomous lighting, communication, first aid kits, water and food supplies for 3-5 days is carried out; b) behavior during the eruption: while in a potentially dangerous zone – protect the body and head from rocks and ash using helmets, caps, thick cloaks. It is necessary to avoid rivers, ravines to prevent entry into them of lava flow. It is forbidden to use cars, seek shelter in water or underground shelters; c) behavior after the eruption: use the simplest breathing protection (gauze bandages, cloth masks), wear goggles, clothing for burn protection, remove ash from building roofs to prevent collapse (Lashmanova & Antonov, 2020).
5.3.3. Organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by volcanic eruptions
Rescuing people in disasters caused by volcanic eruptions has made significant progress in recent years. Practice shows that the population, and even rescuers, do not always have correct information about what to do in the event of volcanic eruption disasters (Lashmanova & Antonov, 2020). Today, there are various methods of protection from volcanic eruptions, such as: monitoring volcanic eruption conditions; timely evacuation of the population; providing first aid to the affected; creating channels for lava flow; dividing large flows into several smaller ones; diverting flows from settlements; creating artificial barriers in the path of moving flows; cooling these flows; destroying crater walls and changing the direction of lava flow to selected areas (Gangus, 2011).
However, one of the most significant rescue measures is the evacuation from the endangered to safe areas. Implementing such activities can be a serious challenge for the leaders of relevant services given the eruptive phases that can continue for several months or years. After a multi-month period and after 29 explosions, more than 70,000 people were evacuated during 1982 in Indonesia.
When individuals living or working in a hazardous zone are evacuated, they may not show up at any of the safe transit points or shelters, and it may be necessary to search for them during or after the evacuation. People may also become trapped in areas that are not at risk but whose access roads are blocked by pyroclastic flows, mudflows, or lava flows, for various reasons. Supplying the population with food, as well as other rescue missions, can be undertaken as soon as weather conditions permit, which may require the use of aerial or maritime reconnaissance operations. It will be necessary to pre-arrange which equipment will be available and how such operations will be conducted, among other things (Volcanic Emergency Management, 1985).
People will hesitate to leave their homes unless there is an immediate and clear threat to their lives. They will not be willing to leave their homes without a guarantee of safety from theft and looting while they are absent. To prevent unauthorized persons from accessing evacuated areas, appropriate protection measures must be taken, and frequent police patrols must be organized in the areas, as long as the lives of the police officers are not in immediate danger. The most severe impacts of volcanic eruptions are limited to locations only a few hundred kilometers from the volcano itself. Although national government agencies are sometimes responsible for the actions described above, it is often possible to transfer primary responsibility to local or provincial governments rather than national government agencies unless the disaster is of such magnitude that local authorities are unable to cope with the situation (Volcanic Emergency Management, 1985).
In such situations, the general public should be advised as follows: stay in your home until local health officials determine it is safe to go outside; follow the latest local news for information on air quality, drinking water, and road conditions; turn off all heating and cooling units and fans, as well as close all windows, doors, and fireplace and wood stove dampers to prevent ash and gases from entering your home; stay away from ash areas; avoid contact with ash as much as possible; keep skin covered to prevent irritation from contact with ash. Make sure you have protective eyewear to protect your eyes from ash.
Traveling is not recommended because driving on ash is hazardous to health as well as to the car. Driving will accelerate the accumulation of ash, which can clog motors and cause car breakdowns. In terms of health, exposure to ash, especially in the respiratory system, can be harmful. The use of disposable respirators (known as air purifying respirators) may be considered to protect residents while working outdoors or cleaning ash that has entered the home. It is crucial to follow the manufacturer’s instructions when using this respirator. Protection from dust can be achieved using a dust mask if there is no disposable respirator available; however, you should only stay outside for a limited time while dust is falling. Keep in mind that disposable respirators do not filter harmful gases and vapors from the environment. Roofs must be cleared of ash, which is very heavy and can cause structural collapse if left unattended.
Escape from lava can be achieved by people climbing a hill or mountain higher than the one from which the volcano erupts. Then the lava cannot reach the people. In most situations, this is difficult to do because the speed of the lava is much greater than the speed of human movement. The first step is to determine the direction in which the lava flow is moving and its possible path. After that, people are evacuated in the opposite direction of the lava flow. Using a protective mask or gas bandage to prevent burns in the respiratory tract, people must evacuate to the highest point in the vicinity. They must also protect their heads and faces from possible burns and irritations. When climbing a hill, one should lean the body because the gas vapors in the air have a toxic effect on the human body. There is an opinion that the best way to escape from lava is to go to lakes or rivers, however, this causes boiling of the water, which is no less dangerous (Gangnus, 2011).
Discussion questions
¤ Explain the conceptual definition and characteristics of earthquakes relevant to disaster protection and rescue organizations.
¤ Explain the conceptual definition and characteristics of landslides and avalanches relevant to disaster protection and rescue organizations.
¤ Explain the conceptual definition and characteristics of volcanic eruptions relevant to disaster protection and rescue organizations.
¤ How are measures for protection from earthquakes organized and implemented?
¤ How are measures for protection from landslides and avalanches organized and implemented?
¤ How are measures for protection from volcanic eruptions organized and implemented?
¤ Explain rescue activities in earthquakes-induced disasters.
¤ Explain rescue activities in landslides and avalanches-induced disasters.
¤ Explain rescue activities in volcanic eruptions-induced disasters.
Further reading recommendations
¨ Kitano, H., Tadokoro, S., Noda, I., Matsubara, H., Takahashi, T., Shinjou, A., & Shimada, S. (1999). Robocup rescue: Search and rescue in large-scale disasters as a domain for autonomous agents research.
¨ Sengezer, B., & Koç, E. (2005). A critical analysis of earthquakes and urban planning in Turkey. Disasters, 29(2), 171-194.
¨ Smith, K., & Petley, D. N. (2009). Environmental hazards. Assessing risk and reducing disaster. In. Londona: Routledge.
¨ Voronoй, S., Darmenko, A., Korяžin, S., Mažuhovsknй, Z., Nikonova, N., Paramonov, V., Čičerina, V. (1995). Spasatelьnыe rabotы pri likvidacii posledstviй zemletrяseniй, vzrыvov, burь, smerčeй i taйfunov: Federalьnoe gosudarstvennoe bюdžetnoe učreždenie” Vserossiйskiй naučno.
¨ Pine, J. (2008). Natural hazards analysis: reducing the impact of disasters: CRC Press.
¨ Sengezer, B., & Koç, E. (2005). A critical analysis of earthquakes and urban planning in Turkey. Disasters, 29(2), 171-194.
¨ Bradford, M., & Carmichael, R. S. (2007). Notable Natural Disasters. California: Salem Press.
¨ Cvetković, V. (2014). Geoprostorna i vremenska distribucija vulkanskih erupcija NBP – Žurnal za kriminalistiku i pravo, 2/2014, 153-171.
¨ Cvetković, V., & Miladinović, S. (2017). Ispitavanje stavova i znanja učenika o klizištima kao prirodnim opasnostima. Ecologica, 24(85), 121-126.
¨ Gasparini, P., & Manfredi, G. (2014). Development of earthquake early warning systems in the European Union. In Early warning for geological disasters (pp. 89-101): Springer.
¨ Hsiao, N. C., Wu, Y. M., Shin, T. C., Zhao, L., & Teng, T. L. (2009). Development of earthquake early warning system in Taiwan. Geophysical research letters, 36(5).
¨ Kanamori, H., Hauksson, E., & Heaton, T. (1997). Real-time seismology and earthquake hazard mitigation. Nature, 390(6659), 461-464.
¨ Kitano, H., Tadokoro, S., Noda, I., Matsubara, H., Takahashi, T., Shinjou, A., & Shimada, S. (1999). Robocup rescue: Search and rescue in large-scale disasters as a domain for autonomous agents research.
¨ Pine, J. (2008). Natural hazards analysis: reducing the impact of disasters: CRC Press.
¨ Sengezer, B., & Koç, E. (2005). A critical analysis of earthquakes and urban planning in Turkey. Disasters, 29(2), 171-194.
¨ Smith, K., & Petley, D. N. (2009). Environmental hazards. Assessing risk and reducing disaster. In. Londona: Routledge.
¨ Stoltman, J. P., Lidstone, J., & Dechano, L. M. (2007). International perspectives on natural disasters: Occurrence, mitigation, and consequences (Vol. 21): Springer Science & Business Media.
¨ Voronoй, S., Darmenko, A., Korяžin, S., Mažuhovsknй, Z., Nikonova, N., Paramonov, V., Čičerina, V. (1995). Spasatelьnыe rabotы pri likvidacii posledstviй zemletrяseniй, vzrыvov, burь, smerčeй i taйfunov: Federalьnoe gosudarstvennoe bюdžetnoe učreždenie” Vserossiйskiй naučno.
¨ Lašmanova, E., & Antonov, S. (2020). Deйstviя naseleniя pri izverženii vulkana i pervaя medicinskaя pomoщь postradavšim.
¨ Miladinović, S., Cvetković, V., & Milašinović, S. (2018). Upravlјanje rizicima u kriznim situacijama izazvanim klizištima. Kriminalističko-policijska akademija, Beograd.
¨ Nassa, E. (2014). Zaщita i deйstviя naseleniя v črezvыčaйnыh situaciяh. E. I. Nass–Učebnoe posobie.
¨ Cvetković, V. (2020). Upravlјanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama. Naučno-stručno društvo za upravlјanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama, Beograd.
VI Tactics for Defense and Rescue in Disasters Caused by Hydrospheric Hazards
Chapter Summary
In the sixth chapter of the textbook, an overview of the most significant tactical principles and recommendations regarding protection and rescue in disasters caused by hydrospheric hazards is provided. Within this chapter, tactical principles for the protection and rescue of people in disasters caused by hydrospheric hazards such as floods, flash floods, and avalanches are examined. Special attention is given to conceptual definitions and characteristics of such hazards relevant to protection and rescue efforts. The organization and specific measures of protection in such disasters are reviewed, formulated, and studied. Additionally, the organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by floods, flash floods, and avalanches is clarified and described. Similar to the previous chapter, characteristics of the hazards themselves, organization and protective measures, as well as the organization of rescue activities are examined for each of the mentioned hazards.
Keywords: protection and rescue tactics; conceptually defined; characteristics; floods, flash floods, avalanches; organization; protective measures; rescue activities.
Learning objectives
v Understanding conceptual definitions and characteristics of hazards (floods, flash floods, and avalanches) relevant to protection and rescue;
v Familiarization with the organization and protective measures for protection and rescue in disasters caused by floods and flash floods;
v Familiarization with the organization and protective measures for protection and rescue in disasters caused by avalanches;
v Acquiring knowledge about the organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by floods and flash floods;
v Acquiring knowledge about the organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by avalanches;
v Gaining basic understanding and information about the coordination of protective measures and rescue activities in disasters caused by floods, flash floods, and avalanches.
6.1. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by floods and flash floods
Man has truly ‘succeeded’ with his ‘civilization’ in ruining both his environment and the world.
Elder Paisios
6.1.1. The concept and characteristics of floods and flash floods relevant to the organization of protection and rescue
Considering the numerous definitions, flooding as a natural disaster can be understood as the rising of water levels above the boundaries of its shores, accompanied by uncontrolled water spreading in accordance with the characteristics of the terrain, resulting in consequences for people, the environment, and their property. Regarding the types of floods, in our literature, the most common classification is based on the cause of their occurrence (Gavrilović, 1981, p. 19): floods caused by rainfall and snowmelt; ice floods; floods due to coinciding high waters; flash floods; floods caused by landslides; and floods caused by dam breaches.
In the literature, classifications of floods are also present based on the criteria of the formation of the water wave (quiet, flash, and tidal) and their size (small, medium, large, and catastrophic). On the other hand, classifications of floods by various international organizations are also noticeable. For example, in the Directive on the Assessment and Management of Flood Risks (2007/60/EC, Article 2), the following classification is given: floods of large rivers, floods of mountain torrents, floods of intermittent Mediterranean streams, and floods in coastal areas coming from the sea. In the Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia for the period from 2021 to 2035 (2021), it is determined that, considering the regional division, the most endangered areas by floods are the Central Banat (about 1,948 km2) and South Bačka region (about 1,938 km2), followed by South Banat (about 1,177 km2) and Belgrade region (about 1,147 km2). In terms of river basins, after Vojvodina, the most endangered is the right bank of the Sava River, followed by areas in the Morava River basin, along the right bank of the Drina River, in the basin of the White Drim, Kolubara, Sitnica, Timok, Binačka Morava, and Lepenac. In Serbia, there are about 11,500 torrential watercourses, on basins ranging in size from a few hectares to several hundred square kilometers. This means that practically the whole of Serbia south of the Sava and Danube rivers (the hilly-mountainous part of Serbia) is endangered.
In addition to Kragujevac, Obrenovac, Jagodina, Ljubovija, Pirot, Grdelica, and Vlasotince, the most endangered areas are: Grdelica Gorge and Vranje Valley, the Kolubara River basin, the Nisava River basin, the Ibar Gorge, the Timok River basin, the Jadar River basin, the Drina River basin upstream of Loznica, the basins of the Mlava and Pek, and the basin of the Binačka Morava. In these areas, the main traffic routes of Corridor X in eastern and southeastern Serbia (towards Sofia and Turkey and south towards Thessaloniki and Athens), as well as roads along the Ibar and Drina rivers, are located. Areas with very high susceptibility to flash floods cover 4.2% of Serbia’s territory, and high areas cover 24.2%, so about 28% of Serbia’s territory is very susceptible to flash floods. The middle susceptibility class occupies 45.6%, and the low one 26.3% of the total area of the basins. In terms of regional division, the largest areas with very high and high potential for flash floods are located in the Kosovo-Mitrovica region (54.65% of the area), followed by the Pcinja region (53.4%) and the Raška region (52.5%) (Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia, 2021). In recent years, there has been a noticeable distancing from the view that floods can be suppressed and controlled, i.e., that they can be “fought” against and easily managed (Coppola, 2006). There is an increasing trend towards adaptive management of flood and flash flood protection and rescue, i.e., adapting to flood risk or the principle of “living with floods” (Milojković & Mladjan, 2010). Quiet or on large rivers, floods do not occur suddenly and can be somewhat predicted. They usually do not last short because it takes time for the water to recede and lower its level. Considering the territory of the Republic of Serbia, it can be said that the degree of endangerment of the population and their material goods is not uniform across the entire territory but varies depending on the type of disaster and the expected potential damage (Dragićević, Filipović, Kostadinov, Nikolić, & Stojanović, 2009). Regarding floods, it can be said that 10,968 km2 are potentially endangered, covering 12.4% of the territory.
The largest flood areas are in the Tisa Valley (2,800 km2), the Sava River (2,243 km2), the Velika Morava River (2,240 km2), and the Danube River (2,070 km2) (Gavrilović, 1981). In the previous decade, a large number of floods were recorded in the territory of Serbia. Small drops in the beds, geological substrates, and wide alluvial plains cause frequent flooding in the Tisa Valley. On the other hand, the predisposition to rainfall and the coincidence of flood waves of the Sava and Danube tributaries cause flooding in the valleys of the mentioned rivers. The formation of flash floods in short time periods makes the Velika Morava River basin highly endangered.
The increase in flood risk in Serbia is also contributed by various anthropogenic influences. Significant and serious floods that hit the geographical area of Serbia were recorded in 1999, 2000, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, and 2014. In July 1999, large flash floods in the basins of the main tributaries of the Velika Morava River caused serious damage in Sumadija (Smederevska Palanka, Velika Plana, Jagodina, Batocina, Kragujevac, Arandjelovac, Rekovac, Krusevac, Kraljevo, and Mladenovac). On that occasion, a large number of residential and commercial buildings were damaged, and 30 bridges were swept away in the basins of the Western Morava, Jasenica, Kubršnica, and Lepenica rivers (Milanović, Urosev, & Milijašević, 2010).
The sudden snowmelt and heavy rainfall, on the Tisa and Tamis rivers, caused serious floods in the year 2000. Immediately thereafter, in 2001, large amounts of rainfall caused floods in the Drina river basin. Simultaneously, snowmelt and precipitation during 2005 resulted in overflow of the Tamis, Tisa, Danube, right tributaries of the Drina, and South Morava rivers. At that time, approximately 50,000 hectares of arable land and parts of the municipalities of Smederevo, Macva, Sumadija, and settlements in the South Morava basin were affected. Shortly after these floods, during 2006, flooding occurred on the Danube, Tisa, Sava, and Tamis rivers. At that time, emergency defense measures were introduced in Smederevo, Golubac, Zrenjanin, Titel, Secanj, Zabalj, Novi Sad, and other municipalities. In November 2009, southwestern and eastern Serbia were affected by floods. During this period, the Rzav river flooded around 200 residential buildings in the municipalities of Pozega and Arilje (resulting in the evacuation of 15 residents) and over 2,000 hectares of arable land, while a state of emergency was declared in the municipality of Sjenica due to 72 liters of rain per square meter falling in a few days (Milojkovic & Mladjan, 2010).
The floods that struck the territory of Serbia in 2014 resulted in the following consequences: 51 people lost their lives, of which 23 drowned; 32,000 people were evacuated from their homes, with the highest number from Obrenovac, totaling 25,000; 5,000 people had to be temporarily accommodated in camps set up by the Government and the Red Cross of Serbia; 6 million people were directly or indirectly affected across the country; the total value of destroyed assets in 24 affected municipalities covered by the Assessment amounted to 885 million euros, and the value of losses amounted to 640 million euros, resulting in a total amount of 1.525 billion euros; 80,000 hectares of agricultural land were flooded; a total of 945 km of roads were damaged, and 307 bridges were affected; 110,000 consumers were affected by power supply interruptions in 28 municipalities (Floods in Serbia, 2014).
The consequences of floods unquestionably represent one of the most serious threats to human communities. Although the threats to security posed by natural disasters were once neglected, today they are gaining significance. When it comes to floods, the centuries-old principle of “fighting against floods” is slowly but surely being replaced by a new one called “living with floods.” For people to be able to live with floods, integrated disaster management is necessary, which includes mitigating the consequences, preparedness, response, and recovery from flood impacts.
6.1.2. Organization and protective measures in disasters caused by floods and flash floods
Flood protection involves various hydrotechnical measures designed, specifically engineered, and implemented to prevent floods, including dams and other river structures in urban and rural areas, which have been utilized for thousands of years. A comprehensive analysis of global drainage and sewage systems over centuries shows that drainage systems similar to those from ancient civilizations were in use much earlier than previously assumed. Consequently, ancient Greeks avoided living near rivers and seas, which were particularly susceptible to disasters such as floods. Urban drainage and sewage systems evolved during the Bronze Age, and rainwater collection techniques have been used for centuries. In other words, main roads and usable areas were paved with large stone slabs to increase soil penetration (Angelakis et al., 2020). Efforts to employ coordinated techniques for managing atmospheric waters, including rainwater harvesting and usage, are becoming crucial in the urban design of modern cities.
Findings from certain studies indicate that achieving a significant level of participation from homeowners, insurance companies, authorities, and other agents involved in flood risk economic management, promoting self-protection measures, and insurance policies should become the primary strategy for reducing flood risks (Garrote, Bernal, Díez-Herrero, Martins, & Bodoque, 2019). As part of the “UrbanFlood FP7” project, a prototype flood early warning system was created (Krzhizhanovskaya et al., 2011). Sensor networks are installed in flood barriers. The system analyzes anomalies in sensor signals, assesses the probabilities of barrier failure, and simulates likely scenarios of barrier breaches and flood expansion. An interactive decision support system utilizes all essential information and simulation results to enable disaster risk managers and urban officials to make timely and informed decisions in disaster situations and normal levee inspections.
A significant number of initiatives aimed at developing better and “smarter” flood protection systems have been completed in recent years (Akhtar, Corzo, van Andel, & Jonoski; Artan, Restrepo, Asante, & Verdin; Gouldby, Krzhizhanovskaya, & Simm, 2010; Pengel et al., 2013): the DAREnet project (Cvetkovic & Martinovic, 2020); the “FLOODsite” project – a set of efficient models necessary for flood risk analysis and management methodologies (Morris, Kortenhaus, & Visser, 2009); “FloodControl 2015” – an advanced prediction and decision support system (Pengel et al., 2013).
Flood protection is primarily realized through the design and implementation of specific structural measures such as dams, levees, canal construction, reservoirs, and river channel improvements. Indeed, various water facilities can be used for flood protection purposes: embankments, barriers, thresholds, and other objects in the riverbed, aimed at stabilizing it and improving flow regimes (regulatory facilities), as well as artificial riverbeds (channels, cuts, relocated riverbeds) (Water Law, Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia 95/2018). Protection against harmful water actions includes measures and works for flood protection from external and internal waters and from ice, erosion, and flash floods, as well as the elimination of the consequences of such water actions. It is also envisaged that all mentioned flood protection measures will be provided by the Republic of Serbia, autonomous provinces, and local self-government units (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 95/2018).
Flood defense in the Republic of Serbia is regulated by a large number of laws and sublegal acts, as well as appropriate plans. From the laws, these are: the Water Law (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 93/2012); the Law on Protection of the Population from Infectious Diseases (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 125/04); the Sanitary Inspection Law (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 125/04); the Law on Health Care (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 107/05); the Law on Social Protection and Social Security of Citizens (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia 115/05); the Law on Communal Activities (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 88/11).
Among the sublegal acts, flood protection is regulated by: the Regulation on the Content and Method of Preparation of Disaster Protection and Rescue Plans (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 8/2011); the Regulation on the Composition and Operation of Emergency Situations Headquarters (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 98/10); the Regulation on the Implementation of Evacuation (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 22/11); the National Strategy for Protection and Rescue in Emergency Situations and the General Plan for Flood Defense for the period from 2008 to 2013 (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 60/08), among others. The mentioned Water Law, in particular, regulates in detail the legal status of water, integrated water management, management of water facilities and water land, sources and methods of financing water activities, supervision of the implementation of this law, and other issues significant for water management. The General Flood Defense Plan (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 60/08) provides for measures to be taken preventively and during periods of high waters. Such a plan is adopted by the Government of the Republic of Serbia for a period of 5 years.
It is prescribed that water hazard risk management includes (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 95/2018): the preparation of preliminary flood risk assessments, the development and implementation of flood risk management plans, general and operational flood defense plans, the implementation of regular and emergency flood defense, and erosion and flash flood protection. The legislator has provided (Article 52) that flood protection shall ensure planning, construction, reconstruction, remediation, maintenance, and management of flood protection water facilities and drainage water facilities, river channel regulation, protection and improvement of natural retention areas, and the execution of other preventive works and measures, flood defense implementation, and flood consequence mitigation works, including emergency intervention works on water facilities and riverbeds for high water during and immediately after flood defense implementation.
Flood defense encompasses defense against high waters (external and internal) and ice accumulations (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 95/2018, Article 53). It can be regular or emergency, and its defense is declared on a river section when the water level reaches the elevations prescribed by the operational flood defense plan, and further water level rise is expected due to the conditions of ice formation, movement, and accumulation meeting the criteria prescribed by the operational plan, or when protective facilities are endangered due to prolonged high water levels.
It is significant to note that the legislator has envisaged that flood defense on primary waters and drainage systems in public ownership is organized by the “public water management company,” while flood defense on secondary waters is organized and implemented by the “local self-government unit,” in accordance with the general flood defense plan and the operational flood defense plan. The general plan includes: a) measures to be taken preventively and during periods of high waters (external and internal) and river ice formation; b) the institutional organization of flood defense; c) duties, responsibilities, and authorities of flood defense managers, institutions, and other persons responsible for flood defense, the method of observation and recording of hydrological and other data; d) forecasts of occurrences and notifications.
In the event of flood danger, the minister responsible for transport, upon the proposal of the minister, may temporarily prohibit road, rail, or water traffic in the endangered area (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia 95/2018, Article 57). Also, in the event that ice accumulations create ice barriers that may cause floods or if damage to protective water facilities and other objects in the riverbed and vicinity occurs or is expected due to ice movement in rivers, measures and works for ice breaking are undertaken, as determined by the general and operational plans (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 95/2018, Article 59).
Regarding erosion and flash floods, preventive measures, construction, and maintenance of water facilities for erosion and flash flood protection are carried out to prevent and mitigate harmful effects. The following preventive measures are provided, such as prohibited activities: deforestation, clearing, and unplanned clear-cutting of forests; surface stripping; unplanned plowing of meadows, pastures, and uncultivated areas; filling of springs and uncontrolled collection and draining of those waters; construction of facilities without appropriate spatial and project documentation; extraction of river sediments from the bottom or slopes, except for ensuring the passability of riverbeds; construction of facilities that could endanger soil stability; other activities that accelerate erosion and flash flood formation (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia 95/2018, Article 62).
Flood protection and rescue operations are carried out as an upgrade to the operational flood defense plan in accordance with a specific law and include a review of watercourses and reservoirs with potentially affected areas. Public water management companies are responsible for primary water flood defense within the territory of local self-government units, and they implement flood defense according to the operational flood defense plan for the Republic (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 80/2019). The local operational flood defense plan contains an excerpt from the republic operational flood defense plan for primary water within the territory of the local self-government unit.
In the local operational flood defense plan for secondary water, the responsibility of the local self-government is provided, including an overview of secondary waters, weak points, criteria for declaring flood defense, and responsible persons and services engaged. Flood protection and rescue documents are generally activated when competent authorities and services responsible for flood defense are unable to prevent flooding on their own. When the situation threatens to escalate and endanger lives, property, and the environment, upon the proposal of the responsible person from water management, the disaster headquarters proposes to the president of the municipality/mayor to declare a state of emergency, activating other protection and rescue forces (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 80/2019).
Water structures for flood protection include: primary, secondary, and summer embankments with associated structures (weirs, pumping stations), quays and defensive walls, relief and lateral channels, as well as dams with reservoirs and retention basins with associated flood defense structures and other flood protection objects. The protective strip with forests and protective greenery (protective forests) in the flood-prone area, with a width of 50 meters next to the embankments, drainage channels parallel to the embankment in the protected area, at a distance of 10 meters to 50 meters from the embankment crest (depending on the characteristics of the watercourse and objects), as well as service roads in the protected area for flood defense. Water structures for protection against erosion and torrents include: barriers, weirs, regulation of lower torrent courses, shore reinforcements, biotechnical structures, and other erosion and torrent protection objects (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia 95/2018, Article 16). Water structures for protection against harmful effects of internal waters – drainage are objects (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia 95/2018, Article 17): 1) main canal networks for drainage: main and collecting drainage channels into which waters from the hydromelioration system or its part are drained, with objects and devices on them for drainage or maintenance purposes (gaps in channels, siphons, steps, rapids, weirs, pumping stations, etc.) and main pumping stations and weirs for water discharge from the system to the recipient (natural or artificial watercourse); 2) detailed canal networks for drainage: detailed channels for direct collection of water from agricultural and other surfaces and their drainage into the main canal network, as well as objects on detailed drainage channels (gaps, siphons, steps, rapids, weirs, pumping stations, etc.). Water structures for water monitoring are: limnographs, water level gauges, flow meters, special overflow structures, piezometric wells, level gauges, and other devices for collecting data on the state of water levels, quantity, and quality of surface and groundwater (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 95/2018, Article 20).
The public water management company manages water facilities for river regulation and flood protection on first-order waters and drainage water facilities, which are publicly owned. In addition, the public water management company also manages dams with reservoirs, water facilities for erosion and torrent protection in the basins of reservoirs, canal transits, and irrigation systems that are publicly owned, except for facilities that legal entities have built for their own needs. Water facilities for river regulation and flood protection on second-order waters and water facilities for erosion and torrent protection are managed by the local self-government unit on whose territory the facilities are located (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 95/2018, Article 23).
6.1.3. Organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by floods and torrents
Search and rescue in the event of disasters caused by various water and underwater incidents represent a highly complex task. It occurs in cases of ship collisions and sinkings, as well as in cases of disappearance or crashes of aircraft. When a water-related or underwater incident occurs, it is necessary to take almost identical measures as when any other disaster requiring search and rescue activities occurs (Xiong, Van Gelder, & Yang, 2020). The main question that arises is how to allocate existing resources and direct them in such a way that they give their maximum within the predicted or shorter period to save as many human lives as possible. It is also necessary to establish and develop algorithms for projecting and operationalizing search and rescue operations on water. Under such circumstances, various factors must be taken into account, such as ocean currents, wind, waves, visibility, average sea surface temperature, and the like (Xiong et al., 2020).
Measures to mitigate the consequences of hydrological hazards can be divided into the following groups: a) organization of research and determination of the boundaries of flooded areas; b) search and detection of victims; c) providing access to locations of victims in the water, partially destroyed and flooded objects, elevated terrain areas, and other locations; d) rescue of victims and provision of medical and other assistance; e) evacuation of the population from hazardous areas and maintenance of their lives. In the event of major floods, rescuing people and property involves searching for them in the flooded region, loading them onto boats or helicopters, and transporting them to safe locations. First aid is provided to the sick if necessary, and only then do they begin to rescue and evacuate animals. It is important to note that the sequence of rescue activities depends on whether the flood has occurred suddenly or sufficient precautionary measures have been taken in advance to protect people and property (Kusainov, 2013).
Rescue operations in floods include: searching for victims; providing access for rescuers to victims and their rescue; providing first aid to victims; evacuating victims from the danger zone. Other emergency operations in the event of floods and torrents include: strengthening (raising) enclosed dams and embankments; building drainage channels; clearing blockages; equipping rescue equipment ties; measures to protect and restore road structures; restoring supplies; localizing sources of secondary harmful factors. In addition, other competent organizations may: conduct reconnaissance of flooded areas, individual objects, hydraulic structures, and communications; search for victims; perform rescue operations; perform all types of other rescue interventions characteristic of flood situations; provide first aid to victims; evacuate them to medical facilities (Fedyanin & Proskurnikov, 2006).
Scout units operating on fast boats and helicopters primarily determine the locations of the largest gatherings of people. Scouts themselves rescue small groups. Motor boats, barges, long boats, and rafts are used for transportation. During searches in flooded areas, floating vessel crews periodically sound alarms. After completing the main task of evacuating the population, patrols in flooded areas do not cease. Helicopters and boats continue searching. Reconnaissance and demarcation of the flooded area, as well as searching for victims and providing them with water, are the most challenging groups of actions that need to be successfully implemented. When it comes to reconnaissance and demarcation of flooded areas, aviation reconnaissance is most commonly used for this purpose (Kusainov, 2013).
Aerial photography is carried out using airplanes and helicopters. In addition to searching for and locating victims, helicopters can be used to approach (float) flooded areas and evacuate people, property, and various types of assets from the affected region. Descent and rubber boats with motors and oars, floating conveyors, and self-propelled ferries, as well as wooden and metal boats and boats belonging to the local community, can be used for victim identification, providing access, and evacuation. As a result of their extensive expertise in organizing flood rescue operations, helicopters have proven to be the most effective means of locating and rescuing individuals. The ascent of helicopters to critically injured victims can be facilitated with the help of special equipment equipped with a winch and rope (Kusainov, 2013).
Helicopter units can perform the following tasks: conduct aerial reconnaissance of flooded areas, hydraulic structures, communications, flooded economic objects, and settlements; search for people and domestic animals in flooded areas and convey this information to rescue units; remove people from trees, roofs of flooded buildings, flooded terrain surfaces, rescue people in water; provide maneuvering for rescuers and rescue equipment; provide support for life to the blocked population; evacuate victims (Fedyanin & Proskurnikov, 2006).
For the detection and rescue of victims in flood zones, it is important to equip inflatable boats, floating carriers, and self-propelled ferries, as well as wooden and metal boats owned by local residents, with rescue belts or life jackets, as well as other appropriate equipment. Initially, when the floating craft approaches a victim in the water, audible and visual signals are sent, and rescue belts attached to the boat’s side are thrown to places where victims are submerged. The success of rescue operations largely depends on the speed at which reconnaissance is organized, the thoroughness with which the current situation is assessed, the timeliness with which troop activities are planned, and the efficiency with which they are handled.
Rescue teams search for individuals in flooded areas, provide medical assistance to the injured, and, thanks to the widespread use of boats, relocate them to safe locations, safeguard material valuables and equipment, and, if necessary, extract them from floodwaters. Additionally, evacuation of people, removal of animals, food, and valuables from flood-affected areas is conducted to prevent further damage (Kusainov, 2013). Besides all mentioned activities, efforts are made simultaneously to build and repair bridges, dams, levees, and embankments. Ice jams are cleared, and necessary emergency works are carried out on the rehabilitation of community energy networks, roads, hydraulic, and road structures.
Conducting rescue and other emergency operations in flood zones is highly dangerous, especially when dealing with water, ice, or explosive materials. It is essential for all personnel involved in these activities to undergo comprehensive training on water safety standards, drowning rescue techniques, and first aid procedures, among others. Teams operating on boats are equipped with all necessary tools and equipment for the job (rescue rings, belts, hooks, ladders, ropes). Public order protection is organized in flooded areas and areas where evacuated populations gather to ensure the safety of people, reliable protection of state, public, and private property, and protection of individual property. It is necessary to establish a command service for maintaining order in flooded areas, evacuation routes, concentration areas, military troop movement routes, highways, and railways. After the flood ceases, significant efforts are made to restore the environment and objects that were flooded to normal. Whenever river jams occur, a 24-hour watch is established by explosion teams, formed based on relevant organizations performing blasting for industrial purposes in affected areas (Kusainov, 2013).
Search and rescue teams participate in rescue operations in accordance with flood prevention and mitigation action plans. During these works, teams and search and rescue services may perform the following tasks: conduct search and detection of victims; rescue victims from flooded buildings, objects, and isolated local items; rescue people in the water; liberate people from flooded buildings using light diving equipment; provide first aid to the injured and evacuate endangered people to assembly points or medical facilities (Fedyanin & Proskurnikov, 2006).
Efforts to prevent ice stagnation should begin as soon as possible, ideally at the beginning of the ice formation process. When blasting to remove blockages, a system for continuously monitoring its condition should be devised, and rescue equipment should be kept ready at all times in case someone working on it needs to be evacuated. During ice-bearing deposits, mining measures for ice removal are carried out. The choice is made after careful consideration of available river information and engineering intelligence data at protected infrastructure sites. Before any such activities, it is necessary to determine: the design characteristics of the objects and their condition, as well as spaces suitable for accommodating staff and storing explosives; the presence and condition of roads, as well as the possibility of vehicle exit from the road. All findings must be presented in a report to be disseminated to the public. It is possible to eliminate blockages on wide rivers by gradually breaking up ice fields, from bottom to top, starting from the spaces forming ice fields below blockages (Kusainov, 2013).
During water rescue operations, the use of floating vessels that are defective or inadequate is not allowed. Overloading boats and other vessels is prohibited. Their dry side should be at least 20 cm high, and the wave height at least 35 cm. Establishing temporary ties and providing passage for boats are necessary to ensure safe boarding and disembarking of passengers. Various devices for extracting people from partially submerged buildings, objects, trees, and other items are also planned. All rescuers and other individuals directly involved in rescuing individuals from water should wear life jackets. Ropes and other relevant equipment and devices should be available to them at all times. It should be kept in mind that only one person should enter the boat at a time, with each person walking in the middle of the boat deck.
Changing position, boarding, and pushing are not allowed during movement. Once the boat has docked, one of the rescuers disembarks onto the shore and holds the boat over the deck until everyone is onboard. It is preferable to swim behind the drowning person to rescue them. As you approach, grab them by the head, shoulders, arms, and collar, turn them face up, and swim with them to shore. With the boat, you should approach the problematic area against the current; in windy weather, approach the problematic area against the wind and water flow. It is preferable to rescue someone from the water from the stern of the boat. After pulling them ashore, continue providing first aid as soon as possible (Kusainov, 2013).
6.2. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by avalanches
Water is one of the most investigated substances, yet it remains the least understood. Nothing is as complex as its behavior.
John Emsley
6.2.1. The concept and characteristics of avalanches are important for organizing rescue and protection efforts.
An avalanche refers to the inertial and gravitational movement of accumulated snow masses. Fortunately, they are characteristic of specific areas such as steep mountainous terrains or landscapes with particular inclines (between 15 and 45 degrees), with their formation being influenced by snow structure, wind strength, temperature changes, and whether the slope is on the south or north side. The avalanche formation process is triggered by specific air or ground vibrations (Cvetković, 2020). In the literature, there are two general types of snow avalanches: a) loose snow avalanches and b) slab avalanches (McClung & Schaerer, 1993).
In Serbia, avalanches have caused serious consequences, with ten people affected in the village of Restelica in Gora. Near Lake Perućac, a person was buried, and there were frequent road blockages near Vranje and Đerdap. In Montenegro, passengers were evacuated from a train that was stranded for three days due to snow. Although snow avalanches are not typical for our region, they have been observed on Stara Planina and Kopaonik. Historically, these phenomena have claimed over 20,000 lives. Some of the deadliest include: a snow avalanche on the Uascara mountain in Peru, stretching about 6 kilometers; a snow avalanche in the Tyrolean Alps that claimed about 10,000 lives during World War I; the destruction of two villages and over 1,000 lives in Ranchariki, and so on.
Regardless of the type of avalanche, they can occur in conditions of dry or wet snow. It is characteristic of loose snow avalanches to move at a location near the surface or just below the surface within a layer lacking sufficient cohesion. As the snow moves down the slope, the upper part of the snow is drawn into a triangular pattern that gradually widens. On the other hand, slab avalanches are typically larger and more dangerous than loose snow avalanches. In the process of their formation, a cohesive slab falls onto a weaker lower part.
Within the snowpack, certain damages occur that directly affect its connection to other parts of the snow mass. Additional pressures due to weight or external factors cause snow avalanches to occur. Based on this, spontaneous avalanches caused by the aforementioned processes or induced by human activities can be distinguished. There are dry avalanches that occur in winter conditions and wet avalanches that occur in spring (Cvetković, 2020).
For these reasons, there are layers of older and newer snow present. Fractures occurring around the plates prevent them from spreading over large locations, and the width itself depends on the terrain topography. A particular danger is posed by wet snow avalanches, considering that such snow is heavy, uproots trees, dislodges rocks, and sweeps everything in its path. The triggers for snow avalanches can be natural (earthquakes, landslides, extreme temperatures) and technological, such as skiing activities, motor sled movements, and hiking.
An area affected by a snow avalanche can be divided into three zones: a) the starting zone, where the snow separates from the rest of the snow mass; b) the stopping zone, where the moving snow mass comes to a halt; and c) the transitional zone, connecting the starting zone to the zone where smaller or larger amounts of snow settle, depending on the size of the snow avalanche. All snow avalanches have their paths determined by slope steepness and the amount of snow affected by mass movement. There are beginnings, track bodies, and source areas, and each of these elements has characteristic slope values. At one of the state universities in Montana, a laboratory has been formed that directly or indirectly deals with examining various aspects of snow and avalanches. Their research is focused on the risks that snowfall can cause and the risks of avalanche formation.
6.2.2. Organization and measures of protection in disasters caused by avalanches
The organization and measures of protection and rescue in disasters caused by avalanches are directly conditioned by numerous factors that influence their formation. However, the occurrence of avalanches is conditioned by the interaction of various factors, including the height of the existing snow cover, the structure and condition of the interior of the snow cover, the rate of snowfall, the level of snow moisture, snow settling, air temperatures, etc. The optimal conditions for avalanche occurrence are terrains with slopes between 30 and 40 degrees and when the snow cover layer is 30 cm thick. The majority of disasters caused by avalanches are due to a lack of quality reconnaissance and identification of hazardous areas in mountainous regions.
In order to prevent the occurrence of avalanche consequences in a timely manner, it is necessary to organize the identification of hazardous areas throughout the day and year, which, unfortunately, is very difficult to implement in practice. One of the significant measures of protection from avalanche disasters involves designing and defining various levels of people evacuation. Snow avalanches affect recreation, transportation, various branches of industrial production, and both immovable and movable property of people. During avalanches in Canada in 1999, an average of 12.5 people per year were affected (Stethem et al., 2003).
Starting from the mentioned importance of evacuation, disaster risk managers consider several different scenarios and levels of potential people evacuation (Magnusson, 1996):
- a) Evacuation level No. 1: areas related to known avalanches and where moderate snow accumulation is present. The evacuation area may be smaller than indicated in the avalanche history, i.e., excluding extreme conditions;
- b) Evacuation level No. 2: areas where possible avalanches are clearly identified. Dangerous situations often occur during major snowfalls. The area will be evacuated during upcoming weather conditions known to pose a serious avalanche threat;
- c) Evacuation level No. 3: areas considered at risk from catastrophic avalanches that may not be included in the known avalanche history; meteorological conditions with extreme snow accumulation and extreme storm conditions are included. Also, areas at risk during extremely rare meteorological conditions are included.
In Europe, a snow cover stability scale was developed and updated in 2003, consisting of five risk levels (low, limited, moderate, high, and very high). However, before this scale was adopted, there were other scales. In America, a scale was developed in 1976 with five levels based on certain subjective assessments. A more precise scale was developed in Canada, which contained described criteria for the impact of avalanches on people, objects, vehicles, and forests. According to the European Avalanche Risk Index, regarding snow stability (stable, partially stable, etc.), a description of each level of risk is given. For example, the very high level of avalanche risk is characterized by snow instability, and large and spontaneous avalanches can occur on all slopes (Cvetković, 2020).
Table 2. European Avalanche Risk Index. Source: Adapted from Dennis and Moore (1996).
| Risk Level | Snow Stability | Flag | Level Description |
|
I – Low risk level |
Snow is generally stable. | Avalanches only occur if a heavy load crosses the steepest slopes; any spontaneous avalanches are negligible; stability condition. | |
|
II – Limited risk level |
Snow is partially stable on some slopes, while it is stable on the remainder. | Avalanches occur only if a heavy load crosses the slopes, especially on relatively steep slopes; there are no spontaneous snow slides. | |
|
III – Moderate risk level |
Snow is only partially stable on most slopes. | An avalanche can occur on any slope, even with a relatively small load; on particularly sensitive slopes, there may be moderate spontaneous snow slides. | |
|
IV – High risk level |
Snow is generally unstable on all slopes. | Avalanches can easily occur on any slope with a relatively small load; on particularly sensitive slopes, there may be significant spontaneous snow slides. | |
| V – Very high risk level | The snow is generally unstable. | Large spontaneous avalanches can occur on all slopes. |
According to the Canadian classification system of snow avalanche size and their typical factors, there are five categories, ranging from the first, where the avalanche is relatively safe for people, to the most serious, where the avalanche can destroy an entire village or forest of 40 hectares (Table 3).
Table 3. Canadian system of snow avalanche size classification and typical factors (McClung & Schaerer, 1993).
| Size | Description | Common volume in tons | Common length in meters | Common pressure (kPa) |
| 1 | Relatively safe for humans | <10 | 10 | 1 |
| 2 | Can bury, injure, or kill individuals | 102 | 100 | 10 |
| 3 | Can bury cars, destroy small buildings, or break several trees | 103 | 1000 | 100 |
| 4 | Can destroy a railway car, a large truck, several buildings, or a forest area up to 4 hectares | 104 | 2000 | 500 |
| 5 | Can destroy a village or a forest area of 40 hectares; the largest known snow avalanche | 105 | 3000 | 1000 |
In order to protect against snow avalanches, it is necessary to focus on mapping avalanche hazards and planning the construction of structures at specific locations. Additionally, it is necessary to consider all available measures (earthworks, snow forests) for avalanche protection and prevention. Finally, one of the most significant segments of planning protection from these hazards involves the development of appropriate systems for timely detection of snow avalanches, informing the local population, conducting evacuations, and restricting movement of people in certain areas. Special attention must be given to areas where ski slopes are located, considering that a large number of skiers have been buried due to certain avalanches.
In many countries where snow avalanches are a common occurrence, controlled activations of large snow masses are implemented. The usual procedure for triggering snow avalanches involves using specialized cannons to target specific points with the aim of activating such processes. In areas where ski resorts and key transportation routes are located, intentional triggering of avalanches often occurs to prevent the occurrence of uncontrolled snow avalanches.
Plans for preventing and mitigating the impact of snow avalanches are based on a combination of comprehensive observation of snow cover and decision-making on the implementation of three main groups of interventions: active, passive, and social. Avalanche control techniques involve specific interventions in the evolution of the snowpack or activities to reduce the effects of avalanches after they occur. Active measures against snow avalanches include all measures and procedures aimed at stabilizing and controlling snowpack settlement by disrupting weaker layers, increasing snowpack uniformity, and reducing the available amount of snow that could be mobilized in avalanches. Therefore, active measures include measures to trigger smaller avalanches or influence the structure of the snowpack. Mechanical or explosive methods can be used for such purposes. Mechanical methods are used in less hazardous terrain, while explosive methods are used in accessible large terrains with significant avalanche hazards. Disruption of weaker snow layers is based on the principle of direct impact, such as trampling by people or machines, or track vehicles, on such terrain. It is characteristic of these methods that they can only be applied in situations where snow deposition occurs. Specially trained skiers can be used on terrains characterized by high snow covers to trigger certain smaller avalanches by breaking the tension ridge of the upper snowpack.
In certain countries (Switzerland, Italy, Canada), explosives detonations are used to activate unstable terrains. They are placed above unstable terrains or on the surface itself. They can be activated by manual throwing, helicopter bombing, or firing from a small howitzer. Each of these methods has its advantages and disadvantages, and all aspects must be considered in each specific case. Innovative methods are also used in practice, involving the installation of remotely controlled installations that create specific aerial explosions by detonating fuel-air explosives above the snowpack.
Certainly, there are also permanent techniques that slow down, stop, redirect, or prevent snow avalanche processes. Such techniques include measures for building specific structures and modifying terrain. Accordingly, there are snow retention structures (snow fences, avalanche snow bridges, snow nets), which are used in the upper path of probable avalanche paths; avalanche barriers (the main part of avalanche barrier is based on a high-tensile steel wire mesh, which stretches across the slope and touches the snow surface. The supporting effect created by the fixing surface prevents possible crawling within the snowpack and sliding of the snowpack over the terrain surface. In this way, avalanche initiation in the starting zone is prevented, while snow movements are limited to the extent that they remain safe. Snow nets absorb the forces resulting from snow pressure and transfer them through turning posts and anchored ropes to anchor points (Barbolini et al., 2009; Jóhannesson & Barbolini, 2014).
In addition to active measures, there are other passive methods that involve afforestation along the natural tree line. Such forests create artificial defenses against snow avalanches, such as retention, redistribution, slowing down, and snow collection. They allow the creation of certain tunnels that enable people to survive in such situations. There are also specific objects that represent solid structures that retain snow or allow certain passages where snow removal is impossible. They are made of steel and other types of concrete frames or wood. They can be closed or open depending on their specifics. There are also snow fences built vertically that accumulate snow on their windward side, while snow bridges are inclined or horizontal and hold snow on their upper side.
Snow bridges are anchored to the slope on the uphill side using tension anchors, and on the downhill side using compression anchors. Both diverting and collecting barriers are used to control avalanches and protect settlements. Avalanche nets refer to certain flexible structures that serve to retain snow and are made of steel or nylon cables or strips and are attached to steel posts. It is important to note that they are placed in upper parts of potential avalanches to prevent snow from starting to slide into an avalanche, or to slow down sliding.
Protective measures against snow avalanches can be grouped according to the zone (Ganju & Dimri, 2004):
- a) Formation zone:
Snow bridges: horizontal steel elements placed perpendicular to the slope of the avalanche. They prevent the formation of cracks and fractures in the snow cover; Snow rakes: vertical steel elements placed perpendicular to the slope of the avalanche itself. They prevent the occurrence of cracks and fractures in the snow cover; Snow nets: nets made of steel cables, hung on poles and anchored at the base to halt the initiation of fracture in the snow cover on the mountain slope.
- b) Middle zone or release zone:Diversion barrier: redirects the flow of avalanche snow in another direction to protect certain objects in the path of the avalanche; Snow gallery: protects a road or any object in the path of the avalanche by allowing the flowing mass to pass over its roof; Wedge: divides the flowing mass into two directions to protect objects directly below the wedge.
- c) Runout zone:Embankments: stop and interrupt the momentum of the avalanche mass that is slowing down; Catchment barrier: holds the avalanche mass flowing into a large depression.
6.2.3. Organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by avalanches
When an avalanche occurs, terrain reconnaissance is carried out from the air, using suitable aircraft such as airplanes or helicopters. Certainly, besides aerial reconnaissance, ground reconnaissance is also conducted, which involves collecting specific data necessary for calculating the capacity of rescue forces and equipment. The behavior of people caught in avalanches is crucial for increasing the likelihood of survival in such events. For this reason, endangered individuals should first attempt to make movements simulating swimming upward, towards the surface, which will significantly contribute to keeping the person close to the surface, if not on the surface itself.
Once the snow stops moving, buried individuals should do everything possible to create additional space around themselves. By moving their arms, legs, and rotating, it is possible to create additional space where air will remain. Immediately after that, it is possible to create additional space considering that the snow is still soft and loose. After a certain period, the snow will likely freeze depending on other factors. If a person is not severely injured, there is a chance of survival for about twenty minutes, while chances sharply decrease after 35 minutes. In order to prevent the occurrence of snow avalanches, it is advisable for individuals to move along the slope, never across it, not to move in groups but scattered across the terrain, and not to cross slopes at the bottom.
Given the very short time frame for rescuing people, it is crucial to start searching for survivors as soon as possible. In Serbia, Norwegian avalanche probes are used for search and rescue purposes, which are essentially poles used to probe the snow and search for individuals, clothing items, or any other solid objects beneath the snow. In order to efficiently conduct the search, rescue team members should form cordons, i.e., deploy in a straight line at regular intervals and then proceed with the search. One of the members commands their activities and forward movements. Certainly, before the actual searches, comprehensive analysis is conducted, involving the collection of all relevant data on where the missing people were last seen and where there is the highest probability, or on which part of the slope it is most likely to find buried individuals. Based on modern innovative solutions, avalanche transceivers are often used in ski resorts, emitting radio signals in case of snow avalanches to help rescuers locate buried individuals. Specially trained dogs that can locate buried individuals can also be used. However, the training process for such dogs is very complicated and requires a lot of investment.
For the purpose of rescuing people, the most common approach is to implement terrain search based on the previously mentioned reconnaissance. Before proceeding with the rescue, all relevant and available data will be obtained to create clear and objective representations of the current terrain conditions. Considering that avalanches cause people to be buried who were in the path of the avalanche, it is necessary during the search process to find all buried people or those located in natural or artificial shelters.
In order to approach rescue operations appropriately, it is necessary to gather information from eyewitnesses about the number of people seen, as well as any other relevant data based on which a preliminary number of affected individuals can be determined. To detect trapped individuals, appropriate acoustic devices capable of emitting suitable signals are used, based on which the presence of buried individuals can be determined. Certainly, using trained dogs specially trained for terrain search can be very effective in this process. When performing rescue operations, the choice of working method will depend on the following parameters: a) affected area; b) number of affected people; c) working conditions; d) availability of relevant technology.
Rescue operations in avalanches disasters can be roughly divided into four main phases: a) identifying the location of the victims; b) securing access for rescuers to the victims; c) providing first aid to the victims; d) evacuating victims from hazardous areas (Voronoy, Darmenko, Koryazhin, Mazukhovsky, et al., 1995). In such rescue operations, numerous operational, tactical, and technical measures aimed at detecting buried individuals and establishing communication with them to provide them with first aid and evacuation in the shortest possible time are necessary.
In some situations, it is necessary to carry out the deblocking of victims, which represents a set of organizational and technological measures carried out by rescue teams to provide access to injured people. This is most often undertaken when people are trapped in snow avalanches, beneath muddy deposits, in rocky crevices, among the rubble of building constructions, as well as in other confined spaces. Upon reaching the trapped victims, it is necessary to provide them with first aid as quickly as possible.
In order to organize the work of rescuers from various intervention and rescue services, it is necessary for the intervention commander to first gather the following data: a) characteristics of the avalanche (speed, dimensions, rate of descent); b) hydro-meteorological conditions (air temperature, precipitation, wind, and other relevant data); c) extent of damage to objects, passage of communal energy networks and their condition, distance from roads; d) data on the possibility of spontaneous occurrence of new avalanches; e) terrain characteristics on the object and in its vicinity; f) necessary engineering works for breaking through passages and distributing equipment; g) possible number of victims, nature of their injuries; h) proposed types of rescue operations and their scope; i) possibility of using energy sources; j) degree of illumination in the working area; k) presence of hazardous materials and other contaminants or disruptive factors in the zone (Voronoy, Darmenko, Koryazhin, Mazukhovsky, et al., 1995).
The area within which rescue activities need to be undertaken will be divided into specific sectors, while the sectors will be further divided into specific subunits. Based on all the information obtained, the intervention commander must make an appropriate decision regarding the offensive strategy of unit actions. Certainly, at all times, he must keep in mind the available capacities of forces, resources, and equipment. In the first step, engaged rescue units, or their members, must reach the areas affected by avalanches. This can be organized using appropriate means of transport depending on the terrain conditions and circumstances. It is common practice during searches to determine the narrower and wider location of victims, their functional status, as well as possible methods for their extraction. When a victim is found, their excavation is carried out with the aim of reaching the trapped person. Depending on the situation on the ground, this can be realized through manual work by rescuers themselves, but also using specially designed and specific equipment. After establishing the health condition of the victim, two scenarios are possible: a) the victim is healthy and able to cooperate; b) the victim is in critical condition. If the victim is able to cooperate, various methods can be used for their extraction: a) dragging; b) pulling; c) carrying on shoulders, backs, arms, stretchers, etc.
An indispensable role in rescue activities in avalanche disasters is played by the Mountain Rescue Service of Serbia (established in 1952 by experienced mountaineers), which is responsible for preventing accidents, rescuing and providing first aid to those in danger in inaccessible terrains, and establishing and maintaining rescue systems: in mountains and nature; on ski slopes; in speleological objects; in alpine conditions (rescue from rock, snow, and ice); in urban conditions.
According to the Statute of the Mountain Rescue Service, it carries out the following tasks: participation in the creation and testing of new samples of rescue equipment as well as testing and presenting new and improved rescue techniques and methods; development of theoretical and hypothetical problems of search, rescue, and survival of people in distress; media and public relations, including informing and affirming the topic of safe mountaineering, as well as consultations with people and authorities on security guarantees and behavior in urban and mountain disasters; ecological activities and protection of our mountains; constant training, education, and equipping of rescuers, rescue teams, and rescue crews; determining procedures and coordination with relevant entities to achieve greater speed and quality of rescue operations; cooperation with foreign rescue and other relevant organizations.
6.3. Protection and Rescue in Tsunami-induced Disasters
Some things look like disasters and yet are blessings.
Phil Bosmans
6.3.1. The concept and characteristics of tsunamis relevant for protection and rescue
Typically, a tsunami (high wave) is caused by massive shifts or movements of water, usually due to the movement of the ocean floor accompanied by underwater earthquakes (Bryant, 2008). They can also be caused by other mechanisms that trigger sudden movements of large amounts of water. This includes volcanic eruptions, landslides or avalanches, the collapse of part of a volcano, and asteroid impacts. Among all waves, tsunamis are the deadliest and can travel at speeds of up to 950 km/h, reaching heights of 30 meters when they hit the shore (Chadha et al., 2005).
A tsunami cannot be just one wave but a series of waves, with the first one rarely being the largest. Massive walls of water can inundate the coast for several hours, sweeping away sand from beaches and uprooting trees and vegetation. Fast-moving water can engulf islands, flood fields, and wreak havoc in cities and villages. Tsunamis caused by earthquakes and volcanoes (tectonic tsunamis) are powerful enough to reshape the coastline and can travel thousands of kilometers across oceans (Lavrentyev et al., 2014; Kanamori, 1972; Cvetković, Janković & Banović, 2014).
Based on long-term observations, the following has been established (Bulanenkov et al., 2001, p. 215): earthquakes with magnitudes M > 7.5 almost always trigger tsunamis; at M = 7–7.2, tsunamis occur in 67% of cases; at M = 6.7–6.9, tsunamis occur in only 17% of cases; at M = 5.8–6.2, they occur in only 14% of cases (table 4).
Table 4. Probability of Tsunami Occurrence Relative to the Magnitude of Underwater Earthquakes. Source (Filatov et al., 1995, p. 17).
| Magnitude of Underwater Earthquake | Probability of Tsunami Occurrence (%) |
| Greater than 7.5 | 100 |
| 7.0 – 7.2 | 65 – 70 |
| 6.7– 6.9 | 15 – 20 |
| 5.8 – 6.2 | 1 – 2 |
They can cross several thousand kilometers, after forming at any location, due to the wavelength of the tsunami itself. Tsunamis are very long, usually over 100 km. The speed of tsunami propagation in the ocean is 700-800 km/h, and on the coast, it decreases to 30-40 km/h. From the moment of occurrence, there is a spread and formation of a group of waves that reach the coast at intervals between five and ninety minutes, and it has not yet been determined which of the series of waves will have the most destructive consequences. However, it is common for it to be one of the first three waves (Bulanenkov et al., 2001). The consequences of such devastating waves are manifold, considering that they cause high mortality, destruction of objects, buildings, and other structures, as well as the displacement of heavy objects. Certainly, floating objects, debris, and other waste in the water cause serious damage to people and their property. In addition to the mentioned primary hazards, they can also cause numerous secondary hazards such as fires due to oil spills, damage to gas installations, capsizing of ships, vehicles, etc. All of this leads to chemical, biological, and in the worst cases, radiological contamination of soil, water, and air. Due to such pollution, various systems essential for human life and health experience impaired functioning: agricultural, industrial, energy, transportation, as well as others. In the second half of the twentieth century, the most severe consequences were caused by the Kuril (1952), Chilean (1960), and Alaskan (1964) tsunamis.
Table 5. Classification of tsunamis according to the nature of the resulting consequences. Source (Filatov et al., 1995, p. 18).
| Tsunami Class | Nature of Consequences | Magnitude |
| Very Weak | Only seafarers notice the waves. | 1 |
| Weak | A flat coast can be flooded. | 2 |
| Average | A flat coast is flooded, small boats can sail ashore, port facilities may have minor damage. | 3 |
| Strong | The coast is flooded, coastal buildings and structures are damaged, the shoreline is littered with debris, human casualties are possible. | 4 |
| Very Strong | Coastal areas are flooded, breakwaters and docks are heavily damaged, there are many casualties, and the extent of damage depends on the distance from the shore. | 5 |
6.3.2. Organization and measures for protection in disasters caused by tsunamis
Generally speaking, there are numerous solutions for protecting coastlines from the consequences of tsunamis. They can be classified into two groups: a) “hard and strong” structures; and b) “soft” structures. The mentioned types of coastal protection from tsunamis have their advantages and disadvantages. The use of heavy and massive structural walls is often very expensive and, on the other hand, disrupts the appearance of coastal areas (Alongi, 2008). On the other hand, the use of “hard” infrastructure for tsunami protection in developing countries is often not feasible due to high costs (Tanaka, Jinadasa, Mowjood, & Fasly, 2011). Therefore, coastal vegetation can also be used to protect people and property from tsunamis, acting as a natural barrier against extreme natural and technical-technological activities, protecting infrastructure and human lives.
There are also developed structures for tsunami protection such as: a breakwater with folding gates called “FLAPGATE” and a seawall with folding gates called “NEORISE” (No Energy and no Operation Rising Seawall). In practice, most conventional barriers designed for tsunami protection are equipped with gates that operate on the principle of sliding vertically along guide rails located on both sides of the gate. Such gates can be closed using their own weight even when power is lost. On the other hand, the mentioned “FLAPGATE” and “NEORISE” systems can close the entrance to the harbor or estuary in the embankment using the buoyancy and water pressure even without power, even when tsunamis act on these systems (Figure 3). Therefore, these systems provide better real-time tsunami protection than conventional gates (Kimura, Mase, Nakayasu, & Morii, 2014).
Figure 3. Illustration of the NEORISE tsunami countermeasure system operation. Source (Kimura & Mase, 2014).
The use of coastal vegetation serves multiple protective functions for people during tsunamis (Tanaka, Sasaki, Mowjood, Jinadasa, & Homchuen, 2007): a) the soft landing effect – people swept away by waves are more likely to survive if they grab onto tree branches, which will cushion their fall. In this way, the energy of the waves is dissipated, reducing potential damage to human life and property; b) the catching effect – dense forests can act as filters to trap large objects (cars, parts of houses, garages, household appliances), debris, rubble, etc., preventing them from causing serious damage and injuries through impact; c) the escape effect – from the moment people see the approaching wave, fleeing to forests and climbing trees can enable them to survive.
The choice of plant species for tsunami protection varies depending on the height of buildings or infrastructure that needs protection. However, key factors affecting the effectiveness of such coastal vegetation systems are (Tanaka et al., 2011): established vegetation density (multiple rows are considered more effective than single or double rows); plant species (monoculture is less effective than mixed species); plant density (low density is less effective than high density); species on the front line (complex species with an aerial root structure are more effective); a two-layered vegetation structure is more effective; continuous maintenance is more effective; community participation.
6.3.3. Organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by tsunamis
The organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by tsunamis begins as soon as conditions for safe operations are met, considering that the wave has already reached its peak and is receding. During 2018, due to volcanic eruptions causing underwater landslides, coastal towns in Sumatra and Java, Indonesia, were hit by a tsunami that killed at least around 480 people, with approximately 1016 injured. Due to heavy rains, transportation was hindered, and search and rescue machines couldn’t move, leading to helicopter evacuations of residents.
For the mentioned reasons, it can be said that the organization of rescue activities depends on the size, intensity, height, and speed of the waves themselves. The common method of protecting people is evacuating areas affected by such hazards. However, by implementing effective hydraulic engineering measures, all possible consequences of such waves and further flooding can be mitigated. Such measures can include: water flow regulation using reservoirs; creating forest belts, lakes, dams, drainage systems to intercept precipitation before it enters the channel; building dams, protective barriers, wave breakers; slopes and breakwaters; increasing the carrying capacity of the channel (widening, leveling, and deepening canals, strengthening shores, construction, removing various obstacles in the way); draining swamps and flooded land; creating vertical absorption wells and wells for discharging water into deep aquifers; filling territories designated for building construction, leveling the coast, building drainage canals (Filatov et al., 1995).
In such situations, the competent rescue services must undertake operational-tactical and technical measures and actions in the shortest possible time to locate victims, provide access to rescuers, provide first aid, and evacuate victims from the danger zone. Search activities in areas with such dangerous water levels are completed when the location of victims is determined, and measures for providing first aid and evacuation are taken.
The first step is visual inspection by a large number of reconnaissance teams or using helicopters above flooded areas. In such situations, witness statements can greatly help direct investigations to specific areas. Various methods are used in rescue operations. Injured persons above water surfaces are extracted and transferred to safe locations using special equipment. They can also be extracted using specific floating objects. Divers search for victims below the water level.
Various technical means are used in the process of freeing victims: collective rescue means; personal or individual rescue means, as well as equipment for underwater work (diving suits, lamps, etc.).
Discussion topics
¤ Explain the conceptual definition and characteristics of floods and flash floods relevant to the organization of protection and rescue efforts.
¤ Explain the conceptual definition and characteristics of avalanches relevant to the organization of protection and rescue efforts.
¤ How are measures for protection from disasters caused by floods and flash floods organized and implemented?
¤ How are measures for protection from disasters caused by avalanches organized and implemented?
¤ Explain rescue activities in disasters caused by floods and flash floods.
¤ Explain rescue activities in disasters caused by avalanches.
Further reading recommendations
¨ Stethem, C., Jamieson, B., Schaerer, P., Liverman, D., Germain, D., & Walker, S. (2003). Snow avalanche hazard in Canada–a review. Natural Hazards, 28(2), 487-515.
¨ Tobin, G. A., & Montz, B. E. (2004). Natural hazards and technology: vulnerability, risk, and community response in hazardous environments. In Geography and Technology (pp. 547-570): Springer.
¨ Xiong, W., Van Gelder, P., & Yang, K. (2020). A decision support method for design and operationalization of search and rescue in maritime emergency. Ocean Engineering, 207, 107399.
¨ Voronoй, S., Darmenko, A., Korяžin, S., Mažuhovskiй, Z., Nikonova, N., Paramonov, V., Čičerina, V. (1995). Spravočnik spasatelя. Kniga 2. Spasatelьnыe rabotы pri likvidacii posledstviй zemletrяseniй, vzrыvov, burь, smerčeй i taйfunov. M.: VNII GOČS.
¨ Fedяnin, V., & Proskurnikov, Ю. (2006). Organizaciя i vedenie avariйno-spasatelьnыh i drugih neotložnыh rabot pri likvidacii črezvыčaйnыh situaciй prirodnogo haraktera. Voronež: GOUVPO Voronežskiй gosudarstvennый tehničeskiй universitet, 2006. 1.–469.
¨ Dragićević, S., Filipović, D., Kostadinov, S., Nikolić, J., & Stojanović, B. (2009). Zaštita od prirodnih nepogoda i tehnoloških udesa. Strategija prostornog razvoja Republike Srbije. Beograd: Univerzitet u Beogradu, Geografski fakultet.
¨ Flint, C., & Brennan, M. (2006). Community emergency response teams: From disaster responders to community builders. Rural realities, 1(3), 1-9.
¨ Ganju, A., & Dimri, A. P. (2004). Prevention and mitigation of avalanche disasters in western Himalayan region. Natural Hazards, 31(2), 357-371.
¨ Garrote, J., Bernal, N., Díez-Herrero, A., Martins, L. R., & Bodoque, J. M. (2019). Civil engineering works versus self-protection measures for the mitigation of floods economic risk. A case study from a new classification criterion for cost-benefit analysis. International journal of disaster risk reduction, 37, 101157.
¨ Jóhannesson, T., & Barbolini, M. (2014). The Design of Avalanche Protection Dams; Recent Practical and Theoretical Developments. Mitigative Measures against, 200.
¨ Krzhizhanovskaya, V. V., Shirshov, G. S., Melnikova, N. B., Belleman, R. G., Rusadi, F. I., Broekhuijsen, B. J., Bubak, M. (2011). Flood early warning system: design, implementation and computational modules. Procedia Computer Science, 4, 106-115.
VII TACTICS FOR PROTECTION AND RESCUE IN DISASTERS CAUSED BY ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS
Chapter Summary
Chapter seven of the textbook provides an overview of the most significant tactical principles and recommendations regarding protection and rescue, i.e., undertaking specific operational-tactical and technical measures and actions in disasters caused by atmospheric hazards. Within this chapter, tactical principles for the protection and rescue of people in disasters caused by storms, droughts, and snowfall are examined. Additionally, special attention is given to the conceptual definition and characteristics of such hazards relevant to protection and rescue. Furthermore, the organization and specific protective measures in such disasters are reviewed, formulated, and studied. Additionally, the organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by storms, droughts, and snowfall is clarified and described. As in the previous chapter, for each of the mentioned hazards, the characteristics of the hazards themselves, organization, and protective measures, as well as the organization of rescue activities, are considered.
Keywords: tactics for protection and rescue; conceptual definitions; characteristics; storm winds, droughts, extreme snowfall; organization; protective measures; rescue activities.
Learning objectives
v Understanding the conceptual definitions and characteristics of hazards (storm winds, droughts, snowfall) relevant to protection and rescue;
v Familiarization with the organization and protective measures in disasters caused by storm winds;
v Familiarization with the organization and protective measures in disasters caused by droughts;
v Familiarization with the organization and protective measures in disasters caused by extreme snowfall;
v Acquiring knowledge about the organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by storm winds;
v Acquiring knowledge about the organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by droughts;
v Acquiring knowledge about the organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by extreme snowfall;
v Obtaining basic understanding and information about the coordination of protective measures and rescue activities in disasters caused by storm winds, droughts, and extreme snowfall.
7.1. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by storm winds
The ultimate measure of a man is not where he stands in moments of comfort, but where he stands at times of challenge and controversy.
Martin Luther King Jr.
7.1.1. Concept and characteristics of storm winds relevant to the organization of protection and rescue
During the 20th century, approximately 750,000 people suffered due to the direct or indirect consequences of hurricanes. The highest number of fatalities was recorded in developing countries such as Bangladesh and India. Before the development of modern warning, notification, and alert systems, most deaths were caused by people drowning during such storm winds (Shultz et al., 2005; Nicholls, Mimura, & Topping, 1995).
As highlighted by Cvetković (2020, p. 106), storms represent atmospheric disturbances that directly contribute to changes in wind speed due to various pressures and temperatures, sustained by such changes. According to him, these are winds of the ninth degree according to the Beaufort scale, reaching speeds greater than 76 km/h. Due to their high wind speed, serious damages can occur to material goods. In contrast, a tornado involves accelerated, rotating air movement, lifting off the ground from clouds called cumulonimbus. Such vortices already exist in the atmosphere, and when connected to the ground, they acquire destructive characteristics. They are associated with large, funnel-shaped formations in clouds and form in convective cells, such as thunderstorms, or in the right, front quadrant of hurricanes, at a great distance (>200 km) from areas with maximum winds (Cvetković, 2020).
Stormy-hail precipitation most commonly occurs locally in the western part of Serbia and parts of Šumadija, in the regions of Fruška Gora, Srem, and southern Bačka, as well as on Kopaonik and parts of southern Serbia. Considering the regional division, the Kosovo-Metohija region is significantly endangered by hail (99.52% of the total territory), followed by the Prizren region (73.56%) and the Kosovo-Mitrovica region (73.56%). In Serbia, the most common and well-known wind with stormy gusts is the “košava,” which occurs in the Pomoravlje and Podunavlje regions. The “košava” is strongest in southern Banat and in the Danube Valley, between Veliko Gradište and Novi Sad (Spatial Plan of the RS, 2021).
Storm winds have serious destructive potential and can cause significant material and non-material consequences. Depending on the speed and density of wind currents, the intensity of harmful effects will vary. Based on wind speed, future damage can be calculated and predicted. Such winds can cause the destruction of buildings and structures, tree fractures, detachment of individual parts of building constructions, as well as serious injuries and fatalities.
Due to high wind speeds, their gusty waves will lift, dislodge, and carry various objects that can cause damage or injuries upon impact or fall from great heights. Hurricane Katrina, which hit Florida, Louisiana, and Mississippi in 2005, caused approximately 1,800 fatalities, along with the reported disappearance of around 700 people. At that time, a significant part of New Orleans was submerged (breaching of levees and floodwalls), and serious erosion and complete destruction of coastal areas occurred, with an estimated economic damage of around $80 billion.
In Louisiana, about one and a half million people were evacuated, while about 200,000 people remained in their homes. Mandatory evacuation was ordered 20 hours before the arrival of the storm surge. In the same year, Hurricane Wilma hit Mexico, Cuba, and Florida, which was one of the strongest tropical cyclones lasting about two weeks. Damage amounted to $29 billion, and 87 people lost their lives. Two years later, nine U.S. states faced Hurricane Irma, a powerful Atlantic cyclone that caused catastrophic consequences, flooding streets, uprooting trees, and toppling power lines. Wind speeds reached 295 km/h according to the Saffir-Simpson scale. Several smaller islands in the eastern Caribbean were destroyed, over 90% of buildings on Barbuda were damaged, approximately 129 people lost their lives, almost all communication was disrupted, and about 60% of the population was left homeless. Evacuation orders were issued for over five million vulnerable people, who were accommodated in about 450 shelters.
The second deadliest hurricane on record occurred in 1998 in Central America. It resulted in the deaths of over 11,000 people, with about 7,000 fatalities in Honduras and about 3,800 in Nicaragua, due to serious and devastating floods caused by the slow movement of the storm. Around 100,000 people were evacuated in Honduras, while about 10,000 were evacuated in Guatemala, and recommendations were made for people to go to shelters, with flood warnings issued. Over two million people were left homeless due to serious floods, and the total damage exceeded $6 billion. The classification of hurricanes based on maximum and sustained wind speeds is carried out according to the Saffir-Simpson scale, which provides an approximation of potential damages and the impact of floods caused by precipitation (Cvetković, 2020).
Table 6. The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale (SSHS) (adapted from: Simpson and Saffir, 1974).
| Category I hurricanes | Windspeeds of 74–95 mph (119–153 km/h) or storm surges of 4–5 ft (1.2–1.5 m) above normal. No damage to building structures, but damage to mobile homes, low-lying plants and trees, as well as poorly constructed and placed traffic signs and coastal paths. |
| Category II hurricanes | Windspeeds of 96–110 mph (154–177 km/h) or storm surges of 6–8 ft (1.8–2.4 m) above normal. Some roof, door, and window damage, with significant damage to mobile homes, low-lying plants and trees, as well as poorly constructed and placed traffic signs and coastal paths. |
| Category III hurricanes | Windspeeds of 111–130 mph (178–209 km/h) or storm surges of 9–12 ft (2.7–3.7 m). Structures of homes and buildings are damaged, while mobile homes and poorly constructed traffic signs are destroyed. Coastal floods sweep away everything in their path. |
| Category IV hurricanes | Windspeeds of 131–155 mph (210–249 km/h) or storm surges of 13–18 ft (4.0–5.5 m). Numerous damages to structures and completely destroyed roofing structures and houses. Massive damage to windows and doors. |
| Category V hurricanes | Winds exceeding 155 mph (249 km/h) or storm surges higher than 18 ft (5.5 m) above normal. Complete destruction of roofing structures or many houses and buildings. |
7.1.2. Organization and protective measures in disasters caused by storm winds
The organization for the protection and rescue of people in disasters caused by storms includes the following activities: a) studying and analyzing the situation, assessing the degree of destruction, determining the disaster zone; b) assessing the stability of buildings and structures; c) organizing safe working conditions for rescuers and providing emergency assistance to the injured on the surface of rubble; d) thorough search for victims using all available search tools and methods; e) partial dismantling of blockades using heavy equipment to assist the injured; f) general dismantling or clearance of blockades (Kusainov, 2013).
Due to the severity of the consequences that storm winds can cause, there are numerous recommendations on how to protect buildings and houses from strong winds. Common protective measures are suggested as follows (Mishra, Vanli, Kakareko, & Jung, 2019): a) plan a clear evacuation route and gather all information about available shelters; b) prepare supplies for such situations: extra batteries; candles or fuel lamps; three-day supply of food and water; first aid kit; portable radio transmitter; c) maintain a list of personal belongings, a comprehensive household inventory to facilitate procedures with insurance companies after such events; d) replace stone landscaping or decorations with lighter materials that cannot be shattered and maintain branches and trees around the house; e) install storm shutters to protect windows from breakage; reinforce external doors with additional locks; close external openings on the house, etc.
Damage to residential buildings with wooden frames due to extreme winds represents a significant economic loss in coastal communities during hurricanes. In such events, damages to the connections between walls and roofs are the main reason that often leads to complete disruption of the building envelope and damage to the internal layer, thus having a dominant effect on the overall economic loss.
According to official FEMA guidance, it is necessary to sign up for local alerts, monitor local news and weather reports, prepare for evacuation, install backflow prevention valves for sewage, water, electricity, gather all necessary and essential documentation. During hurricanes, it is necessary to follow the instructions of local authorities, start evacuation upon issuance of recommendations, stay away from windows and seek shelters at lower levels, move to higher levels if there is a risk of flooding. After the hurricane, return to the residence area only after obtaining approval from the competent authorities, do not enter damaged buildings until they are inspected by qualified experts, do not walk or pass through flooded roads, do not use water, carry out disinfection, disinsection, and deratization in accordance with recommendations (https://www.ready.gov/sites/defaul.pdf).
7.1.3. Organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by storm winds
In disasters caused by storm winds, a large number of people may become buried or trapped under certain debris. Emergency rescue services primarily conduct deblocking to enable access to people trapped in debris and enclosed spaces, as well as to free them and organize evacuation routes. First aid is provided to preserve the lives of victims and prepare them for transportation. When feasible, first aid is administered on-site after access and rescue have been facilitated. After evacuation from the danger zone, victims may receive first aid at the pickup point where emergency personnel retrieve them. Evacuation of individuals from blocked areas occurs after access, rescue, and first aid have been provided (Kusainov, 2013).
During or immediately after disasters caused by storm winds, it is necessary to collect all available data about the situation to determine the extent of damage caused by strong winds. Assessing the degree of destruction involves gathering data on the extent of damage or destruction to critical infrastructure systems, as well as all other direct or indirect consequences. Timely and accurate identification of the degree of damage will help plan all necessary measures to be taken in the short and long term.
Search and rescue operations begin with reconnaissance: determining the area affected by the disaster and its nature; identifying the location and condition of victims; assessing the condition of structures in the disaster zone (buildings, communications, engineering systems); determining the presence of fire outbreaks, radioactive, chemical, bacteriological contamination, toxic and explosive materials, preventing their negative impact on people, eliminating or localizing them; determining the locations for access roads, equipment placement, victim evacuation routes; establishing continuous monitoring of the blockade status. Before implementing search and rescue operations, it is advisable to: disconnect power, gas supply, water supply; check the condition of remaining structures, elevated elements, walls; inspect the interior; ensure there are no hazards, create a safe working environment; designate escape routes in case of danger (Kusainov, 2013).
To identify data about the situation after strong storm winds, reconnaissance is organized to determine the nature of destruction in affected areas, the presence of damage and malfunctions in communal power grids, telegraph and telephone lines, to assess the fire situation and the presence of water sources near the fire scene, as well as the condition of roads where the movement of forces involved in hurricane aftermath relief is planned. Upon arrival in areas affected by strong storm winds, rescuers begin rescuing people, providing medical assistance to the injured, evacuating them, localizing and extinguishing fires. Simultaneously, efforts are made to eliminate malfunctions and damage to public energy networks and communication pipelines, clean streets and roads. Various formations with different compositions, purposes, and technical equipment are engaged to mitigate the consequences. Snow clearing formations and vehicles equipped with snow removal equipment can be engaged for snow clearance and freeing trapped vehicles (Matveyev & Kovalenko, 2007, p. 118).
The choice of rescue action organization method is made by the intervention manager based on the reconnaissance findings and data about the object where the rescue action will take place. The following information is provided: general situation along the entry route and at the disaster site; extent of building damage; types of buildings and objects by functional purpose, floors; nature, scope, and structure of debris and access conditions; ability to move heavy engineering equipment to the site; scope of engineering work to equip access to debris and clear areas for equipment placement; and potential number of debris (Kusainov, 2013).
When assessing the situation in areas affected by storm winds, the following are determined: a) the extent of the disaster-affected area, where the most severe situation has developed, the nature and intensity of harmful factors before the start of rescue operations, the presence of the danger of further disaster development; b) the population’s situation, the location (object) where the largest number of victims is possible, the nature of harm inflicted on people, the scope and optimal time for rescue; c) the state of industrial and residential development, the nature of destruction (damage) where the most severe engineering situation has developed; d) the presence, scope, and nature of factors hindering emergency rescue operations (blockades, floods, fires, pollution of the area with debris, fallen trees); e) the state of domestic animals, supplies of vital material resources, cultural values, required quantities of measures for their protection; f) the nature of the terrain and weather conditions, their possible impact on work; g) the required number, composition of forces, and means for emergency rescue and other interventions (Olishevsky, 2015).
According to the degree of destruction of built structures caused by storm winds, debris is classified into five categories:
- Minor damage: thin cracks appear on building walls, plaster is scattered, small pieces are broken, window glass is damaged;2. Weak destruction: small cracks in walls, fairly large pieces of plaster separate, cracks appear in chimneys, some collapse, roofs are partially damaged, window glass is completely shattered;3. Moderate destruction: large cracks in building walls, collapse of chimneys, partial roof collapse; 4. Severe damage: collapse of internal partitions and walls, wall fragments, collapse of building parts, destruction of connections between building parts, roof collapse; 5. Total destruction (Kusainov, 2013).
To obtain reliable information during protection and rescue actions, it is necessary to establish a so-called “quiet hour” in the area where the debris is located. Upon command from responsible leadership in the disaster zone, all work stops, all transport ceases, and all functional equipment and mechanisms are turned off. The only ones who continue working are rescuers with victim search devices, dog guides, and “listeners.” It is envisaged that the “quiet hour” lasts 15-20 minutes every working day and weekend. There can be many cases of “quiet hour” during the day. By deconstructing the barrier from above, easier access is provided to the injured, who are located in the upper part of the barricade, and free access to those who need assistance.
Manual dismantling of the barrier requires the use of pliers, shovels, and even more shovels. Lifting equipment must be used to lift and move heavy barrier components, which must be done carefully (cranes, winches, hoists, and other similar devices). In addition, the possibility of unexpected movement of barrier components must be minimized, as it could lead to increased pain and suffering for those affected by these circumstances. After being freed, victims are provided assistance and transported to a safe location. Victims are often found in the depths of debris. They dig a very narrow passage (hole) in the easiest-to-reach parts of the barricade to pull them out, taking into account the shortest distance between them and the victims (Kusainov, 2013).
Placing shafts near large blocks is not recommended due to the likelihood of shafts gathering and complicating the digging task. For drilling holes, three different orientations are possible: horizontal, inclined, or vertical. Manual or tool works on shaft arrangement are performed throughout the structure in numerous groups. Their tasks include breaking down the barrier, drilling shafts, preparing and installing fasteners, clearing away debris that can be removed, unblocking victims, and transporting them to a safe area. After discovering the shaft, rescuers descend through it crawling, lying on their stomachs, and leaning on their elbows to reach the bottom. They must not allow massive objects made of reinforced concrete, metal, wood, or brick to obstruct rescuer movement. If that’s not possible, the material must be destroyed, or in certain cases, a hole can be cut through it to allow ventilation (Kusainov, 2013).
7.2. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by droughts
We live in a moment where change is so rapid that we begin to see the present only when it begins to disappear.
Ronald David Laing
7.2.1. The concept and characteristics of droughts are significant for the organization of protection and rescue efforts
Drought is a natural phenomenon that occurs when precipitation significantly deviates negatively from normal values, leading to serious changes in the hydrological balance that adversely affect terrestrial production systems (Cvetković & Bošković, 2014). Droughts, as climate catastrophes, increasingly threaten the safety of people and their property, creating significant environmental problems, including a negative impact on the environment. It represents a natural phenomenon that arises when precipitation significantly deviates negatively from normal values, causing serious changes in the hydrological balance that adversely affect terrestrial production systems.
Starting from the basic characteristics of droughts as natural hazards, there are certain mechanisms that plants can employ to mitigate stress due to water deficiency (Ilyas et al., 2021): a) avoiding drought-prone areas; b) developing resistance (tolerance) to drought; and c) developing drought recovery capability. Tolerance to drought and avoidance of drought-prone areas represent the fundamental strategies of plants for mitigating the negative consequences of drought. The development of resistance in plants to drought is reflected in their ability to resist dehydration through internal physiological activities. Plants can adjust their life cycle to avoid droughts. Drought recovery represents the plant’s ability to restart its growth and development after extreme exposure to drought.
The literature presents an insufficiently clear determination of the term, which encourages certain confusions and overlaps between the concepts of droughts (temporary and natural), water scarcity (temporary and technical-technological), and shortages (constant and technical-technological). Accordingly, water deficit can be understood as a temporary insufficient amount of water in a certain system, which can then lead to usage restrictions, such as a situation where demand exceeds available resources. On the other hand, if drought is a passing anomaly that varies in duration, the possibility of a deficit would be completely erased by adequate management and adaptation to climate characteristics at the regional level. Scarcity, finally, refers to constant situations of water deficit.
Monitoring scarcity and drought requires specific and well-differentiated indicators (Paneque, 2015). Drought can be recognized only when plants start to wilt, sources and streams dry up, and lakes begin to disappear, opening up many ecological problems. It can be noted that most droughts occur when slow-moving air masses begin to dominate the region. Some authors (Wilhite & Glantz, 1985) emphasize that droughts should be divided into four categories: meteorological drought (decrease in precipitation), agricultural drought (decrease in soil moisture), hydrological drought (decrease in the availability of surface and groundwater), and socioeconomic drought (decrease in water availability relative to existing needs).
Problems with droughts and other extremely low and high temperatures are caused by climate change. With the idea that climate change poses a serious threat to national security and defense of states worldwide, environmental protection activists and experts in the field have mainly been engaged. However, lately, climate change has begun to increasingly interest politicians and defense officials worldwide (Sharma, 2011). In one of the discussions of the United Nations Security Council during 2012, Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said that “Climate change not only exacerbates threats to peace and international security, but it itself represents a serious threat to peace and international security” (Barnett & Adger, 2007, p. 102). Besides Ban Ki-moon, his predecessor Kofi Annan, addressing the twelfth conference of United Nations members in Nairobi in 2006, said that “Climate change is not just a problem related to global warming. It is a comprehensive threat to the health and security of countries worldwide. It can threaten food supplies worldwide and the same land from which half of the world’s population lives” (Happer, 2012, p. 31). Therefore, climate change is a real and serious threat to peace and security. Also, British Admiral Neil Morisetti, responsible for climate issues and energy security at the British Ministry of Defense, was not indifferent, and at the conference in London pointed out the importance of considering the nature and reasons for population migration that has lost land due to climate change (Ball, 2009, p. 23). Generally speaking, he also pointed out the fact that mass migrations of people caused by climate change will produce conflicts worldwide, which will have negative implications for various segments of defense systems (Cvetković, Vučić, & Gačić, 2015).
Climate change refers to climate variations directly or indirectly attributed to human activities that alter the composition of the atmosphere and, unlike climate variability, are observed over longer periods (Clifford, 2011, p. 32). Climate change in a broader sense represents the consequences of complex abiotic and biotic processes and is manifested through statistically significant changes in climate parameters over longer periods (Podesta & Ogden, 2007, p. 38). Factors driving climate change can be astronomical, geophysical, and biotic (George, 2008, p. 13). Astronomical and geophysical factors represent external factors of climate change as they originate outside the atmosphere. Astronomical factors relate to the activities of other astronomical objects, primarily the Sun, as well as the relationships between these objects and Earth (distance, trajectories, relative positions, inclination, etc.). Geophysical factors are related to Earth’s tectonic activities. The consequences of these processes such as volcanic eruptions, tectonic movements, changes in inclination can directly affect the climate (Rajib & Sharma, 2011, p. 23; Cvetković et al., 2015).
In this regard, under the term global warming, unlike climate change, it is understood as an increase in the temperature of the troposphere, which thereby contributes to changes in global climate patterns, arising from increased emissions of so-called greenhouse gases, mainly carbon dioxide and methane (Environmental Protection Agency, 2007, p. 78). As multidimensional and comprehensive threats, they largely influence various changes in the natural environment on which the entire international community relies (Lane, 2008, p. 71). They represent a significant security risk and bring with them numerous challenges such as: reduced energy access, decreased food availability, increased frequency and intensity of hydro-meteorological disasters, population displacement, increased public health issues, and water scarcity (Clifford, 2011, p. 111; Cvetković et al., 2015). The National Protection and Rescue Strategy (2011) emphasizes that meteorological observations data show that the strongest droughts in the territory of the Republic of Serbia have been recorded during the last two decades, especially in the northeastern, eastern, and southern parts of the country.
Table 7. Projections of the Impact of Climate Change on Natural Environment. Source: (Rajib & Sharma, 2011, p. 58).
| Projected Climate Changes | Representative Examples of Impacts |
| Higher Maximum Temperatures: More hot days and heatwaves in nearly all regions (very likely) | · Increased frequency of deaths and severe illnesses among elderly groups and poorer residents,
· Increased heat stress among livestock and wildlife, · Shifts in tourist destinations, · Increased risk of damage to a large number of crops, · Increased demand for cooling and reduced electricity consumption |
| Higher maximum temperatures; fewer cold days, frosts, and cold spells in almost all regions (very likely). | · Reduction in morbidity and mortality,
· Decreased risk of crop damage, but increased risk for others, · Expanded range and activity of certain pests and diseases, · Reduced demand for thermal energy |
| More intense precipitation (very likely in many areas) | · Increased frequency of floods, landslides, avalanches, and mudslides
· Increased soil erosion · Increased flooding may lead to higher runoff from plains · Increased pressure on governments and insurance systems |
| Increased frequency of droughts in most regions with a temperate continental climate (likely) | · Reduced yields
· Increased damage to structures due to land subsidence · Decreased quality and quantity of water · Increased risk of forest fires |
| Increase in the number of tropical cyclones of wind, moderate, and high intensity (likely in some areas) | · Increased risk for people, risk of infections and epidemics, and other health hazards
· Increased coastal erosion and damage to coastal structures · Increased damage to coastal ecosystems, coral reefs, and mangroves |
| Intense droughts and floods associated with the El Niño phenomenon (likely) | · Reduction of agricultural land in drought and flood-prone areas,
· Decreased hydroelectric potential in dry regions |
| Increased rainfall during monsoon rains in Asia | · Increased occurrences of floods and droughts with damages in tropical regions of Asia |
| Increased intensity of storms in equatorial regions | · Increased risk to human health,
· Increased losses of property and other assets, · Increased damages to coastal ecosystems |
Before we understand the phenomenon of drought, we must grasp that it is not just a natural occurrence but also the result of the interaction of natural phenomena (deficiencies in precipitation due to natural climate variability on various time scales) and the search for water by humans and the environment (Bošković & Bošković, 2010, p. 17). Due to drought, risks of pollution and water shortages are present, both for drinking and other purposes, as well as risks to the endangerment of fish, animals, and plants, and they can also contribute to the occurrence of forest fires (Živanović, 2010, p. 179).
7.2.2. Organization and measures for protection in disasters caused by droughts
Frequent droughts in various Mediterranean regions have highlighted the general inadequacy of current strategies for mitigating the impacts of droughts on various socio-economic sectors related to water use. The lack of an effective drought monitoring and prediction system, difficulties in disseminating advanced risk assessment methodologies, as well as the complexity in defining simple and objective criteria for the proper selection and implementation of mitigation measures, constitute the main frameworks for appropriate drought management policies (Rossi, Vega, & Bonaccorso, 2007).
Disaster management and rescue from droughts are one of the oldest human civilization endeavors. This management has always been achieved through accurate meteorological forecasts. In order to protect people from droughts, it is necessary to undertake various structural and non-structural measures. Among the structural measures, it is necessary to build appropriate reservoirs that can be used in dry periods. During periods of heavy rainfall, they can be utilized to reduce water levels and avoid flooding. Although droughts have affected societies worldwide throughout history, progress has only recently been made in planning responses to them.
Building a system for timely and effective population warning about future dry periods can play a crucial role. If the population is timely informed, at the household level, everyone can provide a personal reservoir in which they can store certain quantities of water reserves. During dry periods, it will be necessary to prohibit the use of vast quantities of water for industrial purposes. It is also very important to prioritize water use in order to rationalize consumption.
Traditional disaster management models caused by droughts have failed to mitigate the impact of such phenomena and have contributed to retaining practices that have not contributed much but have increased the vulnerability of water systems. Only a risk reduction-oriented approach can improve resistance to future drought episodes, whose frequency, intensity, and duration may increase as a result of climate change and unpredictability (Paneque, 2015). Mentioned traditional approaches emphasize the importance of mobilizing additional resources to overcome the consequences of such disasters. Such a reactive approach is often economically and technically inefficient and leaves little room for reviewing all alternatives and involving stakeholders.
Within such a model, water management is based on certain interventions aimed at improving hydrological systems and other significant infrastructure. The community’s response to drought varies depending on its social and economic structure. Considering the negative aspects of droughts, various agro-technical measures are often applied. Fertilizing with organic and mineral mixed fertilizers, specific pruning for optimal yields, and protecting with copper agents from diseases and pests are certainly the most common agro-technical measures.
One of the significant measures for protection from drought-induced disasters is agricultural diversification. It involves planting or cultivating various agricultural crops with different requirements and levels of tolerance. Such practice reduces risk and guarantees a certain quantity of food produced under almost any conditions. One preventive measure relates to the practice of water conservation, i.e., making appropriate reserves. During droughts, a predictable sequence of events occurs. Namely, after poor harvests due to drought, farmers try to gather income by increasing labor and artisanal activities. As hunger intensifies, they seek help from relatives, and then begin to sell assets. After that, borrowing money follows, and if all else fails, selling off all property or moving out of the drought-affected region remains. Therefore, after a drought, agricultural households have little means to restore their previous way of life (Edward, 2005).
Additionally, land management techniques aimed at retaining moisture and preserving crops are used when cultivating land. Plant cover, soil cultivation, and the construction of bunds and ridges that retain water are all methods for accelerating rainfall penetration into the groundwater surface. Basins will be cleared and compacted in certain situations to maximize water flow into agricultural dams for irrigation during droughts. Since most crops mature when moisture levels are lowest, the timing of planting is crucial for the final yield. Wheat grows best when planted early in winter, before major water shortages in summer. Moreover, phosphate fertilizers can triple crop yields for every cubic millimeter of rainfall. Some pastures are not cultivated in spring when the land is used for grazing, so hay can be used as feed during dry summer months. When drought lasts for several years, the number of cattle decreases significantly, or livestock is shipped far away and fed in areas without drought (Edward, 2005).
Furthermore, computer management models with functions to increase crop yields using current or predicted climatic conditions, moisture, and crop status are also used. Effective financial management becomes increasingly important for both survival and recovery from drought. Most farmers aim for three profitable years per decade and must ensure the economic sustainability of the farm for seven years of drought. Such a business strategy requires either financial reserves or bank loans that allow for livestock reproduction within that timeframe. Despite this technical progress, human activity has the potential to worsen droughts on converted or marginal land, as well as significant vegetation destruction and unproductive land management.
Given the increasingly serious consequences of droughts, projects for irrigation systems are being funded, and crop insurance is being established, often sponsored by national governments. The design and implementation of these measures aim to save farmers and mitigate the consequences of future droughts. It is necessary to continue expanding water supply networks in rural and suburban areas and creating sustainable reservoirs. High water levels can be utilized to fill such reservoirs and simultaneously prevent flooding. Therefore, integrated water stock management can prevent or somewhat alleviate the negative aspects of droughts.
According to the National Protection and Rescue Strategy (2011), the Republic Hydro-Meteorological Institute, within its responsibilities in agrometeorology, has established an operational drought monitoring system, which provides continuous monitoring of soil moisture deficits or surpluses and issues analyses, forecasts, and warnings about the occurrence and intensity of droughts in various regions of the Republic of Serbia. It is also emphasized that the drought monitoring system of the Republic of Serbia is included in the regional drought monitoring system coordinated by the Drought Center for Southeast Europe based in the Republic of Slovenia. Additionally, a preliminary risk assessment of drought for the agricultural sector has been conducted, and activities are underway to develop and implement European Union methodologies and recommendations for assessing the risk of such disasters.
Farmers have always had the opportunity to adapt their agricultural practices to increase the chances of producing certain crops, diversify, switch to drought-resistant crops, or quickly respond to changes in soil and weather conditions. Nomads sow in more favorable conditions, following regional rainfall patterns to exploit spatial fluctuations in precipitation, or move south where the environment is moister. In tough times, social groups have strong family ties, allowing impoverished households to survive thanks to support from friends or relatives. There is very little national management or control of this type of activity, especially where national authority is weak or ineffective.
In Botswana, on the edge of the Kalahari Desert, the government has established an early warning program that monitors the intensity of drought. Every month, rainfall statistics are collected and analyzed to create a draft map, which highlights areas favorable for planting and those that are unstable. In 1983, a computer model was developed to predict soil moisture and maximum yields. The model uses rainfall data and makes crop yield projections until harvest, based on the assumption of “no shortage” and “the shortage continues.” This model is updated with daily rainfall readings inputted into a centralized collection system via two-way radio from all parts of the country. The model enables farmers to determine the risk to crops if they are now planted, the risk to crops if they are cultivated, as well as the risk to crops if harvesting is delayed. Because soil moisture is calculated in the model, it is possible to determine soil moisture reserves from crops from the previous year (Edward, 2005).
The first phase of the disaster management system for droughts consists of spatial and temporal analysis of meteorological and hydrological information and the definition of a rainfall network dedicated to drought prediction. The spatial and temporal variability of meteorological information requires a large number of stations and a huge amount of weather information to realize appropriate hydrological and meteorological characterization. The second phase of the drought management system consists of defining specific indicators for different types of droughts: meteorological drought indicators; agricultural drought indicators (soil moisture analyses, simulation models of river basin runoff); hydrological drought indicators (statistical analyses of inflows); operational drought indicators (based on simulation management models of water systems and institutional indicators).
The third phase of the drought management system is based on the application of simulation models of water systems, which are considered the only tools capable of reproducing the complexity of river basin models, and institutional indicators. When a possible drought occurrence is detected, the final phase of the drought management system begins. In this phase, the most suitable mitigation measures are planned, and with simulation models, the efficiency of each measure and all of them can be analyzed (Andreu, Pérez, Ferrer, Villalobos, & Paredes, 2007).
Table 8. Classification of drought protective measures. Source: (Yevjevich et al., 1978).
| Increasing water reserves | |||
| Existing reservoirs | New reservoirs | Complex reservoirs | |
| Surface storage | Utilization of lakes in emergencies | Transportation networks | |
| Groundwater storage | Desalination | Water demand management | |
| Inter-basin transfer | Fossil water | Snow and ice management | |
| Water conservation | Weather modification | / | |
| Reducing water demand | |||
| Active strategies | Reactive strategies | ||
| Legal restrictions and public pressure | User recycling systems | ||
| Economic incentives | User production adjustments | ||
| Minimizing drought impacts | |||
| Prediction | Risk sharing | Damage reduction | |
| Forecast and warning | Insurance | Drought-resistant crops | |
| Follow-up forecast and warning | Individual protection | Adaptation of agricultural techniques | |
| / | Disaster aid adaptation | Adaptation of urban vegetation | |
The Water Scarcity Drafting Group (2006) provided general recommendations on mitigation measures for European Union countries. It was established on the initiative of the Water Directors of the EU following droughts in many Mediterranean countries during 2003, aiming to develop enhanced efforts in addressing water scarcity due to drought on behalf of the European Commission. The document presented at the meeting of water directors identifies measures and procedures to be adopted in Europe and Mediterranean countries to ensure the provision and exchange of information and actions to address water scarcity issues. The document emphasizes the need to transition from a disaster management-based approach to a new policy focused on drought risk management, using adequate monitoring systems. Furthermore, the development of specific plans oriented towards planning and managing drought risks is considered a key point for success in the drought mitigation process. An essential element for an effective drought management strategy has been identified in the development of a drought monitoring system capable of supporting timely decision-making on drought mitigation measures and coordination among national, regional, and local levels (Andreu et al., 2007).
Table 9. List of proposed protective measures by the EU Water Scarcity Drafting Group (2006)
|
Water demand management
|
Voluntary or mandatory rationing |
| Priority distribution | |
| Price changes | |
| Public education campaigns | |
| Incentives for water conservation at the municipal level | |
| Incentives for water conservation in agriculture | |
| Incentives for industrial water recycling | |
| Alternatives to water-intensive activities | |
|
Changes in water resource management processes
|
Conditional water use |
| Exchange between water agencies | |
| Long-term changes in reservoir release regulations | |
| Changes in reservoir operation rules | |
| Institutional changes | |
| Legal changes | |
|
Increase water resources |
Using groundwater as a strategic drought reserve |
| Reuse of treated wastewater | |
| Desalination | |
| Resource redistribution | |
| Water importation by barge | |
| Utilizing lower-quality water for specific purposes | |
| Overexploitation of groundwater | |
| New reservoirs in water supply systems | |
| New water supply interconnections |
7.2.3. Organization of rescue activities in drought-induced disasters
To the competent subjects of disaster protection and rescue in drought-induced disasters, tactical and strategic measures are available. Tactical measures are actions taken to address water shortage problems after drought has begun and when it is too late to build new infrastructure. Strategic measures are pre-planned actions that involve the implementation or improvement of hydraulic infrastructure and the modification of existing laws and institutions (Andreu et al., 2007).
One example that illustrates the complexity of rescue activities in drought-induced disasters is the drought in Ethiopia. The Ethiopian drought garnered significant attention, with debates centered on why it occurred and how aid was distributed to those affected. The drought likely spread westward, nearing Sudan, a country graciously allowing over a million Ethiopian refugees to enter its territory for assistance from the international community. Ethiopian famine prevention initiatives were a disaster in themselves (Edward, 2005). Similar to the scenario in 1975, the Ethiopian government hesitated to acknowledge the onset of famine, mainly due to drought in the rebellious northern regions of the country. Instead of redirecting food and supplies to relieve camps from distribution sites that were established or developed themselves, it continued to sell them to other countries.
Officials in the government deliberately allowed columns of migrants from drought-affected areas to pass, allowing aid to flood eastern port cities. Meanwhile, a significant amount of money was spent on construction costs in preparation for the Conference of African States. The US government was aware of this concern and assessed that a similar situation in Sudan would not jeopardize humanitarian operations faced with an upcoming drought. It pledged over $400 million in food aid and established a plan to address food shortages in the country, involving the relocation of food from Port Sudan to the Red Sea in western Sudan, isolated on the edge of the Sahara. After assessing distribution difficulties by engaged professionals, it was decided that wheat would be sent by train between Port Sudan and Kosti to avoid the onset of the rainy season. The grain would then be distributed using a larger number of trucks. The US went so far as to warn farmers in western Sudan of the impending drought and that, if they did not react soon, food supplies would be delivered directly to their homes. People in that part of the country were discouraged from moving to the eastern half of the country (Edward, 2005).
There is a distinction between long-term measures aimed at improving drought preparedness and short-term measures aimed at alleviating drought events once they have begun, with a focus on water supply issues (Dziegielewski, 2000). Mitigating drought through long-term measures involves a series of structural and non-structural adaptations to the existing water supply system, aiming to protect the system from the adverse effects of future droughts by reducing its vulnerability to drought as a risk of water shortage. Among the proposed long-term mitigation measures, three main groups can be distinguished: increasing storage capacity, integrated water resource management in a broader area, and improving water use efficiency. In addition to long-term mitigation measures, implementing short-term measures relates to the ability to cope with recurrent droughts. Such measures include planned actions before the onset of drought (included in disaster plans). They mainly involve actions to improve water supply through new sources and reduce water demand. After identifying possible short-term and long-term measures to address expected water supply shortages during dry periods, the choice between different types of actions is not easy.
Although long-term interventions may be more suitable in a system where emergency measures are frequently applied, on the other hand, if the risk of drought damage during the planning period is low or moderate, the best strategy may be to rely on short-term measures. Moreover, while public water supply services tend to emphasize the importance of long-term drought mitigation measures that would limit the need for drought response measures and minimize the chances of a water crisis, ecologists tend to favor short-term responses to drought. Therefore, only through a proper understanding of the different roles of long-term preventive measures and short-term actions, it is possible to implement effective drought mitigation (Andreu et al., 2007).
While many people migrate from drought-prone areas to cities where food may be more easily obtained, transportation infrastructure is not adequate for delivering wheat to rural areas when these people return home. A similar situation applies to livestock. During major droughts, even in developed countries like Australia, breeding may fail. It takes several years for the herd to be replenished, a process that can leave significant financial consequences on financial resources.
Therefore, managers of competent disaster protection and rescue services can implement specific long-term or short-term measures for drought-induced disasters. Long-term measures are aimed at reducing the vulnerability or threat of the water supply system itself and involve general water resource planning. It is advisable to adopt appropriate strategic and planning documentation, such as a Strategic Water Shortage Preparedness Plan, etc. In contrast, it can be emphasized that short-term measures are oriented towards reducing the actual damages from drought occurrences. Therefore, these are intervention measures when the consequences of projected drought have exceeded expected values. Such measures are most commonly foreseen within disaster protection and rescue plans for drought-induced disasters and are carried out in accordance with the methodology for drafting such documents.
The two most common approaches for providing early drought information are dynamic modeling and statistical modeling. The latter approach involves regression analysis and modeling based on stochastic approaches and artificial intelligence (Ward et al., 2020). Properly organized and managed drought records, as well as their impacts and consequences, provide us with the necessary data to create effective and efficient early warning systems and risk assessments, all aimed at reducing their impacts. Risk assessment of drought vulnerability, which includes identifying potential hazards and analyzing and assessing risks, contributes to recognizing the dangers of drought, assessing the likelihood of such risks occurring, and possible consequences, as well as assessing the acceptability of identified risk and its treatment if it is unacceptable (Cvetković & Bošković, 2014).
The Research Foundation of the American Water Works Association funded a three-year project to develop a computer decision support system to assist strategic planners of municipal utilities in effectively assessing options for managing and developing reliable, adequate, and sustainable water supplies for their consumers “over the next 50 to 100 years.” It is called the “Decision Support System for Sustainable Water Supply Planning” (Loucks, 2005).
7.3. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by extreme snowfall, blizzards, and snowstorms
The course of events in life does not depend on us, at all or very little, but the way we handle those events largely depends on us.
Ivo Andrić
7.3.1. The concept and characteristics of extreme snowfall, blizzards, and snowstorms are important for the organization of protection and rescue.
Under a blizzard, a unique phenomenon occurs where snow is lifted from the ground by the wind, resulting in reduced visibility. On the other hand, a special form of blizzard is represented by a snowstorm in which it cannot be reliably determined whether snow falls alongside the spontaneous lifting of snow from the ground due to the wind. Such types of blizzards lead to reduced visibility of all kinds, including horizontal and vertical visibility. Previous studies on extreme snowfall, blizzards, and snowstorms mainly focus on climatological data, with a smaller number of studies addressing issues related to perception and preparedness (Heise, 2017).
If the blizzard involves falling snow, the sky will be cloudy, and the light passing through it will be scattered by ice crystals or water droplets in the clouds, making the entire sky uniformly white or gray. Ice crystals and water droplets also reflect light. The thicker the cloud layer, the more crystals and droplets there are to reflect incoming sunlight, and therefore the less light penetrates the cloud, making the sky darker (Allaby, 2014).
Extreme snowfall poses a serious problem for the normal functioning of social communities. Often, roads become blocked for shorter or longer periods, affecting the distribution and flow of people and all other goods in the area. Stranded vehicles on the roads can become deadly traps for people due to low temperatures and the inability to move due to being stuck or blocked by snow.
Due to low temperatures, prolonged extreme cold can cause hypothermia in vulnerable individuals. They have direct or indirect impacts on the functioning of critical infrastructure. In such situations, there may also be cases of people suffocating due to carbon monoxide exposure from running engines in specific circumstances. Concerning airports, we witness numerous closures for several hours or days due to the necessary time to clear very long and wide runways for aircraft takeoff and landing. Additionally, all of this can lead to the inability to operate retail outlets, closure of schools and faculties, factories, etc.
In December 2020, snowstorms caused numerous problems in Serbia. At that time, in the Uzice region, several thousand people were left without electricity, while numerous authorities were trying to resolve all malfunctions and problems. In fact, very heavy and wet snow put enormous pressure on the supporting pillars of power lines, breaking electrical conductors and bringing down branches over them. As a result, there were power outages in numerous municipalities in Serbia.
In February 2014, due to heavy snowstorms and snowdrifts, there were about a thousand stranded people on the highway near Feketic. On that occasion, by order of the Deputy Prime Minister, the engagement of military and police helicopters was ordered to deliver water and food to people who had been trapped for more than 16 hours. On the media scene, warnings were circulated to citizens not to travel unless absolutely necessary and to help their fellow citizens who were in danger. At that time, about eight major and four minor columns of vehicles were recorded in traffic jams due to heavy snowdrifts and snowstorms. In addition to members of the Sector for Emergency Situations, members of the Serbian Army were also engaged in evacuating children from a convoy of about two hundred vehicles.
In the United States, about 60 million people live in areas at risk of blizzards. Additionally, about 10 blizzards occur there annually, each affecting about 2.5 million people. The snowstorm that occurred in the mentioned area in 1993 resulted in the deaths of more than 240 people (Smith & Petley, 2009). In 2000, in Mongolia and the autonomous region of northern China, due to strong winds and low temperatures, a blizzard mixed with desert sand occurred. The recorded event was one of the worst blizzards ever recorded. Over a vast area, people were endangered, especially around 60,000 nomadic herders whose lives depend on animal husbandry. At that time, more than 220,000 animals perished, and numerous animals were found frozen upright in the snow over 36 centimeters deep, leading to starvation of people and the inability to heat without available dry dung they use as fuel (Allaby, 2014).
7.3.2. Organization and measures for protection in disasters caused by extreme snowfall, blizzards, and snowstorms
The organization of protective measures in disasters caused by extreme snowfall, blizzards, and snowstorms is impossible without adequate warning and information systems for the population. Typically, appropriate forecasts are obtained using various methods or their combinations. In some situations, meteorologists can assess the development of weather systems and their movement speed using their own judgment. On the other hand, various methods of numerical predictions are employed, which perform appropriate calculations based on the laws of physics and available parameters, either automatically or manually inputted into the system. Adequate leadership and well-founded decisions at all levels are essential prerequisites for effectively mitigating the consequences of snowstorms. In 1967, the theory of analytical calculation of barrier action for protection against snow and wind was developed, well-confirmed by many laboratory and field data (Dyunin, 1967).
In order to protect people in disasters caused by extreme snowy conditions, the following preventive measures need to be taken: provision of equipment and techniques for snow removal; provision of materials for road spreading to prevent sliding; installation of snow guards in places prone to snow drifts; organization of surveillance of critical areas and notification of increased danger; inspection of companies and equipment that can be used to prevent snowdrifts and avalanches (Jakovljevic, 2011, p. 295). Additionally, it is crucial to develop an appropriate map indicating the entire road network, designated risk levels, and objects of significance for protection and rescue.
The manual for winter service on streets and municipal roads in the territory of the city of Belgrade (Official Gazette of the City of Belgrade, 90/2017) regulates the manner of performing Winter Service, covering: a) maintenance of streets and municipal roads in winter; b) rights, obligations, and responsibilities in performing Winter Service; c) cooperation and coordination of work with other authorities; and d) other issues related to the organization of street and road maintenance in winter. It emphasizes that the maintenance of streets and municipal roads in winter includes snow and ice removal from the pavement and spreading of suitable material to facilitate traffic flow.
The operational plan based on which winter service is conducted includes: organization of company work during winter service – general provisions; organizational scheme of winter bases, specifying the number of engaged performers at each base, their duties, and the number of vehicles or machines; organizational scheme of informing the public about winter service activities; resolution on a special traffic regime during snowfalls (closing certain streets, method and time); list of streets of the first priority; list of streets of the second priority; scheme – vehicle and machine distribution by bases with routes for each base; list of first and second-order state roads with maintenance priorities; material depots for road spreading indicating the type and quantity; list of streets of 17 city municipalities – winter service; list of streets in the city of Belgrade – preventive maintenance; degrees of engagement during winter service; and other data necessary for the successful implementation of winter service.
The family handbook for behavior in emergencies provides general recommendations for citizens in such conditions: acquire sufficient amounts of fuel and food; prepare transistors with spare batteries in case of power outages; keep your home warm and stay indoors if possible; do not let children go outside unsupervised; wear appropriate clothing and footwear; go to a safe place and avoid exposure to snowstorms; protect sensitive body parts (face, extremities); keep your clothes dry; pay attention to frostbite; watch for signs of hypothermia: shivering, exhaustion, drowsiness, memory loss, disorientation, and slurred speech; if driving is necessary, use chains; travel during daylight and inform your relatives/friends about your intended route; avoid tall structures, tall trees, fences, telephone lines, and power lines. Additionally, recommendations for providing first aid to endangered individuals are provided: take them to a warm place; change them into dry clothes and wrap their entire body in blankets; warm the central part of the body first; give them warm drinks; provide first aid, and organize transportation to a medical facility as soon as possible.
The Law on Meteorological and Hydrological Activities (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 88/2010) stipulates that meteorological security comprises a set of measures, activities, and tasks related to the collection, processing, analysis, forecasting, and distribution of meteorological data and information on the current and expected weather and climate conditions relevant to the safety of human lives and property (Article 3). Furthermore, meteorological data are defined as quantitative values of meteorological elements and phenomena obtained by meteorological measurements, observations, and/or their processing at meteorological stations registered in the Register of networks of state meteorological and hydrological stations and supplementary networks of meteorological and hydrological stations (Article 3). By using the aforementioned meteorological data and information, it is possible to timely undertake certain preventive measures.
For the purpose of designing and undertaking specific protective measures, an indispensable entity is the Republic Hydrometeorological Institute as a specialized organization for performing meteorological and hydrological activities. According to the mentioned law (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 88/2010), it is responsible for the following tasks: planning, establishing, maintaining, and developing the state network of meteorological and hydrological stations; systematic meteorological and hydrological measurements and observations in the state network of meteorological and hydrological stations; monitoring changes in the chemical composition of the atmosphere and water in the state network of meteorological and hydrological stations; planning, establishing, functioning, and developing meteorological and hydrological computer and telecommunication systems for collecting, exchanging, and distributing data and information on the actual and forecasted weather, climate, and water conditions, as well as data on air and water quality; establishing, functioning, and developing meteorological and hydrological analytical-forecasting systems and early warning hydrometeorological systems for the preparation and issuance of weather, climate, agrometeorological, biometeorological, hydrological, and hydrogeological analyses, forecasts, and warnings of meteorological and hydrological elementary disasters and catastrophes, for the preparation and issuance of water quality analyses and forecasts in case of accident pollution, as well as for modeling and forecasting transboundary atmospheric transport and deposition of pollutants and radionuclides in case of accidents and incidents; establishing and developing databases of meteorological and hydrological data and air and water quality data, processing, publishing, and archiving data; establishing international cooperation in the field of meteorology and hydrology and implementing international conventions and standards in the field of meteorology, hydrology, monitoring, and research of climate changes and air and water quality; testing and calibration of measuring instruments used in the field of meteorology and hydrology; meteorological and hydrological support for navigation on inland waterways, land transport, and the Serbian Army, as well as providing meteorological and hydrological data and information for the needs of competent state authorities, organizations, and other legal entities; meteorological support for defense and protection from floods, ice phenomena, and other meteorological and hydrological disasters; meteorological support for the hail suppression system and other forms of weather modification; meteorological and hydrological tasks and monitoring of transboundary air and water pollution for water management and environmental protection needs; applied meteorology, climatology, and hydrology for the needs of economic and other activities, especially for risk assessment, planning, and protection from meteorological and hydrological disasters and other accidents, preparation of expert opinions in the procedure of issuing water management conditions, spatial and urban planning and issuing hydrological and meteorological conditions, designing and construction of public facilities of general interest established by law, and preparation of special meteorological, climatological, and hydrological analyses and information; training and education of personnel in the field of meteorological and hydrological activities.
Within the Manual for the training of road maintenance staff in winter maintenance (Public Enterprise Roads of Serbia, 2008), an overview of general principles of winter maintenance is provided, which can also be applied in disasters caused by snowstorms or blizzards. It emphasizes that the use of salt is the most effective and cost-efficient way to melt ice and snow. The process in which snow, accumulated and compacted due to traffic action, starts bonding to the road surface, creating problems due to the inability to remove it by mechanical means, is explained in detail. The manual particularly highlights that the key to more effective use of road salt and safer road conditions is the application of salt at the beginning of a snowstorm, in order to create conditions for preemptive action against the formation of ice-road bonds. It also warns that in case of freezing rain, only a liquid salt solution should be used, as the application of salt in solid form can cause an endothermic reaction resulting in a decrease in road temperature.
The protection and rescue plan from extreme snowfall includes: a) schematic representation of subjects engaged in protection and rescue; b) overview of subjects and forces for protection and rescue; c) overview of capacities of subjects and forces; d) extract from the review of members of expert-operational teams; e) reminder for the work of disaster management staff and heads of expert-operational teams, responsible persons; f) overview of measures and activities of participants in protection and rescue; g) extract from the plan of winter services of competent road companies at the local level; h) critical sections on road and railway routes from the perspective of snowdrift hazards; i) overview of areas that may be “cut off” due to snowdrifts, with data on the number of endangered inhabitants (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 80/2019).
7.3.3. Organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by extreme snowfall, blizzards, and snowstorms.
In order to timely protect and rescue people, efficient public communication and coordination among various emergency rescue services are necessary to mitigate the consequences of snowstorms and blizzards (Rooney, 1967). Snowstorms and blizzards often lead to people being trapped in their vehicles or homes, with limited access for rescue and evacuation efforts. Therefore, rescue operations will primarily focus on locating, rescuing, and evacuating people in such situations.
Generally, it is essential to deliver food and water supplies, as well as mobile heating devices, to trapped individuals as quickly as possible, and even establish temporary shelters from snow or other fortification means (tents). Serious issues will revolve around the timely organization of providing first aid to affected individuals and emergency helicopter evacuations for those most severely endangered. Training mobile motor rescue units is crucial for effectively protecting and rescuing people in extremely low temperatures.
In Pakistan, in January 2022, about 26 people suffered due to extremely low temperatures or suffocation in their vehicles trapped in snowdrifts. Military and other civilian armed structures were involved in rescue operations, rescuing around 1000 stranded vehicles on that road. In contrast, in Serbia, in 2014, snowdrifts caused serious problems for Serbian security services when two international trains and passengers in vehicles were stranded on the highway near Feketić. About 1000 people were snowbound on the highway, and military and police helicopters were deployed to deliver water and food to those trapped for over 16 hours. The complexity of the situation required significant resources and efforts. The then Vice President of the Government arrived at the scene to support the affected individuals and engaged rescuers.
With the onset of the danger of extreme snowfall, blizzards, and snowstorms, the competent Disaster Management Headquarters should alert relevant services and formations and inform the population. Upon receiving information from the field, all relevant emergency rescue services with appropriate equipment for rescuing people are dispatched to the affected area. If necessary, military units significant for protection and rescue, such as engineering units, may be engaged.
Before deploying trained protection and rescue units, the following aspects need to be considered: the method of clearing snowdrifts and opening roads according to priority; the method of evacuating citizens from the endangered area; the method of rescuing endangered citizens and material goods; the method of reporting to interested authorities and organizations about the eliminated danger; and the method of engaging civil defense units (Jakovljević, 2011, p. 296). Therefore, the entire tactic of protection and rescue in such situations is partly based on avalanche rescue tactics, as previously discussed.
Questions for discussion
¤ Explain the conceptual definition and characteristics of storm winds relevant to the organization of protection and rescue.
¤ Explain the conceptual definition and characteristics of droughts relevant to the organization of protection and rescue.
¤ How are measures for protection from disasters caused by extreme snowfall organized and implemented?
¤ How are measures for protection from disasters caused by storm winds organized and implemented?
¤ Explain rescue activities in disasters caused by droughts.
¤ Explain rescue activities in disasters caused by extreme snowfall.
Recommendations for further reading
¨ Allaby, M. (2014). Blizzards: Infobase Publishing.
¨ Andreu, J., Pérez, M. A., Ferrer, J., Villalobos, A., & Paredes, J. (2007). Drought management decision support system by means of risk analysis models. In Methods and tools for drought analysis and management (pp. 195-216): Springer.
¨ Cvetković, V., & Bošković, D. (2014). Analiza geoprostorne i vremenske distribucije suša kao prirodnih katastrofa. Bezbednost, 3/2014, 148-165.
¨ Dyunin, A. K. (1967). Fundamentals of the mechanics of snow storms. Physics of Snow and Ice: proceedings, 1(2), 1065-1073.
¨ Edward, B. (2005). Natural hazards. New York: Cambridge University Press.
¨ Heise, K. S. (2017). Blizzard Risk, Perception, and Preparedness in the Northern Great Plains: Oklahoma State University.
¨ Ilyas, M., Nisar, M., Khan, N., Hazrat, A., Khan, A. H., Hayat, K., Ullah, A. (2021). Drought tolerance strategies in plants: A mechanistic approach. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation, 40(3), 926-944.
¨ Loucks, D. P. (2005). Decision support systems for drought management. Drought management and planning for water resources, 119-132.
¨ Paneque, P. (2015). Drought management strategies in Spain. Water, 7(12), 6689-6701.
¨ Rooney Jr, J. F. (1967). The urban snow hazard in the United States: An appraisal of disruption. Geographical Review, 538-559.
¨ Rossi, G., Vega, T., & Bonaccorso, B. (2007). Methods and tools for drought analysis and management (Vol. 62): Springer Science & Business Media.
¨ Smith, K., & Petley, D. N. (2009). Environmental hazards. Assessing risk and reducing disaster. In. Londona: Routledge.
¨ Ward, P. J., de Ruiter, M. C., Mård, J., Schröter, K., Van Loon, A., Veldkamp, T., Arnbjerg-Nielsen, K. (2020). The need to integrate flood and drought disaster risk reduction strategies. Water Security, 11, 100070.
¨ Wilhite, D. A., & Glantz, M. H. (1985). Understanding: the drought phenomenon: the role of definitions. Water international, 10(3), 111-120.
¨ Cvetković, V., Vučić, S., & Gačić, J. (2015). Klimatske promene i nacionalna odbrana. Vojno delo, 67(5), 181-203.
VIII TACTICS FOR PROTECTION AND RESCUE IN DISASTERS CAUSED BY BIOSPHERIC HAZARDS
Chapter summary
In the eight chapter of the textbook, tactical principles and recommendations regarding the protection and rescue of people in disasters caused by biospheric hazards are discussed. Within this chapter, tactical principles for the protection and rescue of people in disasters caused by epidemics, epiphytotic diseases, epizootics, and forest fires are examined. Additionally, special attention is given to conceptual definitions and characteristics of such hazards relevant to protection and rescue efforts. Furthermore, the organization and specific protective measures in such disasters are reviewed, formulated, and studied. Additionally, the organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by epidemics, epiphytotic diseases, epizootics, and forest fires are clarified and described. As in the previous chapter, for each of the mentioned hazards, characteristics of the hazards themselves, organization and protective measures, as well as the organization of rescue activities, are examined.
Keywords: protection and rescue tactics; conceptually defined; characteristics; epidemics, epizootics, epiphytotics, forest fires; organization; protective measures; rescue activities.
Learning objectives
v Understanding the conceptual definition and characteristics of hazards (epidemics, epiphytoses, and epizootics) relevant to protection and rescue;
v Familiarization with the organization and measures of protection and rescue in disasters caused by epidemics, epiphytoses, and epizootics;
v Familiarization with the organization and measures of protection and rescue in disasters caused by forest fires;
v Acquiring knowledge about the organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by epidemics, epiphytoses, and epizootics;
v Acquiring knowledge about the organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by forest fires;
v Gaining basic understanding and information about the coordination of protection measures and rescue activities in disasters caused by storms, droughts, and extreme snowfall.
8.1. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by epidemics
Our world has never been more threatened or divided. The COVID-19 pandemic has exposed massive inequalities. The climate crisis is ravaging the planet. A wave of mistrust and misinformation is dividing people and paralyzing societies. Human rights are under attack, as is science. Instead of a path of solidarity, we are on a dead-end street of destruction. This is a recipe for trouble. It is far less predictable than the Cold War.
António Guterres
8.1.1. The concept and characteristics of epidemics, epiphytoses, and epizootics relevant to the organization of protection and rescue
The Center for Disease Control and Prevention in China isolated a new coronavirus from a throat swab of a patient with pneumonia of unknown etiology on January 7, 2020. The new virus and disease were not known before the epidemic began in Wuhan, China, in December 2019. The World Health Organization identified the virus as a novel coronavirus (nCoV) and officially named the disease caused by the virus SARS-CoV-2 “COVID-19” (WHO, 2020).
Two coronavirus pathogens were mostly known before December 2019. One is severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), and the other is Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). SARS was first identified in China in 2002, with 32 countries reporting cases worldwide and 8,442 people infected with SARS, of whom 916 died, resulting in a mortality rate of 11% worldwide and 27% in China (WHO, 2002).
MERS was identified in the Middle East region (Saudi Arabia) in 2012. By the end of November 2019, there were 2,494 laboratory-confirmed cases of MERS, including 858 deaths reported in 27 countries; most of these cases were reported from Saudi Arabia (WHO, 2002). Other known coronaviruses (HCoV-OC43, HCoV-229E, HCoV-NL63, HCoV-HKU1) have been found to cause mild or asymptomatic upper respiratory tract illnesses such as the common cold (Zhu et al., 2019; Cvetković et al., 2020).
During the Crusades (1096–1291), the territory of the Republic of Serbia was hit by a plague epidemic that claimed several dozen human lives in the Balkans. Then, in the Middle Ages, the plague recurred several times (1348, 1362, 1428, 1430, and 1438), with the latest cases recorded between 1836 and 1838 (Kekić, 2016). Although the first human infection in the SFRY was recorded in 1947, and the disease sporadically occurred in Serbia, the first outbreak of tularemia was recorded at the end of 1998 in the Sokobanja region. The epidemic lasted until 2000, with oropharyngeal tularemia as the dominant form of the disease. Then, minor outbreaks of tularemia occurred in the Pčinja District in 2010, Gazdina Han in 2014 and 2015, in natural foci of the disease – Stara planina, Suva planina, Rtanj, and Kopaonik (Cvetković et al., 2020).
The twentieth century in Europe is remembered for the Spanish flu pandemic, which caused more deaths than in World War I, while Serbia had a major epidemic of typhus during World War I in 1915 and a measles epidemic in 1972, which was recorded as the largest post-war epidemic in Europe (Ristanović, 2015). Today, measles again poses a threat due to population vulnerability (Ristanović et al., 2016). HIV/AIDS, as a global epidemic of the new age, presents a major global problem, and the latest experience with the consequences of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa and the swine flu A H1N1 pandemic and their economic, medical, socio-psychological, military-political consequences warns of various aspects and dimensions of this problem, especially in the contemporary security architecture of the world.
During a conference on security issues held in Munich, Bill Gates said that in the next 10-15 years, there is a high probability of an epidemic like the Ebola epidemic in West Africa from 2014 to 2015, the Spanish flu in 1918 (Cvetković et al., 2018). Many disasters occur together with the appearance of chronic diseases, especially tuberculosis (Furin & Mathew, 2013). Poor hygiene can be a major challenge in the post-disaster period, especially if victims are displaced or find shelter in shelters (Ligon, 2006).
Epidemics lead to various consequences, including population displacement (internally displaced persons and refugees), changes in the environment, increasing breeding sites for vectors, high exposure and proliferation of disease vectors (rodents, mosquitoes), unplanned and overcrowded shelters, poor water and sanitation conditions, poor nutritional status, and personal hygiene, low disease immunity rates for preventable diseases due to vaccination or insufficient vaccination coverage, and limited access to health services (Kouadio et al., 2012; Cvetković, 2018, 2020).
Individuals involved in close contact with the deceased, such as military personnel, rescue workers, volunteers, and others, may be exposed to chronic infectious hazards, including hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, HIV, enteric pathogens, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Morgan, 2004). When it comes to infectious disorders, it is worth noting that according to data from the World Health Organization, from 1945 to 2002, only three diseases – HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria – have caused 150 million deaths worldwide compared to 23 million deaths from wars (Cvetković et al., 2018; Peterson, 2002; Ristanović, 2015; Ristanović et al., 2016; Cvetković, 2018, 2020).
An epidemic (Greek: epi – upon and demos – people) of infectious diseases occurs when a disease affects, or tends to affect, a large number of individuals within a population, community, or region at the same time, while the term pandemic (Greek: pan – all and demos – people) refers to the spread of infectious diseases over large areas (Cvetković, 2020). An epidemic of infectious disease is an unusual occurrence of a contagious disease in terms of the number of cases, time, place, and affected population, or an unusual increase in the number of patients with complications or fatal outcomes, as well as the occurrence of two or more related cases of infectious diseases that have never occurred or have not occurred for several years in one area, or the appearance of a larger number of diseases whose cause is unknown, accompanied by feverish conditions (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 136/2020, Article 2).
Epizootics are diseases of domestic and wild animals that can affect a large number of animals over a large area. Additionally, panzootia is the sudden spread of an infectious animal disease over large areas across several countries or an entire continent (Dragićević et al., 2009). In contrast, the term epiphytonoses refers to the occurrence of sudden plant diseases that cause significant material damage and are characterized by mass occurrence of diseases when a large number of plants in one population become ill with high intensity and when the disease affects a large territory. They arise due to the introduction of foreign species or the emergence of new races among indigenous parasite species, the spread of highly sensitive varieties, optimal environmental conditions for pathogen aggressiveness and expansiveness, and increased predisposition of host plants (Mlađan, 2015).
Infectious diseases include (Article 4): 1) diseases that lead or may lead to significant illness and/or mortality, especially those requiring broader coordination of activities for prevention; 2) diseases where information exchange can provide early warning of public health threats; 3) rare and serious infectious diseases not recognized in the Republic of Serbia, for which data clustering can indicate factors responsible for their occurrence; 4) diseases for which effective prevention measures exist for the benefit of the population; 5) diseases where comparing the frequency with other environments can contribute to the assessment and improvement of population protection programs against infectious diseases.
In a study on public perception of preparedness for biosphere catastrophes caused by epidemics: implications for risk management processes, it was found that although citizens of Serbia have faced the consequences of various epidemics in the past, slightly less than half of the respondents were educated on epidemic issues. The lack of awareness and knowledge among citizens about epidemics can further complicate disaster management, starting with citizens not knowing what preventive measures to take from the moment they receive information about the spread of infectious diseases. Of particular concern is the fact that one-third of citizens are absolutely unprepared to adequately respond to such an event (Cvetković, 2018).
Most people believe that there is a high risk of infectious disease transmission after a disaster. However, there is no scientific evidence supporting this belief, especially when the disaster has not led to significant population displacement (Kouadio et al., 2012). It has been found that people’s knowledge and preventive practices are associated with their gender, marital status, age, and occupation. On the other hand, preventive practices improve where the level of knowledge is higher, emphasizing the need for community educational programs (Ramzan, Ansar, & Nadeem, 2015). Oliveira and colleagues (Oliveira, Narendran, & Falcao, 2002) found that a gender difference was observed in students’ knowledge of oral manifestations and infection control measures, with women having better knowledge than men. In one study, it was discovered that most respondents stated they would continue to care for patients in the event of an outbreak of an “unknown but potentially fatal disease,” although only a small minority believed in the professional duty to treat patients in epidemics (Alexander & Wynia, 2003).
8.1.2. Organization and protective measures in disasters caused by epidemics, epizoonoses, and epiphytonoses
Protection of the population from infectious diseases represents the organized and comprehensive activity of society aimed at preventing, controlling, eliminating, and eradicating infectious diseases (Law on Protection of the Population from Infectious Diseases, Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 136/2020, Article 3). Protection of the population from infectious diseases is implemented through epidemiological surveillance and planning, organization, and implementation of prescribed measures, monitoring the implementation of these measures, and providing material and other resources for their implementation. Concerning other countries, it is envisaged that the protection of the population includes the implementation of measures established by laws, confirmed by international health and sanitary conventions, and international agreements.
In cases of protecting the population from infectious diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans, it is foreseen that such protection is carried out by healthcare institutions, private practices, and legal entities performing healthcare activities in collaboration with competent authorities from the veterinary sector, consisting of mutual reporting on the occurrence and movement of these diseases, organizing and implementing anti-epidemic, hygiene, and other measures to prevent or control certain infectious diseases (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 136/2020).
Given the increasing number of disasters and the severity of their consequences, it is necessary to take all preventive measures to minimize the risk of disasters. One of the important risk reduction measures is education on disasters caused by epidemics. In the past, the right to education on disasters was not affirmed and recognized. However, in the 21st century, the role of this type of education has become unmistakably clear and recognized. The importance of education in this regard has been recognized at many international conventions and conferences, with a clear emphasis that schools, families, and local communities play a crucial role in reducing the severity of disaster consequences by raising awareness and knowledge of disasters.
Every individual has the right to be informed about potential risks and preparedness measures available in the area where they live or work, and if necessary, to enable them easy and effective access to this type of information. In one study, it was found that even 83% of citizens were uninformed about tuberculosis, and individuals who are literate were more aware that tuberculosis is caused by a microorganism. Individuals who had previously been on tuberculosis therapy were more likely to have appropriate behavior.
Alexander and colleagues found that only 43% of emergency physicians and 21% of primary care physicians agreed that they were generally “well prepared to play a role in responding to a bioterrorist attack”. They also found that 78% believe that local health systems must be prepared for bioterrorism, and 92% believe that local health systems must be prepared for epidemics. Additionally, it was revealed that 91% of local physicians rate their knowledge as “fairly weak”, 80% want more information, and 83% prioritize greater training opportunities.
Experts in disaster preparedness research generally agree that citizen preparedness requires households to have an emergency plan, to stockpile supplies such as water and medicines, and to be informed about community plans. Based on the consequences of disasters, a fundamental condition for human survival is to have reserves of food, water, and other necessities. In a study on citizen preparedness in the United States, it was found that 57% of the population has supplies in their homes, 34% in their cars, and 45% in their workplace offices.
Measures for the protection of the population from infectious diseases encompass all activities planned, organized, and implemented by the authorities of the Republic of Serbia, autonomous provinces, units of local self-government, business entities, and legal entities, institutes, and public health institutions, healthcare workers and collaborators, and individuals for the purpose of protecting the population from infectious diseases (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 136/2020, Article 14). Such protection is carried out by implementing general, special, extraordinary, and other measures for the protection of the population from infectious diseases, in accordance with the law.
The Institute of Public Health established for the territory of the Republic of Serbia coordinates the implementation of epidemiological surveillance on the territory of the Republic of Serbia and issues expert instructions for epidemiological surveillance for infectious diseases and specific health issues. In addition, epidemiological surveillance is carried out for infectious diseases, infections associated with healthcare, and antimicrobial resistance in accordance with the case definitions, recommendations of the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control and the World Health Organization (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 136/2020, Article 7). It is also envisaged that epidemiological surveillance is carried out for infectious diseases, infections associated with healthcare, and antimicrobial resistance for specific pathogens, factors contributing to their occurrence and transmission, as well as the effects of measures for their prevention and control.
Every legal entity, entrepreneur, and individual is obliged to act in accordance with the measures for the protection of the population from infectious diseases specified by this Law and to enable unhindered supervision and implementation of prescribed measures to the competent medical doctor or specialist in epidemiology medicine and the competent sanitary inspector. Also, persons suffering from infectious diseases have the right and obligation to undergo treatment and adhere to prescribed measures and instructions of healthcare institutions and private practices. In addition, individuals who constantly or periodically emit pathogens of infectious diseases are obliged to adhere to prescribed measures and instructions determined by the competent medical doctor or specialist in epidemiology medicine. Furthermore, individuals identified as contacts during epidemiological investigations by a specialist in epidemiology medicine are obliged to adhere to prescribed measures and instructions determined by the competent specialist in epidemiology medicine (Article 17).
General measures for the protection of the population from infectious diseases (Article 15) are implemented in facilities subject to sanitary supervision, as well as in premises, facilities, equipment, and persons engaged in activities in the field of health, social care, education, food handling, hospitality, tourism, trade and services, domestic and international traffic, sports, and recreation. They include (Article 16): 1) providing potable water through public water supply facilities, water for sanitary-hygienic and recreational purposes, as well as sanitary protection of water sources; 2) ensuring food safety, items coming into contact with food, and items of general use, as well as sanitary-hygienic conditions for their production and trade; 3) ensuring health safety of bathing, swimming pool waters, public fountains and springs, and other waters of public health interest; 4) ensuring sanitary-technical and hygiene conditions in facilities under sanitary supervision and other facilities where social or public activities are performed; 5) implementing preventive disinfection, disinfestation, and deratization in populated areas, on public surfaces, in residential buildings, in public transport vehicles, in facilities under sanitary supervision and their immediate surroundings, and in other facilities where social or public activities are performed; 6) removal of human and animal waste, carcasses, organs and tissues, wastewater, and other waste materials in a manner and under conditions that do not endanger public health, water sources, and the environment (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 136/2020).
Disinfection, disinfestation, and deratization are carried out to maintain hygiene and reduce, halt the growth of, or completely remove the presence of microorganisms. As such, it involves daily and constant disinfection of hands, utensils, objects, equipment, work surfaces, and sanitary premises in all facilities where food is prepared, produced, stored, or served, and in facilities subject to sanitary supervision. It is specifically regulated that disinfection, disinfestation, and deratization as general measures are carried out by institutes or public health institutions, other legal entities, and entrepreneurs if they meet the prescribed conditions. A ship engaged in international travel, if contaminated with rodents, must have a certificate of deratization in accordance with the aforementioned law (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 136/2020).
Special measures for the protection of the population from infectious diseases (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 136/2020, Article 17) include: 1) early detection of sources, reservoirs, and transmission routes of infection; 2) epidemiological investigation and research; 3) laboratory testing to determine the causative agents of infectious diseases; 4) diagnosis of infectious diseases; 5) reporting; 6) transportation, isolation, home isolation, and treatment; 7) health supervision, quarantine, and home quarantine; 8) immunization and chemoprophylaxis; 9) disinfection, disinfestation, and deratization based on epidemiological indications; 10) health examinations of certain categories of employed persons in facilities under sanitary supervision, as well as certain categories of the population to determine carriage of infectious disease pathogens; 10a) personal protection from infection; 11) health education and training of certain categories of employed persons; 12) informing healthcare workers and the population.
In the event of an epidemic of infectious diseases, joint bodies, operational teams for: healthcare system activities, planning and coordination, communication, as well as situation monitoring and assessment are formed at the initiative of the Ministry of Health (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 86, dated November 18, 2011). The plan for protection and rescue from epidemics – pandemics includes the organization and actions of competent services in the implementation of operational measures to prevent the occurrence and spread of epidemics-pandemics. The organizers of the organization of measures and activities in plans for dealing with epidemics-pandemics, according to their own methodology, are the Ministry of Health, the Institute of Public Health of Serbia, and other competent authorities (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 80/2019).
The plan for protection and rescue in case of the appearance of animal diseases includes the organization of measures aimed at preventing the occurrence and spread of zoonoses. The organizers of the organization of measures and activities in plans for dealing with animal diseases, according to their own plans and methodology, are the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management – Veterinary Directorate and the Veterinary Service (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 80/2019).
When it comes to the plan for protection and rescue from epiphytotics, it encompasses the organization of measures aimed at preventing their occurrence and spread, as well as the actions of competent authorities and services in implementing operational measures in the event of epiphytotics outbreaks. It is also provided that the organizers of the organization of measures and activities in plans for dealing with plant diseases, according to their own plans and methodology, are the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management – Plant Protection Directorate and specialized services dealing with plant protection (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 80/2019).
8.1.3. Organization of rescue (medical) activities in disasters caused by epidemics, epizootics, and epiphytotics
The main measures in the event of disasters caused by epidemics, epizootics, and epiphytotics are as follows: a) biological prospecting and identification of bacterial agents; b) establishment, in accordance with the decision of competent state authorities, of quarantine or observation regimes; c) determination of population behavior rules, as well as the operation of transportation and facilities in disaster zones; d) control (sanitary inspection) of food contamination, food raw materials, animal feed, and water, and their disinfection; e) implementation of anti-epidemic, sanitary-hygienic, special preventive, medical, and evacuation measures, and sanitary-educational work.
In the case of animal infectious diseases, the following veterinary rescue operations are undertaken: a) epizootic survey, clarification of the causes and consequences of the disease; examination of patients, sampling, and conducting diagnostic studies, including biological testing on animals; selection of burial sites and equipment for burying carcasses of dead animals; organizing euthanasia of clinically ill animals or those suspected of being infected; conducting forced disinfection (after each examination, removal of diseased animals from herds, and vaccination) of premises and territory, disinfection of wastewater; vaccination of all susceptible animals in the endangered point and endangered zone; implementation of quarantine measures; payment of the costs of work, accommodation, and meals for involved rescuers; provision of disinsection and deratization in unfavorable locations; disinfection of premises and territory of unfavorable points; selection of sites and equipment for storing contaminated soil; removal of floors in premises where diseased animals were kept, barriers, and other low-value objects, burning; pouring bleach in the outbreak area (walking surfaces, fences, areas for examination and treatment of animals), digging and removing a layer of soil at least 10 cm thick; conducting final disinfection and sanitary repairs; protective and restrictive measures and removal of quarantine; other types of work.
In such situations, quarantine measures are mandatory. In medicine, quarantine is a system of restrictive measures, which may include security, administrative, anti-epidemic, sanitary-hygienic, anti-epizootic, veterinary-sanitary, and therapeutic-prophylactic measures, all aimed at isolating, locating, and eliminating foci of biological contamination. Initially, the quarantine zone is built on the path of the biological disease outbreak. The boundaries of its zone are defined as needed and in the event of danger of disease spread or mortality. Before determining which type of pathogen is identified in the quarantine zone, procedures are carried out that are adopted for the regime of protection against particularly dangerous infectious diseases, in order to preserve public health.
The head of the relevant health service provides guidance and instructions on: measures to be taken, the procedure and timing of their implementation; the procedure for patient isolation and hospitalization; the working hours of organizations; health organizations and medical formations – means of reinforcement; areas (facilities, places) of medical supervision; procedures for emergency prevention and population immunization, identification of patients with suspected illness and contacts with the sick, the procedure for their isolation and hospitalization; emergency rescue and special services of the city (district), areas (facilities) of disinfection, the procedure for its implementation; places for the deployment of points for special (sanitary) stations for treatment and disinfection; the procedure for population and staff sanitation and emergency services; units for maintaining public order – means of reinforcement, spaces and objects assigned for command service; tasks for the implementation of isolation-restrictive and security measures in the quarantine zone (in the facility); agricultural organizations, agricultural and food administration of the district – objects and places for veterinary inspection, the procedure for immunization, isolation, and treatment of animals; locations and sequence of veterinary treatment of animals. Orders for interventions in decontamination tasks are communicated to intervention-rescue services in the form of orders based on the decision of the head of emergency medical services.
8.2. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by forest fires
You will never do anything in this world without courage. Courage is the greatest quality of the mind next to honor.
Aristotle
8.2.1. Concept and Characteristics of Forest Fires Relevant to the Organization of Protection and Rescue
Forest fires entail the process of uncontrolled burning of trees in forests and other combustible materials such as forest floor, branches, etc. The occurrence of such fires requires typical conditions, as with all other fires: the presence of a heat source or ignition, the presence of oxygen, the presence of fuel material, and uninterrupted chain reaction. Considering that the rate of spread of forest fires is one of the most significant parameters in describing such events, it is directly related to the intensity of the fire and thus to the level of danger associated with the fire and its spread.
In the process of managing disasters caused by forest fires, understanding the mentioned parameter is of crucial importance. For this reason, new methods of thermal image processing are applied in practice to calculate the rate of spread of forest fires. These methods are based on the application for linear flame fronts that occur on flat surfaces of known dimensions. In the first step of the methods, correspondence between points of the obtained thermal image and real planes is calculated using direct linear transformation. After that, the position of the flame front is determined by applying criteria for searching threshold values within the temperature matrix of the target surface (Pastor et al., 2006).
Forests cover about 3,866 million hectares of our planet, according to data from 2000, which is slightly less than one-third of the total land area (FAO, 2001). Approximately 6.3 billion tons of biomass burn worldwide every year, with about 80% of the total burned biomass occurring in tropical countries. Forest fires represent one of the most significant threats to modern civilization, the study of which requires a complex, comprehensive, and multidisciplinary approach (Cvetković, Gačić, & Jakovljević, 2016).
The consequences of forest fires are often devastating to human life, health, and property, as well as to the security of the state and the entire international community (Cvetković et al., 2016). The majority of forest fires are caused by technical and technological influences, while only a smaller number are caused by natural factors. Depending on the type of vegetation endangered by fire, the size of the burned area and the intensity of the fire vary. The dimensions of these disasters are often such that they are visible from space (Igњić, 2017; Cvetković & Filipović, 2020).
The behavior of forest fires depends on air temperature, wind, precipitation, and relative humidity. After a long rainy period, the moisture content in the fuel material increases. Based on the analysis of forest fires in the period from 2000 to 2009, it is concluded that the largest areas affected by fire are in the east and southeast of Serbia, and it is noticeable that such areas have significantly higher average ten-year temperatures than the average for Central Serbia (Aleksić & Janičić, 2011; Cvetković & Filipović, 2020).
The development and spread of forest fires are influenced by the following factors: terrain characteristics (flat, steep, rugged); type of fuel material (homogeneous, heterogeneous, deciduous, coniferous); characteristics of the wind (strong, weak, no wind, one-directional, variable) (Živanović, 2012). Additionally, the spread of forest fires depends on the concentration of certain vegetation types classified as follows: non-flammable; difficult to ignite; moderately flammable; easily flammable; extremely flammable (Šabić, 2018).
According to data from the Federal Statistical Office (Statistical Bulletin “Forestry”) and data from the Public Enterprise “Srbijašume,” in the territory of Serbia, only in the period from 1990 to 2004, the area affected by forest fires was 34,868 hectares or 2,324 hectares annually, with around 1,000 hectares of forests burned in 2000 alone in the Vranje forest district. According to data from the former Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Water Management, in 2007, 258 fires were registered in Serbia, and the area of forests and forest land affected by fire was 33,229 hectares. For Serbia, it is characteristic that the number of occurrences and the total burned area vary significantly throughout the year, with all forest management units encountering this problem to a greater or lesser extent. According to the classification given by Dimitrov (1984), only the Deliblatska and Subotica-Horgoš sand dunes in Serbia are classified as extremely endangered areas. In terms of all indicators (number of fires, burned area, total damage), the most endangered area in our country is the Deliblatska sand dune. This was confirmed on July 24, 2007, when a fire broke out in the area of the Bela Crkva Forest Administration, which affected an area of about 460 hectares (Cvetković et al., 2016).
Forest fires represent one of the greatest threats to many countries, as well as a problem of adequate forest protection. The problem often goes beyond forestry because in many cases, they are real disasters resulting in human losses (Cvetković, Gačić, & Jakovljević, 2016). Material damage is expressed through burned timber and destroyed objects and infrastructure. Much more significant are the ecological damages since fires destroy plants and animals and lead to soil destruction. In addition, significant air pollution occurs during fires, so smoke clouds are clearly visible even on satellite images. People involved in firefighting, as well as the surrounding population, often experience health problems (Ducić, Milenković, & Radovanović, 2007).
Table 10. Overview of forest types according to the level of fire hazard. Source: (Vasić, 1992).
| Degree of endangerment | Forest types |
| First | Stands and cultures of black and white pine and spruce |
| Second | Stands and cultures of fir, Douglas fir, and other conifers |
| Third | Mixed stands of conifers and deciduous trees |
| Fourth | Stands of beech and oak |
| Fifth | Stands of beech and other deciduous trees |
| Sixth | Undergrowth and shrubs |
The modern development of biological sciences, especially ecology, has enabled a deeper understanding of the importance of forests in the biosphere and for human survival on Earth. Alongside such knowledge, human awareness of the value of forests is changing, no longer solely based on timber and other material values, but above all on their ecological function in nature. Despite extensive measures for protection, forest fires continue to increase. The reason for this is primarily due to the intensive development of transportation, forest clearance, increased traffic, and unsustainable expansion of civilization into previously secluded forest areas (Vasić, 1992; Cvetković et al., 2016).
8.2.2. Organization and measures of protection in disasters caused by forest fires
In order to protect people and property in disasters caused by forest fires, the following preventive measures are applied (Milanović, 2019; Vasić, 1992):
- a) Vegetation and fuel management (introducing thinning and implementing logging in existing forests, reducing larger forest complexes to smaller ones, planting resilient tree species as indicated by the mentioned table of vulnerability, improving resistance through the introduction of innovative forest management systems).
- b) Formation of firebreaks and belts (interruptions in ground vegetation and shrubs to prevent spreading; using firebreaks to prevent high crown fires, which involve removing entire trees in a designated area; establishing fire belts from deciduous tree species; a combination of breaks and belts is possible; the width of belts depends on the intensity of expected fires).
- c) Enhancing forest fire resistance (implementing in existing or incorporating in new forest plantations; introducing resilient tree species).
- d) Measures directed at people (raising awareness among citizens and promoting a safety culture regarding the causes, consequences, and methods of extinguishing forest fires).
- e) Fire suppression planning (improving access to water sources by enhancing forest management plans).
For proactive prevention or containment of fires, the Fire Weather Index (FWI), originally developed in Canada in 1968, is applied. Over the years, a fire danger assessment system has been developed based on various meteorological conditions favorable for the occurrence and spread of forest fires (temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, and precipitation over the past twenty-four hours). This weather index serves as a numerical indicator of the potential intensity and degree of fire in standard forest fuels (Cvetković, 2020).
The most commonly used fire detection and suppression techniques include controlled burning, weather forecasts for fire and fuel assessments, observation posts, optical smoke detection, lightning detectors, infrared sensors, spotter aircraft, water tanks, and increasingly, mobile/smartphone alerts for early fire detection. Some authors (Yu, Wang, & Meng) propose a real-time forest fire detection method using wireless sensor networks, allowing rapid and accurate detection and prediction of forest fires to minimize losses of forests, wildlife, and human life in forest fires. In their proposed paradigm, a large number of sensor nodes are densely deployed in the forest, collecting measured data (e.g., temperature, relative humidity) and sending them to their respective cluster nodes, which collectively process the data by constructing a neural network. The neural network takes the measured data as input to generate a weather index, measuring the probability of weather causing a fire. Additionally, the cluster head sends the weather indices to the manager node through synchronization. The manager node then determines the forest fire hazard rate based on received weather indices and other factors.
Within the Forest Fire Research Center, a development-testing environment has been established aimed at developing and improving a system for forecasting danger and early fire detection. Following the example of the European Forest Fire Information System, a system has been developed that collects data on air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, and 24-hour rainfall measured around noon local time from 24 meteorological stations in the territory of the Republic of Serbia. The data, along with calculated values and their components, are published daily on the Internet presentation of the Republic Hydro-Meteorological Service of Serbia.
The Republic Hydro-Meteorological Institute, with the aim of contributing to the organized protection of forests from fires in the Republic of Serbia, has been calculating the estimation of forest fire hazard since spring 2008 using the Canadian Fire Weather Index method. This method is based on assessing the combustibility of forest fuel depending on past and current weather conditions and serves as an indicative possibility of forest fire occurrence. Information on the actual and forecasted conditions is regularly sent to relevant state authorities and is available on the internet at www.meteoalarm.rs, in tabular and graphical forms (National Strategy for Protection and Rescue, 2011).
Analyses of forest fire protection and rescue plans in Australia show that such plans should include explanations of household members’ actions and recommendations for multiple unforeseen circumstances, as making correct decisions in such situations can be disrupted due to the influence of uncertainty, fear, and adrenaline on cognitive function. In certain countries, such as Croatia, dissatisfaction has been established among residents with the level of organization of logistical support in the fight against forest fires.
Given that fires are inevitable in many parts of Australia, numerous studies have been conducted relating to residents’ preparedness for disasters caused by forest fires in that region, as well as a larger number of studies relating to preparedness for other disasters. In these studies, the impact of knowledge about forest fires, individual responsibility levels, and self-confidence on residents’ preparedness for responding to such situations has been directly or indirectly confirmed.
In practice, for the purpose of forest fire protection, the Canadian system for assessing forest fire danger is applied. The components of this system are:
- a) Fine Fuel Moisture Index – provides a numerical assessment of moisture content in fine forest fuel and indicates the relative ease of combustibility and ignitability of fine forest fuel.
- b) Midflame Moisture Content Index – provides a numerical assessment of average moisture content in moderately deep organic layers and medium-sized woody material.
- c) Duff Moisture Index – provides a numerical assessment of average moisture content in duff layers and large woody material.
- d) Initial Spread Index – interprets the mutual influence of wind speed and fine fuel moisture index. The results obtained indicate a numerical assessment of the potential spread of fire immediately after its outbreak.
- e) Buildup Index – represents the mutual influence of midflame moisture content index and duff moisture index. The results of their influence show the total amount of fuel available in spreading fire.
- f) Fire Weather Index – represents the result of the mutual influence of the initial spread index and buildup index. Based on this index, the degree of energy produced per unit length of fire front is determined, indicating the existing level of forest fire hazard in the afternoon time interval.
In Europe, the European Forest Fire Information System (EFFIS) is used, supporting forest fire protection services in the EU and neighboring countries by providing the European Commission and the European Parliament with updated and reliable information on wildfires in Europe. It is noteworthy that since 1998, such a system has been supported by a network of experts from countries in the so-called Expert Group on Forest Fires, registered with the General Secretariat of the European Commission. Currently, this group consists of experts from 43 countries from European, Middle Eastern, and North African countries.
During 2015, one of the components of the Disaster Management Service was established within the EU program “Copernicus.” Within such a system, the following applications exist:
- a) Current Situation Viewer (provides the most up-to-date information on the current fire season in Europe and the Mediterranean area, including meteorological maps of fire danger and a forecast up to 6 days, daily updated maps of fire hotspots and perimeters).
- b) Current Fire News (an application that collects, geolocates, and stores in a database fire news published on the internet in all EU languages and other languages, allowing the user to filter news based on geographic scope, keywords, etc.).
- c) Long-term Fire Weather Forecast (monthly and seasonal forecast of temperature and precipitation anomalies expected to prevail in European and Mediterranean regions).
- d) Data Request Form (sending requests for data not available through the website).
- e) Data and Services (aggregate data for the country (burned areas and number of fires) on an annual basis, as published in reports on forest fires in Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East).
Fires, regardless of their type, have serious consequences for people and their property. Due to their specific nature, forest fires are very difficult to control, especially when they are in a raging phase. Guided by the seriousness of forest fires, an Advanced Fire Information System (AFIS) was developed in South Africa as the first real-time fire monitoring system (Frost & Scholes, 2007). The system provides local firefighting and rescue units and agencies worldwide with significant data related to prediction, detection, planning, and recovery from forest fires (Lee et al., 2002).
Using satellites for observation, the system provides data on the location and distance of forest fires to end-users via text messages, emails, and social networks. The system provides information 15 minutes after satellite scanning. It is built following the principles of GEOSS data exchange. Data and services are provided free of charge, and information is available on the website – http://www.afis.co.za. It is noteworthy that the system provides firefighting unit managers and emergency rescue service personnel with quick access to information about fires in Africa. The main objectives of the system are: a) detection (real-time fire detection); b) assessment (mapping fire areas); c) prediction (developing fire indices).
Preventive protection from forest fires is carried out in accordance with the Law on Forests (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 95/2018), which defines the obligation to develop and implement prescribed planning documents for forest protection. Specifically, Article 46, which concerns forest fire protection, envisages the adoption of a forest fire protection plan for a period of 10 years for the purpose of forest protection. It is foreseen that such a plan will be adopted by the user or owner of the forests. A unified information system for forestry has been developed, within which records of forest fires are kept based on data that the mentioned users are obliged to provide.
In case of a fire, forest users are required to immediately notify the nearest firefighting and rescue units about the fire. Furthermore, after extinguishing such a fire, forest users are required to submit a report on the damage caused within 30 days. They are also obliged to ensure the functioning and maintenance of fire protection infrastructure (firebreaks, observation points, water intakes, etc.). Additionally, forest users are responsible for protecting the forest from fires, i.e., guarding it against unlawful appropriation, use, destruction, and other illegal actions (disposing of waste and toxic materials, polluting forests, destroying boundary marks and signs, etc.). It is explicitly prohibited by the regulation to light open fires in the forest and on land in the immediate vicinity of the forest, at a distance of less than 200 m from the forest edge unless there is a designated, regulated, and clearly marked place for it (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia 95/2018, Article 47).
The manager of a protected area established based on regulations governing nature protection is obliged to establish preventive measures for fire protection through a management plan for that area, in accordance with the size of the protected area, the type, and purpose of the land or facilities managed (Article 47). If the protected area is in the first or second category of fire risk, the manager of the protected area will determine preventive fire protection measures through a Fire Protection Plan.
Approval from the Ministry is obtained for the management plan. Specifically, subjects in the first and second categories of fire risk are obliged to adopt a Fire Protection Plan, which includes in particular: 1) an overview of the existing fire protection status; 2) assessment of fire risk; 3) organization of fire protection; 4) proposal of technical and organizational measures to address deficiencies and improve the state of fire protection; 5) calculation of necessary financial resources; 6) prescribed calculation and graphic attachments; 7) calculation of the maximum number of people who can be safely evacuated from the premises. Subjects are required to act on the calculations from the Fire Protection Plan. The Fire Protection Plan also provides details on the number of firefighters, technical equipment, and training of firefighting units, as well as the organization of preventive fire protection measures, continuous monitoring, and the number of qualified personnel for fire protection implementation (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 95/2018).
The Law on Forests (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 8/2018, Article 1) regulates the preservation, protection, planning, cultivation, and use of forests, forest disposal, and forest land, and supervision. It is stipulated that the owner or user of forests must implement measures to protect forests, protect forests and forest land from degradation and erosion, implement forest management plans, and implement other measures prescribed by this law and regulations adopted based on this law (Article 7). It is also prescribed that there shall be forest guards as official persons who carry out forest guarding duties in prescribed official attire and may be armed with official weapons in accordance with this law and the regulation governing the possession and carrying of weapons (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 8/2018, Article 40).
Emergency measures for forest protection (Article 45) are envisaged to be taken in the event of natural hazards that pose a significant disturbance to the biological balance and cause serious damage to forest ecosystems primarily caused by fires, droughts, plant diseases and pests, windbreaks and storms, snowstorms and snowdrifts, floods, flash floods, landslides, and other unforeseen factors over large forest areas and forest land. A forest fire protection plan is adopted for a period of ten years to protect forests from fires (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 8/2018, Article 46).
The forest fire protection plan is adopted by the user or owner of forests managed in accordance with the basis. For state forests, a legal entity from and as part of the fire protection plan for state forests is adopted. The plan is prepared in accordance with the aforementioned law and special regulations governing fire protection. Records of forest fires are kept in a unified forestry information system. The user or owner of forests managed in accordance with the basis is obliged to collect data on forest fires, keep records, and submit them to the Ministry.
The user or owner of forests is required to immediately inform the nearest firefighting and rescue unit at the ministry responsible for internal affairs and the Ministry, and in the territory of an autonomous province, the competent authority of the autonomous province about the occurrence of a fire. The user or owner of forests managed in accordance with the basis is obliged to submit a report on the damage caused to the Ministry, and in the territory of an autonomous province, to the competent authority of the autonomous province, no later than 30 days from the date of extinguishing the fire. In case of significant changes in the condition of forests for which a forest fire protection plan has been adopted, changes and additions to the plan shall be made within three months from the date of the determined changes. The owner or user of forests is required to ensure the functioning and maintenance of fire protection infrastructure (firebreaks, observation points, water intakes, etc.).
8.2.3. Organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by forest fires
Protection and rescue in disasters caused by forest fires represent one of the more serious challenges for emergency rescue services. The reasons contributing significantly to such situations can be summarized through the following exacerbating circumstances: a) vast forest areas with specific topographic characteristics being affected; b) difficult-to-reach terrains; c) hindered water supply for firefighting, considering the lack of developed water networks enabling the filling of appropriate equipment; d) given that such fires occur in rural areas which are not densely populated, information about fire occurrence is often obtained only after the fire has escalated; e) hindered access for firefighting vehicles due to undeveloped road infrastructure; f) unfavorable meteorological conditions characterized by intense wind speeds and deficiencies in precipitation, etc.
When calculating the required number of forces and resources for extinguishing such fires, it is necessary to consider the speed of their spread. The localization and extinguishing of forest fires involve: reconnaissance of the fire source; localization and extinguishing of the fire. Reconnaissance of the fire involves: a) determining the type, speed, and surface area of the fire; b) identifying the most dangerous direction of fire spread along the front and flanks, presence of obstacles to fire spread; c) potential strengthening or weakening of the fire due to the characteristics of forest areas along its path of spread; d) proximity to the fire edge and the use of mechanized means for fire localization and extinguishing; e) availability of water sources and their usability; f) presence of support tracks for stopping the incoming fire, conditions for setting up such tracks; g) safe areas for vehicle parking and evacuation routes in case of fire breakthrough; h) boundaries of fire spread for the next 2-3 hours (Kusainov, 2013).
The speed of ground fire spread in all directions is not the same and depends on wind speed and direction, uneven distribution of combustible materials, their moisture content, and other factors. Wind speed determines the contour of the fire. The stronger the wind, the more elongated the fire contour in its direction. Wind in the forest exhibits a daily cycle. Wind is weak at night and relatively constant in speed and direction. In the morning, wind speed begins to increase, reaching a maximum, then decreases to a minimum in the evening. Wind speeds of 6 to 10 m/s are unstable, while those higher than 10 m/s are more stable. Wind direction change typically leads to a change in the fire spread direction. With wind speeds greater than 6 m/s, crown fires generally occur. The development of ground fire depends on the nature of the forest and steppe massif. Ground fires in clearings and open steppe areas spread more quickly than under the canopy.
Based on reconnaissance results, the firefighting commander prepares a fire extinguishing plan that anticipates: methods and techniques of fire extinguishing, timing of individual firefighting operations, communication organization, safety issues. The decision to extinguish a forest fire is made depending on objective information about the situation. When setting up the problem, the nature and direction of fire spread, firefighting methods, areas and methods of creating mineralized tracks are indicated. The success of fire extinguishing depends not only on the skilled selection of techniques and methods of localization and extinguishing but also on the properly organized and continuous interaction of all forces and means involved in firefighting (Kusainov, 2013).
When organizing interaction, the procedure for maintaining communication and mutual informing is determined, methods and means of fire localization and extinguishing are agreed upon depending on its type, and the use of forces and means, the procedure for using firefighting equipment and other means, the use of water sources are clarified, and the procedure for material-technical support is explained. When the wind direction changes, the fire shape becomes more complex, and it is difficult to determine the main fire elements – front, flanks, rear. In a large fire, it is possible to manage the situation only with the help of aerial reconnaissance.
Hundreds of people and dozens of technical means are involved in extinguishing large fires, and without clear organization of their activities, it is impossible to achieve the desired results. This is not a technical problem but an organizational one. When extinguishing such fires, there is a need to create an organization within a few hours capable of managing and controlling the activities of each firefighting apparatus under conditions where people who have never worked together, let alone have skills in forest work, let alone firefighting. The difficulty also lies in the fact that with an increase in the number of firefighting apparatuses, the problem of increasing the number of managerial personnel, servicing, and increasing technical means arises, which must be taken into account when planning firefighting. Additionally, it should be noted that the organizational structure of firefighting is very dynamic. During the firefighting process, the scope of work and firefighting conditions change, and depending on the real situation, the forces and means for fire extinguishing are reduced or increased.
Special difficulties arise when extinguishing ground fires over a significant area (several tens of hectares): such fires usually spread to areas that differ in relief conditions, dominate various complexes of flammable materials, determining different fire intensities, speed of spread, edge characteristics, and other features. It may happen that one part of the edge’s burning weakens when encountering deciduous plantings, while on the other, it intensifies, spreading through dense pine forests (Kusainov, 2013).
Before the forest fire extinguishing begins, a terrain reconnaissance is conducted from suitable aircraft. After that, the responsible intervention manager decides on engaging available aircraft and the number of firefighting unit members (in Stara Planina in 2019, 200 people were engaged). Firefighting units on the ground extinguish the fire with available equipment (e.g., backpacks, sprayers).
The tactic of extinguishing forest fires depends on whether it is an underground, surface, or crown fire. Underground fires characterized by fire spreading in sediment layers are extinguished by digging appropriate trenches, isolating the burning sediment from the unburned. Extinguishing surface forest fires is realized with water or special chemical means. When it comes to crown forest fires, they are usually extinguished from the air using special aircraft. It is not unusual for forest fire extinguishing to be conducted by igniting backfires in a counter-direction to create a protective layer upon their meeting.
In such cases, the firefighting manager must consider possible characteristics of fire spread on different parts of the active fire edge and combine the use of different methods, maneuvering with available forces and means appropriately. It should be noted that with the presence of firefighting vehicles and a sufficient amount of water, it is possible in some cases to achieve complete extinguishing of all types of ground fires, both under forest canopies and in open areas, by using mechanized and explosive methods, maximally utilizing available barriers for fire spread, and in combination with ignition, it is possible to successfully combat even large fires with small forces (Kusainov, 2013).
By protecting and rescuing from forest fires, operational procedures of protection and rescue subjects are developed, which are undertaken in the event of forest fires and other open-space fires, to prevent fire spread, develop the organization of extinguishing fires (firefighting and localization activities, rescue of endangered population; timely informing the population about fire hazards, extraction of material and cultural goods from buildings endangered by fire; restriction of traffic and movement of citizens in fire-affected areas).
The main forces for extinguishing fires are firefighting units, fire protection services of public forest management companies and national parks, civil protection units, and firefighting units of industrial companies, volunteer fire brigades, citizens. In the immediate forest zone, there are often built structures that can be endangered by smoke and fire in forest fire disasters. In order to mitigate negative consequences, it is necessary to take certain preventive measures (Hulina-Bužimkić, 2016): educating people living in forested areas about caution measures they must take; educating the wider population about forest fire hazards because circumstances can place anyone in the midst of a dangerous event; maintaining the yard by thinning and removing trees, branches, and dead plant debris, which can be affected by fire; building access roads (building roads wide enough for firefighting vehicles to pass) or reducing traffic on existing roads due to the possibility of congestion (e.g., parking bans); conducting training, both for firefighters-rescuers and citizens, to continuously maintain the necessary firefighting equipment and know the appropriate tactics for a specific location, and so on.
When organizing activities, the procedure for maintaining communication and mutual information is determined, methods and methods for fire localization and extinguishing depending on the type of fire and the use of forces and means, the procedure for using fire-fighting means and other means, and the procedure for using water sources. When the wind direction changes, the fire shape becomes increasingly distorted, making it difficult to distinguish the three main fire elements – front, lateral, and rear. In the case of a major fire, it is only possible to manage the situation with the help of aerial reconnaissance. It is important to note that ground fires spread at different speeds and in different directions based on factors such as wind speed and direction, uneven distribution of flammable materials, moisture content of these materials, and other variables. According to the wind direction and speed, the flame takes on a certain shape. The longer the length of the fire contour in its direction, the stronger the wind. Wind in the forest dictates the daily cycle of fire spread. The wind is weak and consistent in speed and direction during the night hours. Wind speed starts to increase in the morning and reaches its maximum in the afternoon, after which it begins to decrease and reaches the lowest point in the morning (Kusainov, 2013).
Change in wind direction almost always leads to a change in fire direction. Wind speeds greater than 6 m/s are the most common cause of crown fires. The nature of forest and steppe terrain influences how ground fires occur and how rapidly they spread. Ground fires spread faster in clearings and open steppe areas than behind the cover of forest canopies. To extinguish large fires, hundreds of people and dozens of technological tools are needed, and achieving the required results is impossible without a clear plan for how they will perform their duties.
When extinguishing such fires, it is necessary to form an organization within a few hours that will be able to oversee and regulate the work of each firefighting apparatus in situations where individuals have never worked together before and have no previous experience working in the forest. In this case, the difficulty lies in the fact that as the number of firefighting apparatus increases, so does the need for additional managerial, service, and technical resources, which must be included in the firefighting strategy. Furthermore, it should be noted that the organizational structure of firefighting is highly variable. During the firefighting process, the scope of work, firefighting conditions, forces, and means of extinguishing flames change. Depending on the actual situation, the forces and means of extinguishing flames are either reduced or increased in efficiency.
Research (Cvetković et al., 2018; Cvetković & Filipović, 2020) shows that the Republic of Serbia lacks sufficiently developed capacities for extinguishing large forest fires, and the state of fire protection is very unsatisfactory (Fire Protection Strategy 2012-2017). The number of firefighters in the Republic of Serbia is below European standards, which predict one firefighter per thousand inhabitants. According to the mentioned strategy, the following has been established: a) there is insufficient connectivity of all entities implementing legal regulations related to forest fire protection; b) there is weak and inadequate material-technical equipment of all entities; c) insufficient public awareness of the problem and importance of forest fires; d) inaccessible access in the case of interventions in large forest complexes due to inadequate road networks; e) lack of workforce for the implementation of preventive and repressive measures; f) fragmentation of ownership, a large number of owners, and unresolved property legal issues of forest owners; g) inability to communicate with forest owners, bearing in mind that by law, they are obliged to take certain preventive measures; h) an insufficiently developed system of meteorological observations in forest areas and methodologies for forecasting danger indices.
The Fire Protection Strategy for the period 2012-2017 (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 21/2012) stipulates that it is necessary to continue strengthening the awareness of fire protection entities about the importance of fire protection, i.e., accepting fire protection not as an obligation but as a way to improve general safety, primarily through education and upbringing systems, scientific research and technological development, improvement in the work process, and public information. It is particularly noted that mechanisms for informing the public about the state of fire protection will be created and improved, as well as the exchange of information and coordination of activities important for fire protection. It is emphasized that the protection of forests implies a system of measures and activities carried out to prevent, suppress, and eliminate the consequences of harmful actions of plant diseases, insects, rodents, game, livestock, humans, fires, other disasters, as well as other biotic and abiotic factors.
One measure to preserve forests is the opening of firebreaks when extinguishing high forest fires, thereby preventing further spread (Kusainov, 2013). During the process of extinguishing such fires, specialized aircraft such as helicopters or airplanes are most commonly used. Helicopters can be used in situations where it is necessary to fly slowly and drop water over precise locations. The time of next water supply is directly related to the proximity of the water intake site, lake, or river. Various helicopters of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Ministry of Defense (H145M, Bel 212, Mi 8, Mi 17) are in use, capable of carrying from 1200 to 3500 liters of water, depending on the area affected by the fire. These aircraft can be supplied at various lakes: Vlasina, Zavoj, Srebrno, Ćelije, etc.
When it is impossible to extinguish the fire with own capacities, assistance is usually sought from appropriate international actors, most often from the Russian-Serbian Humanitarian Center (engaged aircraft: Beriev Be-200 amphibious aircraft, takes off and lands on water, 12 tons of water; Ilyushin Il-76, 40 tons of water (payload 12 tons of water), which has participated multiple times in firefighting operations in Serbia (Stara Planina – 2019, Tara – 2012, etc.). It is significant to mention that the Il-76 aircraft is limited by the aerodrome range where its water capacities (40 tons) are replenished after the firefighting action is realized. Considering the time required to fill, fly, and refill again, it can be said that helicopters are more operational.
Compared to ground fires, extinguishing high (canopy) fires is much more difficult and complicated. Extinguishing the front part of the upper fire, which affects young stands and covers only a limited area, can be achieved by spraying a water jet from firefighting reservoirs onto the fire. When a wide area of the canopy is damaged by fire, it is advisable to utilize existing barriers to fire spread to the fullest extent possible for fire localization and application of fire protection measures. Groundcover fires starting on the forest floor can quickly reach tree canopies and spread. Special attention must be paid to the safety of workers involved in extinguishing canopy fires due to the rapid and erratic spread of these fires. When the wind speed is less than 6 m/s, the length of a leap can reach 80-120 meters, and in some cases, even more. As a result, rescuers should not be within 250 meters of the fire front (at a distance of at least twice the length of possible leaps).
When very strong winds blow through the forest, an upstream (or occasionally downstream) fire is accompanied by the creation of distances ahead of you, creating a particularly dangerous situation for individuals working in the forest, including those involved in firefighting. Several hundred meters from multiple sides, so-called “spot” fires arise by transferring sparks, ignited debris, and other forest materials by air currents and wind, and they can spread to several hundred meters. Spot fires can develop at speeds of several hundred kilometers per hour in stormy winds, posing a significant risk of groups of workers engaged in firefighting, as well as settlements in forests, industrial buildings, and other structures, being trapped within the fire perimeter.
The Forest and Open Space Fire Protection and Rescue Plan contains (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 80/2019): a) schematic representation of entities engaged in protection and rescue; b) overview of entities and forces for protection and rescue; c) overview of capacities of entities and forces; d) excerpt from the review of expert-operational teams; e) reminder for the work of disaster staff and managers of expert-operational teams, responsible persons; f) overview of measures and activities of participants in protection and rescue; g) overview of places and objects for providing firefighting water. The legislator has envisaged that such a plan be developed as an upgrade to the plan for the protection from forest fires of forest complexes and national parks in cooperation with public forest management enterprises (forest management companies and national parks) in accordance with a special law regulating this.
Furthermore, operational procedures for protection and rescue from forest fires are developed, which are undertaken in the event of forest fires and other fires in open spaces, aiming to: a) prevent fire spread; b) develop organization for extinguishing fires (firefighting and fire localization activities); c) rescue endangered population; d) timely inform the population about fire hazards; e) evacuate material and cultural goods from fire-threatened buildings; f) restrict traffic and movement of citizens in fire-affected areas. It is emphasized that the basic forces for firefighting are firefighting and rescue units, fire protection services of public forest management enterprises and national parks, civil protection units, firefighting units of industrial companies, volunteer firefighting societies, and citizens (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 80/2019).
Discussion questions
¤ Explain the conceptual definition and characteristics of epidemics, epiphytotics, and epizootics relevant to the organization of protection and rescue efforts.
¤ Explain the conceptual definition and characteristics of forest fires relevant to the organization of protection and rescue efforts.
¤ How are measures organized and implemented for protection against disasters caused by extreme snowfall?
¤ How are measures organized and implemented for protection against disasters caused by stormy winds?
¤ Explain rescue activities in disasters caused by droughts.
¤ Explain rescue activities in disasters caused by extreme snowfall.
Further reading recommendations
¨ Abebe, G., Deribew, A., Apers, L., Woldemichael, K., Shiffa, J., Tesfaye, M., Bezabih, M. (2010). Knowledge, health seeking behavior and perceived stigma towards tuberculosis among tuberculosis suspects in a rural community in southwest Ethiopia. PLoS one, 5(10), e13339.
¨ Alexander, G. C., & Wynia, M. K. (2003). Ready and willing? Physicians’ sense of preparedness for bioterrorism. Health Affairs, 22(5), 189-197.
¨ Alkhatib, A. A. A. (2014). A review on forest fire detection techniques. International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks, 10(3), 597368.
¨ Cvetković, V., Nikolić, N., Nenadić, R. U., Ocal, A., & Zečević, M. (2020). Preparedness and Preventive Behaviors for a Pandemic Disaster Caused by COVID-19 in Serbia. International journal of environmental research and public health, 17(11), 4124.
¨ Cvetković, V., Ristanović, E., & Gačić, J. (2018). Citizens Attitudes about the Emergency Situations Caused by Epidemics in Serbia. Iranian Journal of Public Health, 47(8), 1213-1214.
¨ Cvetković, V. M., & Filipović, B. (2020). The survey of citizen attitudes toward preparedness for disasters caused by wildfires: Case study: Prijepolje. Žurnal za bezbjednost i kriminalistiku, 2(2), 11-24.
¨ Kouadio, I. K., Aljunid, S., Kamigaki, T., Hammad, K., & Oshitani, H. (2012). Infectious diseases following natural disasters: prevention and control measures. Expert review of anti-infective therapy, 10(1), 95-104.
¨ Cvetković, V. M., Nikolić, N., Ocal, A., Martinović, J., & Dragašević, A. (2022). A Predictive Model of Pandemic Disaster Fear Caused by Coronavirus (COVID-19): Implications for Decision-Makers. International journal of environmental research and public health, 19(2), 654.
¨ Lee, B., Alexander, M., Hawkes, B., Lynham, T., Stocks, B., & Englefield, P. (2002). Information systems in support of wildland fire management decision making in Canada. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 37(1-3), 185-198.
¨ Ligon, B. L. (2006). Infectious diseases that pose specific challenges after natural disasters: a review. Paper presented at the Seminars in pediatric infectious diseases.
¨ Morgan, O. (2004). Infectious disease risks from dead bodies following natural disasters. Revista panamericana de salud pública, 15(5), 307-312.
IX TACTICS OF PROTECTION AND RESCUE IN DISASTERS CAUSED BY TECHNICAL-TECHNOLOGICAL HAZARDS
Chapter summary
In the ninth chapter of the textbook, tactical principles and recommendations regarding the protection and rescue of people in disasters caused by technical-technological hazards are discussed. Within this chapter, tactical principles for protecting and rescuing people in disasters caused by nuclear and radiological hazards, industrial accidents, transportation and infrastructure hazards, hazardous materials, and war devastations are examined. Special attention is given to defining and characterizing such hazards and their significance for protection and rescue efforts. The organization and specific protection measures in such disasters are reviewed, formulated, and studied. The organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by nuclear and radiological hazards, industrial accidents, transportation and infrastructure hazards, hazardous materials, and war devastations are described and clarified. Similar to the previous chapter, for each of these hazards, the characteristics of the hazards themselves, organization and protection measures, as well as the organization of rescue activities, are examined.
Keywords: Protection and rescue tactics; conceptually defined; characteristics; nuclear and radiological disasters; industrial disasters; transportation and infrastructure disasters; disasters caused by hazardous materials; disasters caused by war devastations; organization; protection measures; rescue activities.
Learning objectives
v Understanding the conceptual definition and characteristics of hazards (nuclear and radiological hazards, industrial accidents, transportation and infrastructure hazards, hazardous materials, and war devastations) relevant to protection and rescue;
v Familiarization with the organization and protection measures in disasters caused by nuclear and radiological hazards;
v Familiarization with the organization and protection measures in disasters caused by industrial accidents;
v Familiarization with the organization and protection measures in disasters caused by transportation and infrastructure hazards;
v Familiarization with the organization and protection measures in disasters caused by hazardous materials;
v Familiarization with the organization and protection measures in disasters caused by war devastations;
v Acquiring knowledge about the organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by nuclear and radiological hazards;
v Acquiring knowledge about the organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by industrial accidents;
v Acquiring knowledge about the organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by transportation and infrastructure hazards;
v Acquiring knowledge about the organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by hazardous materials;
v Acquiring knowledge about the organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by war devastations;
v Gaining basic understanding and information about the coordination of protection measures and rescue activities in disasters caused by stormy winds, droughts, and extreme snowfall.
9.1. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by nuclear and radiological disasters
No snowflake in an avalanche ever feels responsible.
Walter
9.1.1. Concept and characteristics of nuclear and radiological disasters relevant to the organization of protection and rescue
Nuclear energy remains one of the choices to alleviate environmental and societal concerns related to energy needs due to its relatively low levels of carbon dioxide emissions. However, serious issues can arise as a result of potential nuclear disasters. For example, the recent global catastrophe at the Fukushima nuclear power plant in 2011 reminded the world of the potential negative consequences of nuclear energy. The aftermath of such an event has left a lasting impact worldwide (Cvetković et al., 2020). Serbia does not have nuclear energy, but in neighboring countries (Hungary, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Romania, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic), there are 19 nuclear power plants in operation. Nuclear power plants that are extremely close to Serbia include Kozloduy (Bulgaria), Krško (Slovenia), and Paks (Hungary).
In 2018, nuclear energy produced 35% of the electricity in Bulgaria, 29.3% in the Czech Republic, 51% in Hungary, 54% in Slovakia, 35% in Slovenia, and 17% in Romania (Association, 2019). The Serbian government has considered the development of nuclear energy programs or plans several times. Since authorities and policymakers aim to provide their citizens with the cheapest energy options, establishing and using nuclear energy is one of the serious alternatives. Numerous studies have examined the effects of various demographic, socio-economic, and psychological characteristics on the public’s risk perception of nuclear energy. Individuals with traditional values tend to have greater support, while those with altruistic values tend to oppose nuclear power (Whitfield, Rosa, Dan, & Dietz, 2009).
The development of nuclear technology revealed the difference between the excitement over a new, reliable, renewable, and secure energy source reported by scientific experts in the early 1960s and the fear of potential nuclear disasters, as well as the associated and still largely unknown long-term health and environmental impacts on the wider public. Nuclear energy was considered one of the cheapest sources of electricity from the very beginning and was expected to replace coal and become the main source of electricity (Adamantiades & Kessides, 2009). Many developed countries also use nuclear energy for energy production, such as France, the United States, Russia, and Germany. Nuclear energy production in Eastern Europe is very high, approximately 21%. The projection of electricity production capacity in Eastern Europe is expected to increase by about 40% by 2030 (Agency, 2019).
With the adoption of the Law on the Prohibition of Nuclear Power Plant Construction in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Yugoslavia, 2005), a moratorium was introduced in the former state, as well as in present-day Serbia, which prohibits not only the construction of nuclear power plants but also the development of nuclear energy. The ban also applies to investment decisions, the implementation of investment plans, and technical documentation for the construction of nuclear power plants, nuclear fuel production facilities, and nuclear power plants for spent fuel processing. As a result of this ban, the study of nuclear technologies at higher education institutions has been reduced to a minimum.
Although Serbia does not have nuclear energy, there is an early warning system for such accidents, and Serbia is part of the network established by the International Atomic Energy Agency. The adoption of the Law on Radiation Safety and Security and the signing of two agreements with Russia on the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes: one on public preparedness and public opinion development on the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes and the other on personnel training for the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes support the creation and development of nuclear facilities. They provide for the enhancement of qualifications of administrative, scientific, and technical staff in the field of peaceful nuclear energy use through training and internships, as well as improvement of general knowledge and use of nuclear technology by citizens in other areas. Moreover, in Serbia, no research has been conducted to examine citizens’ attitudes toward different perspectives on the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes (Cvetković et al., 2020).
Nuclear or radiological disasters refer to situations that can arise as a result of extraordinary or unexpected events, human error, equipment failure, and other irregularities, including malicious acts, which require rapid action to mitigate their serious harmful consequences for human health and radiation and nuclear security, quality of life, property, or the environment, as well as the danger that can cause such serious harmful consequences (Law on Radiation and Nuclear Safety and Security, Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 10/19: Article 5). According to official data, there were 442 operational nuclear reactors worldwide in 2010. Moreover, within just 1,000 km from the border of the Republic of Serbia, there are as many as 21 nuclear power plants with a total of 44 reactors, of which six nuclear power plants with 12 reactors are located within a distance of only 500 km (Cvetković et al., 2019, p. 52).
During 1986, a nuclear disaster occurred in Chernobyl, Ukraine. Specifically, at the Lenin Nuclear Power Plant near the city of Pripyat in Ukraine, an experiment was supposed to be conducted to test whether the electric generator could provide a sufficient level of stability to power the reactor cooling system until the diesel generator was activated. During the test itself, the routine amount of steam from the reactor was shut off, and it was allowed for the power to fall below 20 percent. The reactor was not shut down, and enormous amounts of water vapor and chemical reactions created pressure that caused an explosion. Pieces of radioactive material were ejected from the reactor and deposited about 1 km from the plant, where they caused other fires. The main component of the radioactive dust and gas was sent into the atmosphere and contained iodine-131 and cesium-137, both of which could easily be absorbed by living tissue. The consequences of such an event were catastrophic: around thirty people died trying to extinguish fires, and another 200 people suffered severe injuries due to exposure to over 2,000 times the normal radiation dose. Over 130,000 people were evacuated to about 30 kilometers from the radioactive zone, and the city of Pripyat was abandoned (Smith & Petley, 2009; Cvetković & Martinović, 2021).
According to one classification, nuclear accidents can be divided into: reactor accidents (occurring within the nuclear power plant, at the reactor, or in the facility), waste accidents (resulting from sudden leakage of stored nuclear waste, traffic accidents during transport of radioactive material), military accidents (resulting from errors during nuclear testing, or accidental activation of missiles with nuclear warheads), and destruction of nuclear facilities (in immediate wartime danger and during war) and deliberate use of depleted uranium munitions (Zatezhić & Biočanin, 2009).
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), in collaboration with the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), established clear criteria for classifying nuclear and radiological events (accidents) into seven safety categories or levels in 1990. The first three levels relate to incidents, while the remaining four represent accidents (Table 11). From the fifth to the seventh level, severe core damage and radiological barriers are indicated. The scale was developed to inform the population, various organizations, and the media about the safety characteristics of events in nuclear power plants, as well as in other nuclear facilities (Cvetković, 2020).
Table 11. Criteria for the classification of nuclear and radiological events (INES) (adapted from: IAEA, 2008).
| Level | Name | Consequences | |
| Incidents | 0 | Deviation | Insignificant for safety. |
| 1 | Anomaly | Operation of a nuclear facility outside the prescribed operating regime, but without consequences for safety | |
| 2 | Incident with no impact on the external environment | Significant spread of contamination in the work area, accompanied by exposure of workers | |
| 3 | Minor impact on the external environment although there is significant contamination in the work area |
Appearance of acute effects in one or more workers |
|
| Accidents | 4 | Damage to the reactor core/radiological barriers and/or fatal radiation exposure of one or more individuals, but without major impact on the external environment |
Exposure of the population to radiation within prescribed limits |
| 5 | Limited release of radioactivity into the environment | Requires partial implementation of planned countermeasures | |
| 6 | Significant release of radioactivity into the environment | Requires full implementation of planned countermeasures | |
| 7 | Major impact on the external environment (outside the work area) | Far-reaching consequences for public health and the environment (e.g., Chernobyl disaster) |
9.1.2. Organization and protective measures in disasters caused by nuclear and radiological catastrophes
Mitigation and preparedness activities necessary to reduce society’s vulnerability and protect people when disasters caused by nuclear or radiological materials occur (Chai, Han, Han, Wei, & Zhao, 2021) have particularly gained prominence since the tragedy at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine in 1986. This mentioned catastrophe motivated the international community to ensure future preparedness of countries to manage the physical, psychological, and financial consequences of serious nuclear disasters (Schwartz, 2004).
In many places in Japan, after the nuclear catastrophe, neighborhood councils were organized, tasked with establishing and maintaining communication between citizens and authorities (Latré, Perko, & Thijssen, 2017). Household vulnerability is associated with income, education, ethnicity, age, and language isolation. Income, as a factor, influences access to secure housing and insurance. Normative guidelines for household preparedness mainly focus on six dimensions: knowledge of hazards, formal and informal response plans and agreements, life safety protection, property protection, disaster coping, and restoration of key functions and recovery efforts (Sutton & Tierney, 2006).
Preparedness for nuclear disasters involves designing, planning, implementing, and testing measures to reduce the level of natural and technical-technological hazards (Цветковић, 2020). They assist citizens in recognizing threats and taking certain actions, although there will always be a discrepancy between what people are advised to do, what they say they will do, and what they actually do in such situations. The design and implementation of such measures are often based on comprehensive disaster risk analyses and good connectivity with developed warning, communication, and public alerting systems, as well as activities such as: developing protection and rescue plans; procuring and storing various equipment and supplies, training (Smith & Petley, 2009, p. 89; Цветковић, 2020; Цветковић & Мартиновић, 2021).
According to the definition of the International Atomic Energy Agency, nuclear security is “the achievement of appropriate conditions for work, preventing accidents or mitigating the consequences of accidents, resulting in the protection of workers, the public, and the environment from undue radiation hazards” (IAEA, 2007). The nature of security can be understood as the ability to deal with uncertainties and their harmful effects on people, both physically and psychologically. Uncertainties in nuclear security stem from social and technical aspects of systems and their interdependencies (Wu et al., 2019). Nuclear security is the concern of several organizations. Specifically, individuals and institutions involved in the protection and transportation of radioactive material and related facilities are especially involved. Some of these organizations may have limited knowledge of nuclear or other radioactive material, which highlights the need for effective structural, communication, informational, and exchange systems integration of the functions of these various organizations into a unified nuclear security culture (Gupta & Bajramovic, 2017; Цветковић & Мартиновић, 2021, p. 49).
On the other hand, nuclear safety is defined as “the prevention and detection of theft, sabotage, unauthorized access, illegal transfer, or other malicious acts involving nuclear materials, other radioactive substances, or related facilities and response to them” (IAEA, 2010a). There are three main components of a safety culture: the primary one relates to the policy a state wishes to implement in practice, mainly in a national and international context; the second is the organization established within related bodies, especially for the implementation of the policy established by the state. In this particular component, a division must be made between what belongs to the organization itself and what concerns its managers; the third component concerns individuals who apply the established policy (Gupta & Bajramovic, 2017; Цветковић & Мартиновић, 2021, p. 50).
The national legislative framework in the field of nuclear and radiation safety consists of several laws and subordinate acts that prescribe certain safety requirements with their provisions. The Law on the Ratification of the Convention on Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (Official Gazette of the SFRY – International Treaties, 09/85) and the Law on the Ratification of Amendments to the Convention on Physical Protection of Nuclear Material (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia – International Treaties 04/2016) prescribe the mandatory application of all provisions of the Convention and its amendments, which relate to the physical protection of nuclear materials and related facilities and activities.
In the Republic of Serbia, there are no nuclear power plants, only certain research reactors. For the purpose of ensuring the security of all types of nuclear materials and the health of people working with such materials, the public company “Nuclear Facilities” is competent. Namely, the Institute for Nuclear Safety and Security has been established to perform tasks in the management of nuclear facilities as a separate organization (Law on Protection against Ionizing Radiation and Nuclear Safety Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 36/2009).
The specificities of risk management in the field of nuclear safety and security in the Republic of Serbia are conditioned by the existing legal regime that regulates the prohibition of building nuclear power plants, facilities for nuclear fuel production, and facilities for processing spent nuclear fuel for nuclear power plants (Law on the Prohibition of the Construction of Nuclear Power Plants in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, 2006). The prohibition applies both to the aforementioned nuclear power plants and to making investment decisions, developing investment programs, and technical documentation for the construction of nuclear power plants, facilities for nuclear fuel production, and facilities for processing spent fuel (Cvetković & Martinović, 2021).
The Regulation on Safety Measures for Nuclear Facilities and Materials prescribes that the licensee for nuclear activities ensures the implementation of physical and technical protection measures for nuclear facilities and materials, as well as physical and technical protection measures during the transport of nuclear materials within the territory of the Republic of Serbia. The duties of the licensee include ensuring that only authorized personnel have access to security zones, maintaining records of all individuals with access to zones and objects within each security zone, and ensuring that all entry mechanisms into zones and/or objects such as keys, keycards are secured and prevent unauthorized access, theft, or duplication (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 39/14).
According to the Regulation on the Performance of Nuclear Activities (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 37/11, article 23), a nuclear facility has an acceptable level of security if it meets the following criteria: the level of exposure to ionizing radiation of all individuals within the facility, in all operating states of the facility, complies with regulations on protection against ionizing radiation; the level of exposure to ionizing radiation of individuals in the vicinity of the nuclear facility, due to regular operational releases of radioactive effluents from the nuclear facility, is less than 1% of the prescribed dose limit for individuals from the general population; projected nuclear security measures ensure that the probability of a serious reactor core damage occurrence for existing nuclear facilities with reactor plants is less than 1E-04 per year of operation of the nuclear facility; in the event of an emergency, with a probability of occurrence once in the lifetime of the nuclear facility, the maximum dose for an individual is less than 5 mSv for the whole body and less than 30 mSv for the thyroid, and the collective dose is less than 1E-02 person Sv, with a minimum dose integration value of 0.05 mSv; in the event of an emergency, with a probability of occurrence less than 1E-04 per year of operation of the nuclear facility, the maximum dose for an individual from the general population is less than 0.25 Sv for the whole body and less than 2.5 Sv for the thyroid, and the collective dose is less than 1E-04 person Sv, with a minimum dose integration value of 5 mSv.
The Regulation on Safety Measures for Nuclear Facilities and Materials (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 39/14) prescribes security measures applied by the licensee for nuclear activities to ensure the security of nuclear facilities and materials. The security system of nuclear facilities and materials includes: measures of technical and physical protection of nuclear facilities and materials; procedures for handling and safeguarding confidential information; procedures for implementing information security measures for nuclear facilities; procedures for maintaining a security culture. The security system of nuclear facilities and materials is based on: risk management; a balanced approach; defense in depth. Risk management includes: risk analysis in case of unauthorized movement of nuclear materials for the purpose of constructing a nuclear explosive device; risk analysis in case of unauthorized movement of nuclear materials for their secondary dispersal; risk analysis in case of threats to the security of nuclear facilities and materials. The balanced approach and defense in depth involve the existence of multiple protection zones and the application of multiple methods of physical and technical protection of nuclear facilities and materials, including administrative and technical measures, at the same level and along the entire defense line in each protection zone, by applying all functions of the security system. The licensee for nuclear activities is obliged to report immediately any breach of the security system of nuclear facilities and materials and any malicious act to the Directorate (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 39/14).
The implementation of security measures for nuclear facilities and materials must meet the following conditions: nuclear material in quantities whose dispersal could lead to significant radiological consequences, as well as equipment, systems, and devices necessary to prevent such consequences, must be located in one or more vital zones within the protected area; nuclear material of category I and nuclear facilities with equipment and devices significant for nuclear security and safety, where the use or storage of nuclear materials of this category is foreseen, must be located in the inner zone; nuclear material of categories II and III and nuclear facilities with equipment and devices significant for nuclear security and safety, where the use or storage of nuclear materials of these categories is foreseen, must be located in the protected zone; nuclear facilities with equipment and devices significant for nuclear security and safety, intended for storage and processing of low and intermediate-level radioactive waste, must be located in the protected zone; documentation essential for the security system of category I nuclear materials and nuclear facilities where the use or storage of such nuclear materials is foreseen must be kept in a separate room in the vital zone; documentation essential for the security system of category II and III nuclear materials and facilities where the use or storage of such nuclear materials is foreseen, as well as facilities intended for storage and processing of low and intermediate-level radioactive waste, must be kept in the protected zone. A fenced area containing objects, equipment, and devices of the licensee for nuclear activities is considered a restricted access zone. Security measures implemented in restricted access zones include: periodic physical control of the zone; visual surveillance; control of the movement of goods, vehicles, and people; verification of the identity of individuals entering the zone and mandatory wearing of identification cards in a visible place (Cvetković & Martinović, 2021).
Nuclear waste management is one of the long-term and most significant challenges facing modern society. Nuclear waste is generated not only from nuclear energy but also from the widespread use of isotopes in medicine (e.g., radioactive tracers used for tumor identification) and research (Cvetković & Martinović, 2021, p. 65). Additionally, it is generated as a byproduct of mineral mining (Corkhill & Hyatt, 2018).
Radioactive waste refers to any radioactive material, i.e., any material whose activity exceeds or equals the limit values prescribed by the legal framework of each state, while the waste management phases include (Ciraj-Bjelac & Vujović, 2017): a) pretreatment – the collection and sorting of such waste at the site of its generation, which is the responsibility of the waste generator according to the Regulation on Radioactive Waste Management of the Republic of Serbia; b) characterization – involves determining the chemical, physical, and radiological properties of the waste in order to make an adequate decision regarding its adaptation, conditioning, storage, and disposal; c) treatment – includes activities aimed at improving waste safety and economic management, such as volume reduction, composition alteration, removal of radionuclides; d) conditioning – transformation of waste into a form suitable for further handling or transport, achieved by immobilization and packaging. Immobilization is mainly carried out by packaging radioactive waste in cement, bitumen, or glass formations, which are further packed, if necessary, into appropriate containers with internal barriers and absorbers; e) storage – involves the safe removal of radioactive waste from use for a certain shorter period until conditions for its permanent disposal are established. Spent nuclear fuel and material from nuclear reactors after use represent highly radioactive waste, which, therefore, must be temporarily stored in a special manner to create conditions for convenient and safe handling later (wet storage). For this purpose, a pool with boron-enriched water is used, where this highly radioactive waste must remain for at least 5-10 years before being transferred to dry storage. On the other hand, the temporary habitation of radioactive waste on the Earth’s surface in various hangars and temporary facilities providing necessary protection from external conditions and possible terrorist acts is designated as dry storage. Such facilities must possess certain isolation measures to prevent radiation spread and preserve environmental safety; f) disposal – a permanent waste disposal process, in accordance with regulations, without any impact on the environment and people (Cvetković & Martinović, 2021, p. 66).
According to the Regulation on the Performance of Nuclear Activities, traffic, and use of nuclear material on the territory of the Republic of Serbia can only be carried out by the licensee for nuclear activities. The transport of nuclear materials is carried out in accordance with regulations governing the transport of dangerous goods and international conventions or agreements on the transport of dangerous goods (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 37/11).
The Regulation on the Safety Measures of Nuclear Facilities and Materials stipulates that the transport of nuclear materials of categories I and II by road is conducted as follows: using a transport vehicle equipped for the transport of dangerous goods; with the vehicle protected by at least two guards; the shipment is located in a secured container that is locked, sealed, or otherwise secured and adequately anchored; accompanied by police escort. The transport of nuclear materials of categories I and II by rail is carried out as follows: using a freight train with a special wagon intended only for the transport of hazardous materials; the shipment is located in a secured compartment or container that is locked, sealed, or otherwise secured and adequately anchored; security personnel accompanying the shipment travel in a separate wagon adjacent to the wagon containing the nuclear material; with police escort. Transport of nuclear materials of categories I and II by waterway is carried out using a transport ship designated for such transport; the shipment is located in a secured compartment or container that is locked, sealed, or otherwise secured and adequately anchored; with police escort. Transport of nuclear materials of categories I and II by air is exclusively done using an aircraft designated only for cargo transport. The transport of nuclear material of category III by road is conducted using a transport vehicle equipped for the transport of dangerous goods; the shipment is accompanied by one or more trained security personnel. Transport of nuclear material of category III by rail is conducted as follows: the shipment is located in a secured compartment or container that is locked, sealed, or otherwise secured and adequately anchored; the shipment is accompanied by one or more trained security personnel. Transport of nuclear material of category III by waterway is performed in a manner that ensures the shipment is located in a secured compartment or container that is locked, sealed, or otherwise secured and adequately anchored. Transport of nuclear materials of category III by air is exclusively done using an aircraft designated only for cargo transport.
Additionally, the mentioned regulation establishes safety measures for the transport of nuclear materials prescribed according to the category of the transported nuclear material. The safety measures provided by the sender of nuclear materials include: armed and trained security equipped with protective gear; written instructions to security personnel before commencing transport detailing all responsibilities during transport preparation and transport; information on the schedule and route of transport is confidential documents; protected communication between security personnel performing physical protection and the transport control center; physical and technical protection measures during transport preparation and transport of nuclear materials in accordance with the Transport Safety Plan; a detailed inspection of the transport vehicle before loading to ensure it does not contain any substances that would endanger or hinder transport; security checks for drivers and technical staff involved in transport preparations and transport; conducting an alcohol test for the driver before transport commences and procedures for detecting signs or symptoms of drug use, psychoactive drugs, and other psychoactive substances in the body. The nuclear material being transported must be in a container equipped with a satellite tracking system (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 39/14).
The Regulation on the Establishment of Action Plans in Case of Accidents (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 30/2018) establishes an action plan in the event of an accident, determining intervention and derived intervention levels of exposure to ionizing radiation and measures to protect the population and the environment from harmful effects of ionizing radiation, methods of informing the public, and an operational program for implementing parts or the entirety of the plan. The decision on the implementation of protective measures is made by the competent emergency management headquarters, and in the event of suspicion of an accident or the possibility of contamination due to cross-border effects of accidents at nuclear reactors or facilities in another country, extraordinary radioactivity monitoring measures are implemented. The Agency is responsible for implementing these measures, and authorized legal entities for radiation protection are responsible for their execution.
In the aforementioned document, measures are also provided for the protection of the population, domestic animals, and the environment from the harmful effects of ionizing radiation, which are taken to prevent or reduce exposure to radiation sources. Emergency protective measures that are applied urgently, within the shortest time from the onset of the accident, include: evacuation, sheltering, decontamination of humans, protection of respiratory organs, and restricting the use of potentially contaminated foodstuffs, evacuation and decontamination of domestic animals, slaughter, and economic utilization of domestic animals intended for human consumption. In the case of radiological accidents with dangerous radiation sources that are out of control, the protection of the population and the environment from the harmful effects of ionizing radiation involves isolating the radiation source and preventing contamination, thereby reducing exposure to ionizing radiation (Cvetković and Martinović, 2021. p. 81).
In order to prevent internal contamination, it is necessary to keep hands and potentially contaminated objects away from the mouth. In the event of potential contamination by inhalation, respiratory protective equipment possessed by fire rescue units is applied. Skin contamination does not pose a significant risk and can be easily prevented, as well as ingestion of contaminants. Preventing skin contamination is immediately implemented through measures that involve timely provision of advice to citizens. For the protection of the population, the use of personal protective equipment is advised: protective masks, protective suits, shoes, gloves, recommendations on distance and time spent in contaminated areas, rooms, and other measures (Cvetković, Filipović, & Gačić, 2019, p. 784). Besides human evacuation, one of the significant measures for risk mitigation concerns sheltering, which is carried out in a short time frame along with other protection measures and activities according to the situation’s development. It is crucial to properly and promptly implement sheltering measures, with good sealing of sheltering objects and spaces and the use of protective measures, ensuring protection from exposure to radioactive contaminants in the early phases of an accident (Cvetković and Martinović, 2021, p. 82).
The most effective protection through sheltering is implemented in underground, basement, and other adapted parts of the building, in central spaces of the building or apartment, with as few openings in the walls as possible, i.e., in apartments with mandatory closed windows and other openings for the purpose of space sealing and protection from the penetration of radioactive particles. By implementing this measure, the risk of inhalation is reduced two to three times, and can even be reduced by up to ten times, when considering objects of appropriate construction and wall thickness (Cvetković et al., 2019, p. 785). Determining sheltering locations is done in advance by local self-government units, based on adopted and approved plans for protection and rescue in emergency situations (Cvetković and Martinović, 2021, p. 83).
In the event of a sudden radiological hazard, the use of collective and individual protective measures represents one of the effective organizational-technical means for population protection. Providing population protection during major accidents and incidents at radiologically hazardous facilities is achieved by using radiation protection shelters, specially designed facilities, or facilities adapted to underground shelters, underground garages, basements, or semi-basement spaces, and ultimately apartments. It is of particular importance to hermetically seal all these spaces, i.e., to close all openings and cracks with rags, etc., that do not allow air to pass through, thereby enabling protection from radioactive fallout from clouds, chemical and biological hazards, and from the inhalation of radionuclides, chemicals, and biological materials into the body. The population remains in these spaces in the event of a declaration of “emergency protection measures” or leaves them in the shortest possible time, awaiting further instructions from the competent authorities. Sheltering in these facilities usually lasts up to 2 days (Mladić, 2015).
Above all, in a nuclear disaster, shelters or safe zones must be free of radioactive contamination before people occupy them. Also, food and water will not be issued until declared safe for human consumption (Yamin, 2011). After the Chernobyl disaster, it turned out that the authorities had not kept emergency food supplies for the general population or for emergency workers, which led to many people being hungry and thirsty for a long time. It is necessary to have long-term food supplies at strategic locations, especially in countries with many nuclear reactors. All emergency food kits must be able to withstand radiation exposure (Belyakov, 2015). The importance of designing shelters in accordance with international standards is confirmed by the case of Japan, where it was found after the 2011 earthquake that many shelters did not meet international standards for long-term provision of basic needs and health protection for sensitive populations seeking refuge. Deterioration of hygiene and environmental conditions in shelters led to a sharp increase in the number of patients seeking medical care from the healthcare system. From the beginning of the disaster response, problems arose due to the misunderstanding that basic public health needs – food, water, and sanitation – were less important than medical needs (Parmar et al., 2013).
During the design process, among other things, it should be borne in mind that living in a shelter with unknown people can lead to privacy violations of evacuees, which due to stress can provoke violent reactions and conflicts (Othman, Dahlan, Borhani, & Rusdi, 2016). Shelter facilities do not only function as immediate and short-term aid to victims, but healthcare workers and psychologists help them recover from trauma and begin the rehabilitation process. Victims of disasters not only need financial and material assistance due to damage and loss of property (Rateau, 2017), but some of them also need psychological and emotional support, which is almost neglected in those moments, while priority is given to basic needs (providing food, water, clothing, accommodation). In the early and potentially chaotic phases of the incident, it will be impractical to consider all the needs and desires of individuals. As the phases progress, it becomes more likely that cultural and religious demands will be taken into account when dealing with individuals, rather than as part of a group (London Emergency Services Liaison, 2007).
9.1.3. Organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by nuclear and radiological catastrophes
The tactics for protection and rescue in disasters caused by radiological and nuclear hazards largely depend on the fundamental characteristics of such hazards, such as: a) high levels of radioactive contamination of surfaces – air, water, and soil (contamination detection techniques: spot – in isolated areas; leverage technique – dose measurement during flight; various routes technique – flight paths between two easily recognizable points; and linear scanning); b) time constraints for performing various rescue and protective tasks in such hazardous environments; c) the need to limit physiological and psychophysiological stress on rescuers; d) the need to address a large number of issues in a short period of time (Galushkin et al., 1995).
It is crucial that emergency rescue services conduct radiation level reconnaissance and detect terrain contamination (soil, water, and air) and transmit such information to higher authorities and individuals. Additionally, it is important to determine the maximum allowable radiation doses on the routes of rescue teams and, if possible, find alternative routes outside contaminated areas. Continuous monitoring of radiation status is essential. Continuous sampling of food, water, and meteorological observations is necessary.
Considering the potential spread of radioactive contamination by personnel and equipment involved, it is necessary to conduct daily washing and cleaning of personnel and equipment after each engagement. Therefore, rescuers should remove their personal protective equipment at designated locations (marked containers – rubber gloves and boots, equipment) for further decontamination. Equipment should be decontaminated according to specially designed procedures. Additionally, all personnel should wash with warm water and soap after engagement. If necessary, repeat the washing procedure if certain reactions on the skin are noticed.
The intervention manager must organize the decontamination of isolation suits and equipment, ensure the mandatory passage of involved personnel through sanitary inspections, control the radiation exposure of the body, as well as collect, sort, store, and send used equipment and supplies for decontamination. The individual protection of the population in such disasters depends on the phase of the event’s development.
In the initial phase (several hours to several days), there is a release of large amounts of beta and gamma radiation and the formation of a radioactive surface. In the middle phase (several days to several years) from the moment of environmental contamination with radiation until the implementation of measures to protect the population, there is a deposition of radioactive materials on soil surfaces, constructed objects, etc. In this phase, ingestion of radioactive materials often occurs orally when consuming contaminated water and food. Additionally, contamination by inhalation of such substances while staying in contaminated areas is present. In the final or late phase, from the moment all protective measures for the population are implemented until the cessation of the need for preventive measures, there is a gradual transition to normal sanitary living and working conditions (Galushkin et al., 1995).
Table 12. Protective properties of buildings and structures against external gamma radiation from a radioactive cloud. Source: Galushkin et al. (1995, p. 31).
| Construction | Attenuation coefficient |
| Open space | 1.0 |
| Vehicles | 1.0 |
| Wooden house | 1.1 |
| Stone house | 1.7 |
| Basement of a wooden house | 1.7 |
| Basement of a stone house | 2.5 |
| Large commercial or industrial building | 5.0 and above |
Depending on the intensity of radiation (Table 12), population protection is provided in the following ways: a) implement measures to restrict the population’s outdoor activities and enforce the use of temporary shelters with hermetically sealed residential and commercial spaces during the removal of radioactive materials from the air; b) mandate the use of specific iodine-based medications (iodine prophylaxis) to prevent the accumulation of negative radiation effects in the thyroid gland; c) in outdoor situations, various levels of respiratory protection are used (moist cloths, towels, wipes, or professional respiratory protection); d) evacuation of the population from the most affected areas; e) prohibition of the use of certain food products or water due to the presence of radioactive contaminants; f) restriction of movement and access to contaminated areas and introduction of control and vehicle movement restrictions.
Table 13. Classification of zones of radioactive contamination. Source: Galushkin et al. (1995, p. 21).
| Zone | External gamma radiation dose | Basis for establishing the upper range limit in this zone |
| 1 | 20-60 µSv/h | Allowed dose rate for rooms and areas within the observation area |
| 2 | 60-240 µSv/h | Allowed dose rate for rooms and areas in the sanitary protection zone |
| 3 | 240 µSv/h – 2.9 mSv/h | Allowed dose rate for personnel. Personnel may work daily for 6 hours |
| 4 | 2.9-150 mSv/h | Dangerous level. The duration of the working day should be shortened |
| 5 | Over 150 mSv/h | Very dangerous level with high radiation doses. Personnel may only stay under certain prescribed conditions |
It is important to mention that there are defined zones for citizen protection: a) exclusion zone – 30 km from the area of the prohibited zone; b) resettlement zone – an area of increased density of radioactive contamination; c) residential area with the right to resettlement, where the average effective radiation dose exceeds 1 millisievert. Regular health checks are conducted, and the population has certain benefits; d) residential area with a specific social and economic status. The intervention manager should consider the following issues: a) strict procedures for controlling radiation levels; b) continuous medical examinations of rescuers; c) frequent discussions on safety issues; d) systematic monitoring of the radiation situation; e) insistence on individual dosimetric controls; f) possibilities for localizing contamination; g) organization of sanitary controls and access, as well as decontamination.
Protection and rescue from nuclear and radiological disasters are implemented based on special legislation regulating protection from ionizing radiation and nuclear safety, i.e., in accordance with the Action Plan in the event of an accident prepared by the competent organization (Directorate for Radiation and Nuclear Safety of Serbia). Accordingly, in the action plan in case of an accident, obligations are assigned from the national to the local level based on which competent subjects develop their obligations. Local self-government units in protection and rescue from nuclear and radiological disasters show subjects with capacities for decontamination of people, animals, and material goods such as public baths, dry cleaners, car washes (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 80/2019).
Planning and preparing responses should be considered at three levels: organizational (policies and procedures); technological (decontamination, communication, safety, health care, and treatment); and individual (willingness to respond, knowledge, and competence). The Directorate plays a key role in the process of improving preparedness for nuclear disasters, considering that it is responsible for adopting the Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring Program, monitoring radiation levels, their changes, assessing their impact on the population and the environment, providing instructions on the application of appropriate measures, monitoring their implementation, and publishing an annual report on the level of exposure of the population to ionizing radiation in the Republic of Serbia; preparing a draft Plan of Action in case of a nuclear or radiological disaster; prescribing measures for the protection of individuals, the population, and the environment from the harmful effects of ionizing radiation; prescribing conditions for the protection of workers, individuals, and the population from exposure to natural radioactive materials; prescribing safety conditions for nuclear and radioactive materials and facilities where they are used, including measures for prevention, detection, and response to unauthorized and malicious actions involving such material or facilities (Cvetković & Martinović, 2021).
The main tasks to be addressed in areas contaminated with radioactive substances are the elimination (localization) of radioactive contamination and the reduction (stopping) of the migration of primary contamination. The goal of accident consequence management is to prevent the spread of radioactive materials outside contaminated areas and includes: a) localization and elimination of sources of radioactive contamination; b) decontamination (rehabilitation) of highly contaminated areas and objects; c) collection and disposal (storage) of radioactive waste generated during work, as well as repair-restoration work on the object and its territory, the scope and content of which are determined by the severity of the accident and plans for their further use. The specific list of works and the procedure for their planning are determined by the degree of radioactive contamination of the space, the actual contamination, and the technical condition of the restored object (Kusainov, 2013).
Localization and elimination of sources of radioactive contamination are carried out using methods for collecting and localizing highly active radioactive materials. The specificity of collecting and localizing high-level radioactive materials (fragments of fuel elements, construction and protective materials) is that the exact location of radioactive sources is usually unknown, as they are randomly distributed over the territory. Work in fields with a high dose of gamma radiation exposure should be planned with the maximum possible use of mechanization means.
In emergency situations, the following should be ensured: selection of leading technical personnel capable of performing tasks without a detailed plan and making managerial decisions on operational information through worker supervision; development of detailed organizational-technical measures for work in high doses before starting work; clear organization of workplaces in the staff concentration zone immediately before entering work areas (staff reception areas, protective clothing dressing areas, dosimetry control locations, control points, staff entry points into work areas, undressing areas); organization of command service units to maintain established order in the concentration zone; overcoming psychological barriers for personnel directly performing particularly hazardous tasks (volunteers should be selected); assigning specific tasks and providing detailed instructions (Kusainov, 2013).
Decontamination is one of the effective radiation protection measures, as it is aimed at removing radioactive materials from the human sphere and thus reducing radiation exposure levels. The main methods for decontaminating individual objects are: open surfaces (ground): removal and subsequent burial of the upper contaminated layer of soil (mechanical method); decontamination by protection; suctioning; chemical soil decontamination methods (washing); biological decontamination methods (natural decontamination); roads and paved surfaces: flushing radioactive contamination with a water jet or decontamination solution (liquid method); removal of the upper layer using special means or abrasive treatment; decontamination by protection; suctioning; machine wiping and brush washing (multiple times); forested or shrub-covered terrain: cutting and burying with clean soil after crown fall; crown cutting with later collection and burial; for buildings and structures: treatment with a decontamination solution (with and without brushes); treatment with high-pressure water jet (Kusainov, 2013).
The responsibilities of the Directorate for Radiation and Nuclear Safety and Security include the following (Cvetković & Martinović, 2021): preparing draft strategies and action plans for their implementation; preparing proposals for regulations issued by the Government of RS in accordance with this law; issuing regulations and other regulations and instructions in accordance with this law; making decisions on issuing, suspending, or revoking approvals for conducting activities, approvals for the use of radiation sources, authorizations for ionizing radiation protection activities, permits for the trade of radiation sources, and permits for the transport of dangerous goods class 7 ADR/RID/ADN (radioactive materials), as well as exemptions from the obligation to obtain approvals in accordance with this law; issuing, suspending, or revoking certificates; issuing certificates of registration and deletion from the registry of radiation sources and their users, exposed workers, external workers, and other data relevant to radiation protection, radiation safety, and security; establishing and maintaining a register of facilities, radiation sources, and radioactive waste, as well as other data relevant to radiation safety and security; establishing a control system over radiation sources and devices of which they are a part to ensure their safe and secure management and protection during operation and after cessation of operation; categorizing radiation sources based on their potential impact and harm to human health and the environment; categorizing nuclear and radioactive materials based on the assessment of potential harm that could arise from their theft or unauthorized use of a certain type and quantity of material, or due to sabotage of facilities where nuclear or radioactive material is produced, processed, used, stored, or disposed of, and prescribing appropriate protection measures for different categories of materials; participating in defining project bases and emergencies envisaged by project bases for the application of radiation and nuclear safety and security measures; cooperating with other state authorities and organizations within its competence; independently or in cooperation with other competent state authorities and organizations, cooperating with the International Atomic Energy Agency and other international organizations, bodies, and competent authorities of other states regarding the implementation of this law and international obligations undertaken by the Republic of Serbia; establishing and applying, in cooperation with ministries and services responsible for foreign affairs, defense, internal affairs, economy, and customs, a control system for the import and export of nuclear and other radioactive materials, radiation sources, equipment, special equipment, and non-nuclear materials, information, and technology to meet the international obligations of the Republic of Serbia; cooperating with other relevant institutions of the Republic of Serbia in establishing and maintaining an Action Plan in case of nuclear and radiological disasters in accordance with the National Disaster Protection and Rescue Plan; providing opinions at the request of competent state authorities regarding accession to international conventions and other agreements in the field of radiation and nuclear safety and security; establishing appropriate mechanisms and procedures for informing the public and consulting with other relevant bodies and organizations in the field of radiation and nuclear safety and security (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 10/19; Cvetković & Martinović, 2021).
Implements all additional duties assessed as necessary for the protection of the population and the environment in the Republic of Serbia; initiates the enhancement of the national framework in the field of radiation and nuclear safety and security, based on operational experience, insights gained in the decision-making process, and the development of appropriate technology and research; carries out regulatory control and regulatory inspection supervision over the implementation of radiation and nuclear safety and security measures; ensures compliance with the conditions based on which approvals are issued in accordance with this law; checks, monitors, and evaluates activities to confirm compliance with the law, applicable regulations, and conditions for obtaining approvals; takes measures, orders, and monitors their implementation in case of non-compliance with laws, subordinate regulations, and other regulations related to conditions for obtaining approvals; establishes and maintains a system for accounting and control of nuclear materials; performs other tasks specified by law (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 10/19; Cvetković & Martinović, 2021).
Regarding preparedness for a nuclear catastrophe, there is a series of studies examining the level of preparedness and factors influencing it (Malešič, Prezelj, Juvan, Polič, & Uhan, 2015; Mortelmans et al., 2014; Zähringer & Gering, 2019). Despite potential shortcomings in planning and preparation for nuclear and radiological disasters, it is known that incidents and accidents of this kind are becoming more frequent (Bell & Dallas, 2007; Hellman, 2008). In practice, despite good planning, communication, and training, it has been found (Malešič et al., 2015) that almost three-quarters of the population living within a radius of three kilometers are not aware of the locations of reception centers, and two-thirds of them are not familiar with evacuation routes. Additionally, the level of preparedness is low due to fatalistic attitudes, poor planning of nuclear disasters, low attendance of staff at training sessions, weak coordination, and scant attention and resources dedicated to managing potential catastrophes, as ensured by the International Atomic Energy Agency. These standards require that states and other relevant actors maintain an appropriate level of preparedness (including planning and preparation) for such events. Nuclear reactor disasters in Chernobyl and Fukushima had a significant impact on the planning of nuclear disasters and responses; for example, in Germany, there is currently a process underway to implement a modern nuclear disaster management system (Zähringer & Gering, 2019).
9.2. Protection and Rescue in Disasters Caused by Industrial Accidents
The Bhopal disaster is just one in a series of accompanying phenomena of technology transfer from developed countries to developing countries, which desperately seek technology despite not being fully prepared to accept it with all its negative attributes. Moreover, instead of transferring technologies to these countries that carry less risk, the opposite is happening because legislation in developing countries is much more lenient, and overall awareness of the need for environmental conservation is low.
Simon Djermati
9.2.1. The Concept and Characteristics of Industrial Disasters Relevant to the Organization of Protection and Rescue
In numerous sectors of production, processing, distribution, and storage, devastating negative events occur that have the potential to escalate into serious catastrophes. The dependence on chemical products is increasing, leading to the proliferation of larger petrochemical facilities (Yet-Pole & Fu, 2021). Industrial disasters represent adverse events that occur within the sector of producing certain goods or services within the framework of economic activity. As industrialization progresses, the frequency of various industrial disasters increases. Machine processing of raw materials and mass production facilitates modern life but complicates achieving relative safety. It is significant to note that industrial disasters differ depending on the type of industry in which they can occur. These can be distinguished as occurring within extractive and processing industries, heavy (mining, energy, metallurgy, construction, chemical industry), and light industries (food, textile, wood, tobacco, graphic, construction materials, leather, and footwear industries).
The specifics of such catastrophes are directly related to the following characteristics of the industry: a) the raw materials used in the production process; b) the method and technology of production; c) the level of technical and technological development and innovation in the production process; d) implemented preventive and protective measures; e) characteristics related to geographical location, natural resources, workforce, transportation, connections; f) the level of information development and automation utilization; g) the collective awareness of employees (Cvetković, 2020, p. 122).
According to the Law on Disaster Risk Reduction and Emergency Management (Article 23), an accident is an event such as emission, fire, or explosion that occurs as a result of uncontrolled development during the operation of a business entity and other legal entities, posing a serious risk to human health and the environment, immediately or delayed, within or outside the business entity and other legal entities, involving one or more hazardous substances.
In the Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia for the period 2021-2035 (2021), it is established that from the planning perspective, the consequences of potential technical-technological accidents at the SEVESO plant/complex are significantly influenced by inadequate location of the facility, unsatisfactory protective distances between hazardous facilities and residential areas, public facilities, water supply sources, and other sensitive objects, which is particularly critical in some locations in Belgrade, Pančevo, Kruševac, Šabac, and Novi Sad.
9.2.2. Organization and Measures of Protection in Industrial Disasters
Industrialization has brought countless dangers to people and their property. Depending on the type of industrial processes, the consequences will vary, as well as the protective measures and rescue activities that need to be undertaken. The stability and safety of industrial facilities depend on: a) the reliability and safety of production management systems; b) the capacity and capability of industrial facilities to withstand the effects of various harmful factors; c) measures taken to protect workers and other personnel from the negative consequences of various hazards; d) measures to protect facilities from damage by secondary hazards; e) the capacity of facilities for recovery and restoration of production to previous conditions (Mastryukov, 2011).
When making decisions about protection measures, it is necessary to consider all the mentioned information about constructed facilities, production processes, the training and equipment of workers, and production systems. Comprehensive study of the narrow and broader conditions in which production activities take place, as well as capacities to withstand various harmful actions, are of crucial importance for preventing or mitigating the consequences in industries.
Disaster managers must consider numerous factors to accurately and timely devise and implement all protection measures against such hazards: a) characterization of hazardous materials used in the technological process (substance name; general substance data – molecular mass, boiling point, density; explosive data; toxicity, reactivity, odor, corrosiveness data; description of precautionary measures when working with such materials; data on protective measures when working with such materials, methods of rendering substances harmless, first aid measures; b) data on technological and software process: schematic diagram and brief description of the technological process; layout plan of the main technological equipment; list of technological equipment for handling hazardous materials; c) description of technical solutions for ensuring human safety: solutions for reducing equipment pressure and preventing accidental releases of hazardous materials; solutions aimed at preventing accidents and containing releases of hazardous materials; solutions to enhance explosion and fire safety; description of automatic control systems for technological systems, alarms; d) other data: list of the most dangerous components and equipment in the facility; reliability data of used instruments and devices; assessment of the sufficiency of technical safety measures; proposals for improving facility safety (Shantarin et al., 2003).
The Law on Environmental Protection (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 95/2018) and the subordinate acts adopted on the basis thereof fully regulate the area of protection from chemical accidents at SEVESO facilities and implement provisions of the European Union directive dealing with protection from major chemical accidents (SEVESO II directive). These acts establish criteria based on which it is determined whether a facility is a SEVESO facility or not, i.e., define the types and threshold quantities of hazardous materials that may be present at the SEVESO facility location. Obligations of SEVESO facilities are determined to prepare safety reports and accident prevention plans, and to develop a prevention policy. The purpose of preparing these documents is to anticipate and proactively undertake all security measures for the prevention and mitigation of chemical accidents and to limit their impact on human life and health and the environment (National Strategy for Protection and Rescue, 2011).
Based on the aforementioned law, protection from chemical accidents is regulated in Serbia, and it is envisaged that the operator of a SEVESO facility, or a complex where activities involving one or more hazardous substances are present or may be present in prescribed quantities, is obliged to take all necessary measures to prevent chemical accidents and limit their impact on human life and health and the environment in order to create conditions for risk management, in accordance with this law (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 95/2018, Article 38).
A SEVESO facility, or a facility where activities involving a hazardous substance are present or may be present in equal or greater quantities than prescribed, is a technical unit within a complex where hazardous substances are produced, used, stored, or handled. The facility includes all equipment, buildings, pipelines, machinery, tools, internal tracks and depots, docks, loading docks for facilities, docks, warehouses, or similar structures, on water or land, necessary for the operation of the facility (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 95/2018, Article 3).
The operator who is obliged to develop an accident prevention policy is required to submit a notification to the competent Ministry, before developing the Accident Prevention Policy, about: a new SEVESO facility or complex at least three months before commencement of work; an existing SEVESO facility or complex; an existing SEVESO facility or complex whose activities were such that hazardous materials were present in quantities lower than prescribed in case of increase in quantities of hazardous materials, no later than three months from the date of change; about permanent cessation of operation of a SEVESO facility or complex, as well as in case of modification of a SEVESO facility or complex or any change that may affect the possibility of occurrence of a chemical accident (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 95/2018, Article 59).
In addition, a clear content of the Safety Report and Accident Protection Plan is prescribed (Article 60). Specifically, it is determined that the safety report contains in particular: information on the management system and organization of the operator aimed at preventing chemical accidents; description of the location of the SEVESO installation or complex; description of the SEVESO installation or complex; risk analysis of chemical accidents and methods for prevention; protective measures and emergency measures to limit the consequences of chemical accidents; inventory of dangerous materials. Furthermore, it is regulated that the Accident Protection Plan contains measures taken within the SEVESO installation or complex in the event of a chemical accident or in the event of circumstances that may cause a chemical accident. The operator is obliged to exchange information and coordinate the Accident Protection Plan with the Accident Protection Plan issued by the competent authority of the local self-government unit, autonomous province, and the Republic of Serbia (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 95/2018, Article 60).
The operator is required to demonstrate in the Accident Protection Plan that (Article 60d): he has anticipated and provided for the implementation of all necessary measures to limit and control chemical accidents, to mitigate the consequences of such accidents on people, the environment, and property; he has anticipated and provided a way to deliver information to competent authorities and the wider public; he has anticipated appropriate measures for cleaning, sanitation, and environmental remediation after a chemical accident; he has processed sufficient data for the development of plans for protection against chemical accidents at the level of the Republic of Serbia, autonomous province, or local self-government unit. Based on the Safety Report and Information, the Ministry maintains a register of installations and accident records that have been reported (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 95/2018, Article 60d).
It is specifically stipulated that the Operator is obliged to immediately inform the Ministry, the local self-government unit, and the authorities responsible for disaster management about: circumstances related to a chemical accident, present dangerous materials, available data for assessing the consequences of a chemical accident on people and the environment, and the emergency measures taken. He is obliged to inform the competent authorities of subsequently collected data that affect previously established facts and conclusions. Also, he is required to inform the competent authorities within a reasonable time about planned measures to mitigate medium-term and long-term consequences of a chemical accident and to prevent recurrence. In addition, he is required to implement emergency, medium-term, and long-term measures to mitigate the consequences of a chemical accident and, after analyzing all aspects of the chemical accident, to issue recommendations for future preventive measures (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 95/2018, Article 60j).
The SEVESO operator, or the complex, is obliged to develop a Prevention Policy or Safety Report and Accident Protection Plan, depending on the quantities of dangerous materials used in its activities, and to take measures to prevent a chemical accident and limit the impact of the accident on human life and health and the environment, as determined in these documents. The content and methodology for developing the documents are further regulated by the Regulation on the Content of the Accident Prevention Policy and the Content and Methodology for the Preparation of the Safety Report and Accident Protection Plan (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia No. 41/2010). The Prevention Policy is developed by lower-level SEVESO operators, while the Safety Report and Accident Protection Plan are developed by higher-level SEVESO operators.
The Regulation on the List of Dangerous Materials and Their Quantities and Criteria for Determining the Type of Document Prepared by the SEVESO Operator (No. 50/2018) prescribes the List of Dangerous Materials and Their Quantities and Criteria for Determining the Type of Document Prepared by the SEVESO Installation Operator or Complex in which activities involving one or more dangerous substances are present or may be present in quantities prescribed by the regulation governing the type and quantity of dangerous substances on the basis of which the Accident Protection Plan is drawn up.
The Regulation on the Content of the Accident Prevention Policy and the Content and Methodology for the Preparation of the Safety Report and Accident Protection Plan (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 41/2010) prescribes the content of the Accident Prevention Policy and the content and methodology for the preparation of the Safety Report and Accident Protection Plan, which are prepared by the SEVESO installation operator or complex in accordance with the Law. The second article of the mentioned Regulation defines the most important concepts: a) accident prevention is a set of measures and procedures at the level of installations, complexes, and the broader community aimed at preventing accidents, reducing the probability of accidents, and minimizing consequences; b) hazard is a property of dangerous materials or a set of certain circumstances related to dangerous materials that can cause harm to human life and health and the environment; c) abnormal operating conditions of the installation are all conditions in which the basic parameters of the installation deviate from the prescribed limits determined by the technical documentation and instructions for safe operation and maintenance; d) endangered zone is the area within which dangerous materials released during an accident can be present in concentrations defined as significant concentrations; e) endangered objects are all people, flora, fauna, objects, and elements of the environment within the endangered zone, which may have consequences due to a chemical accident; f) storage is a place for storing certain quantities of dangerous materials for safekeeping, further use, or creating reserves. The Accident Protection Plan defines the organization of work and elaborates the tasks of the company, or another legal entity, in the implementation of measures to prevent accidents and limit the consequences of accidents on human life and health, the economy, social stability, and the environment, in accordance with the law (Regulation on the Method of Preparation and Content of the Accident Protection Plan, Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 41/2019, Article 2). Furthermore, the same regulation defines that the obligation to prepare the Plan lies with the company or another legal entity engaged in activities involving one or more dangerous substances in quantities prescribed by the regulation governing the type and quantity of dangerous substances on the basis of which the Accident Protection Plan is drawn up, taking into account the activity it engages in, the type and quantity of dangerous substances, and the objects it uses.
The Accident Protection Plan (Regulation, Article 5-35) contains:
- a) Introduction – general data (responsible person, employees, etc.) and description of the industrial complex of the company and other legal entities (activity data, inventory of dangerous materials, safety data sheets, presentation of all substances, characteristics of dangerous substances, applied technology, technological units, process flow diagram, limit values, characteristics of facilities and equipment, situational plan, situational representation of endangered objects, etc.);
- b) Hazard assessment – carried out to assess the risk to human life, health, economy, ecology, and social stability, and contains the following components:
- Hazard identification (identification of critical points, i.e., places in the process or on the premises (where dangerous materials are produced, used, stored, or handled in any way), which represent the weakest points or potential sources of hazards in terms of accident occurrence, with special emphasis on human factor analysis as a possible cause of accidents);
- Prevention measures: measures envisaged and/or implemented through spatial planning, design, and construction of facility complexes; measures envisaged and/or implemented through the selection of production technology, technological equipment, process management equipment, and other technical equipment that provide a higher level of environmental protection and lower risk of accidents; measures envisaged through the selection of technical and technological solutions contributing to safe transportation of dangerous materials; measures ensuring quality and timely maintenance of the technical-technological level of facilities; measures envisaged to achieve the required level of knowledge and level of work and technological discipline and training and equipping of human capacities to respond in the event of accidents (types of training, exercises, and knowledge checks in the field of response to accidents and response, as well as specificities provided by the Plan); measures envisaged in the security system: supervision, management of technical security and protection systems, hazard detection and identification, and maintenance of communication paths and passages in facilities, premises, and plants);
- Forces and means for protection, rescue, reduction, and elimination of consequences of accidents: available human resources; available material resources and equipment for protection and rescue; need to engage emergency services outside the plant/complex; need for assistance from the local community in response to accidents within the plant; organization and continuation of work and recovery from accidents).
In the disaster protection and rescue system caused by accidents, it is very important to determine the possible level of accidents based on the predicted scenario and vulnerability analysis, expressed as I, II, III, IV, or V accident levels (Article 14, Regulation):
- a) Level I accident – facility – negative accident consequences are limited to a part of the facility or the entire facility complex of the company and other legal entities, and no negative consequences outside the complex are expected;
- b) Level II accident – facility, plant, and complex – negative accident consequences can affect a part of the facility or the entire complex of the company and other legal entities, and no negative consequences outside the complex are expected;
- c) Level III accident – local self-government unit level – negative accident consequences can be transmitted beyond the boundaries of the hazardous object – facility and complex of the company and other legal entities, and consequences are expected on a part or the entire territory of the local self-government unit or city;
- d) Level IV accident – national level – negative accident consequences at the facility – plant and complex of the company and other legal entities, can extend to part of the territory and the entire territory of the Republic of Serbia;
- e) Level V accident – international level – negative accident consequences at the facility – plant and complex of the company and other legal entities, can extend beyond the territory of the Republic of Serbia.
In order to implement post-accident consequence mitigation measures, competent managers are obliged to organize post-accident monitoring and create conditions for further normal work and life at the location. Certainly, in this process, it is necessary to plan and consider the following (Article 19, Regulation): objectives and scope of remediation (priorities, method – technique, collection, disposal, decontamination of spilled hazardous materials – waste); forces and means for remediation (teams and tasks, required time – deadline, required resources); forces and means for remediation implementation; post-accident environmental monitoring program (biomonitoring of air, water, and soil), including impact on human and animal health, realized by defining carriers, content, reporting, and time periods; organization of work continuation and recovery from accidents (tasks, carriers, teams, required material resources, and planned time); planned financial resources; review of legal entities authorized for remediation, remediation, and environmental monitoring.
In disasters caused by accidents, it is necessary to thoroughly plan which forces and entities of the disaster risk reduction system will be engaged and what their specific tasks will be, as well as how the population will be informed and alarmed. According to the Regulation on the Method of Preparation and Content of Accident Protection Plans (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 41/2019, Article 3), it is prescribed that for each possible scenario, the following should be carefully planned:
- a) The method of alarming and engaging persons participating in the response to the accident (audible, telephone, or other), as well as persons responsible and authorized for alarming and engaging other persons.
- b) Management and coordination among persons participating in the response to the accident (communication means, communication method, and behavioral rules):
(1) Overview of all planned participants in the response to the accident from the composition of the business entity, competent authority, autonomous province authority, city, and local self-government units, to whom the accident notification is sent;
(2) Information about organizations qualified to respond to accidents and authorized to provide assistance. Name of institution, address, and phones for: police; competent fire and rescue units, professional fire brigades, volunteer fire departments; medical assistance (health centers, emergency rescue services, specialized trauma centers, burn centers, poisoning control); civil defense members (commissioners and deputy commissioners from legal entities and local self-government units); communal structures; detection (specialized laboratories for air, water, and soil control); sanitation (specialized teams from other operators and specialized teams for handling hazardous waste); specialized authorized laboratories for air, water, and soil control (monitoring):
(3) Accident response teams and engagement method for: stopping the production process; extinguishing initial fires and stopping initial accidents; cooling vessels with flammable materials; rescue; informing and alarming; transportation and care of the injured; detection and pollution control; decontamination of people, equipment, and space; information and public contact.
The creation of a graphic part regarding the procedures in the event of an accident is foreseen: danger centers; maximum estimated danger zone; overview of directions for internal transport of hazardous materials; markings of access roads for intervention (priority and alternative routes); presentation of accommodation facilities for protection and rescue forces; presentation of equipment facilities for protection and rescue; evacuation routes (directions of movement); facilities and means for providing first aid and healthcare; decontamination facilities; care facilities – accommodation of endangered people, animals, and material and cultural goods, and spaces and facilities for the relocation of material goods.
Accident prevention policy is a document in written form containing (Regulation on the Content of Accident Prevention Policy and the Content and Methodology of Safety Reports and Accident Protection Plans, Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 41/2010, Article 3):
- a) Statement of objectives and principles of operation of plant operators for managing the risk of chemical accidents;
- b) Description of the implementation of objectives and principles. The statement of objectives and principles of operation of operators contains: information on the status of the plant from the perspective of managing the risk of chemical accidents; objectives and principles for preventing chemical accidents and reducing damage to people and the environment; information on activities and measures for the realization of defined objectives and work in accordance with defined principles; obligation for the operator, with the organization of work, management system, and financial resources, to ensure the achievement of objectives in practice, and thus a high level of protection against chemical accidents.
The implementation description of objectives and principles (Regulation, Article 4) includes:
– General information about the plant operator, plant managers, and persons responsible for implementing accident prevention policy.
– Organizational structure with authorities, responsibilities, and authorizations.
– Data and information about the Seveso plant, complex, and surroundings including: description of location with cartographic representation in the appropriate scale; description of the plant with a situational plan; description of the technological process with block diagrams from the perspective of a chemical accident; inventory of hazardous materials in accordance with the regulation governing the list of hazardous materials, their quantities, and criteria for determining the documents prepared by the Seveso plant operator, respectively the complex; chemical name, CAS and UN number, name according to the internationally recognized chemical nomenclature IUPAC (trivial name) for each of the listed hazardous materials; physical-chemical, toxicological, and eco-toxicological properties for each of the listed hazardous materials, under normal working conditions and description of their possible harmful effects on humans and the environment as well as the consequences of acute and chronic exposure (safety data sheet); physical-chemical, toxicological, eco-toxicological properties for hazardous materials considered to occur due to loss of control over the chemical process and description of their possible harmful effects on humans and the environment as well as the consequences of acute and chronic exposure; identification of all critical points in the plant (where hazardous materials are produced, used, stored, or handled in any way, including objects, equipment, pipelines, machinery, tools, warehouses, internal transport), in relation to possible chemical accidents; descriptions of possible accidents under normal and emergency conditions of plant operation: based on identified critical points and previous experiences; accidents that have potentially occurred or been avoided in the previous period of plant operation, as well as description of accidents that may occur; with consequences arising from accidents that potentially occurred at the plant; with data on accidents and consequences at the same or similar plants operated by other domestic and foreign operators; Identification of endangered objects and goods within a distance of 1000 m from the location boundary: number of workers estimated to be at risk in case of an accident at the plant; estimate of the number of people outside the complex who may be exposed to the effects of the accident; identification of preschool institutions, schools, healthcare facilities, residential buildings, shopping and sports centers, and other facilities that may potentially be exposed to the effects of the accident; identification of other objects and goods that may be exposed to accident effects in terms of collapse, ignition, or contamination (roads, natural, cultural, and other goods).
9.2.3. Organization of rescue activities in industrial disasters
In the area of Seveso (population 17,000) in the commune of Lombardy, Italy, an industrial disaster occurred in 1976 at a chemical production plant, approximately 20 km from Milan. The disaster occurred due to a disruption in the process of removing ethylene glycol from the reaction mixture by distillation. This led to a significant load drop on the turbine, resulting in an increase in the temperature of the released steam to about three hundred degrees. Operators failed to promptly detect such changes, leading to the activation of a safety valve, releasing around 6000 liters of chemicals within a radius of 18 km.
Immediately afterward, the affected area was divided into three zones: A (greater than 50 micrograms), B (between 5 and 50 micrograms), and P (negligible concentration less than 5 micrograms) according to decreasing values of substance concentration (TCDD) in the soil. Numerous preventive measures were taken, one significant action being the emergency euthanization of over 80,000 animals to prevent them from entering the food chain. Zones A and B were completely evacuated, and all individuals underwent rigorous health screenings. Numerous decontaminations and clean-ups of surface areas exposed to the effects of the mentioned substances were carried out. Leakage of hazardous materials led to an increase in mortality rates due to cardiovascular and respiratory diseases.
Immediately thereafter, in 1982, the Seveso Directive was issued, strengthening preventive measures in industries. During 1996, 2008, and 2012, updates to the Seveso Directive 3 were made. Changes and additions to the Seveso Directive were prompted by various disasters. In 1987, after the Bhopal disaster and again after a fire at the agrochemical warehouse of Sandoz near Basel, where chemicals, primarily organophosphate pesticides, spilled into the Rhine River, leading to severe contamination and ultimately resulting in the near extinction of the entire downstream European pond heron population (Güttinger & Stumm, 1992).
Seveso I regulated specific activities and contained a list of hazardous materials, while Seveso II introduced a system for classifying hazardous materials (toxic, flammable or explosive, and other environmentally hazardous materials) and specified concentration thresholds for individual types, categories, and groups of these materials. Depending on whether they exceed the upper or lower threshold in their action, Seveso plants are classified into upper or lower tier, assuming relevant obligations. Regarding the safety of industrial plants, another note to consider at this point is (Vučić, 2016, p. 2).
One of the most significant industrial disasters mentioned occurred in India on December 3, 1984, in the city of Bhopal. Due to a technical malfunction at the factory of the American chemical company “Union Carbide,” 45 tons of toxic gas, methyl isocyanate, leaked into the atmosphere, resulting in horrifying consequences for the environment, life, and health of people. Although such a substance is commonly used as an industrial chemical for pesticide production, it possesses serious properties that make it extremely dangerous (extremely unstable, volatile, reacts violently with water, a hundred times more lethal than cyanide, and more dangerous than phosgene chemical warfare agent) (Cvetković, 2020; Lewis, 1992).
According to official data, the catastrophe occurred due to inadequate engineering maintenance of safety devices and the absence of developed warning systems (Peterson, 2009). A dense gas cloud covered an area of about seven kilometers, and according to the official report of the Indian government, 15,000 people died, and around 60,000 were injured. The poorest areas of the city were the most affected, considering the high concentration of people in one place. There were no adequately developed plans, and people breathed in the gas; local knowledge was poor, and adequate evacuation was not carried out; no recommendations were given for the decontamination of people; the American legal system opposed compensation for damages; the Indian government paid compensation of $470 million (Smith & Petley, 2009, p. 292-293). This event has entered history as the deadliest industrial disaster ever recorded in human history (Cvetković, 2020).
Drawing from various experiences, organizing rescue activities in disasters caused by industrial accidents involving hazardous materials involves: conducting chemical and medical reconnaissance; implementing preventive measures, self-help, and mutual assistance; searching for and identifying affected individuals, providing first aid and evacuating to medical facilities; evacuating unaffected populations; sanitation (comprehensive community sanitation, container-based sanitation, ecological sanitation, urgent sanitation, field sanitation, and sustainable sanitation) of people and objects, decontaminating clothing and footwear, protective equipment, terrain, objects, equipment, and transport; identifying contaminated food, water sources, and decontaminating food and animal feed (Kusainov, 2013, p. 94).
In such disasters, numerous activities will be undertaken to provide first aid to contaminated populations, conduct short-term and long-term decontamination, and restore conditions to pre-disaster levels. For these reasons, various measures aimed at predicting the possible consequences of such industrial accidents will be implemented; removing chemical contamination and conducting special sanitation of areas and people. In the process of containing the spread of chemical substances, appropriate neutralizers will be used according to the chemical properties of the present material. Certainly, all personnel involved will utilize personal and collective protective equipment. All procedures for handling such industrial disasters are also applied to procedures involving hazardous materials, which will be discussed further in subsequent sections of the book.
One of the more serious industrial accidents is the spillage of oil and oil derivatives into rivers, lakes, seas, and similar bodies of water. Often, such accidents occur due to uncontrolled discharge of crude oil from tankers, coastal platforms, drilling installations, and wells, as well as spills of refined oil derivatives. The localization and elimination of oil and oil derivative spills are ensured by implementing a multifunctional set of tasks, using various methods and employing different technical means (Kusainov, 2013).
Considering the nature of oil and oil derivative spills, the initial measures for their removal should focus on localizing the spill to prevent further contamination of new areas and reducing the area of contamination. For this purpose, appropriate booms are used to prevent the spread of oil on the water surface, appropriate chemical methods are employed to reduce the oil concentration and extract it from the most sensitive ecological areas. Certainly, cleaning and recovery in such disasters require the application of various methods depending on the type of spilled oil, water temperature, and the type of shores and beaches involved (Prismotrov, 20155). Physical cleaning methods of oil can be expensive, or microorganisms showing potential for future oil cleanup due to their colonization and degradation abilities on the sea surface can be used. Additionally, controlled burning can be employed to reduce the quantity of oil in the water, but this can only be used in situations where the wind is weak, although it may cause air pollution on the other hand.
9.3. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by traffic accidents
If everyone does as much as they are capable of, the nation will not perish. – Vuk Karadžić
9.3.1. The concept and characteristics of disasters caused by traffic accidents are significant for the organization of protection and rescue efforts
Traffic disasters represent various types of serious and large-scale accidents in road, rail, air, and water transportation that can cause widespread consequences. Traffic itself is an essential function necessary for the survival and functioning of any living space, alongside other essential functions such as work, housing, and recreation (Cvetković, 2020, p. 123).
According to Lipovac, a traffic accident in road traffic is an event on a road or another traffic open area or initiated at such a place, involving at least one moving vehicle and resulting in one or more persons injured or material damage (Lipovac, 2008, p. 4). Every day, certain accidents occur that cause limited health, economic, and social consequences. However, there are also accidents that, due to their intensity and consequences, can lead to certain disasters (Cvetković, 2020).
According to the Law on Investigation of Accidents in Air, Rail, and Water Transport (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 83/2018), the following terms related to traffic disasters are defined (Article 3):
- a) A rail traffic accident is an event related to the movement of trains or maneuvering units, negatively affecting traffic safety. It involves unwanted or unplanned sudden events or a specific series of such events that have harmful consequences (collisions, derailments, level crossing accidents, accidents involving persons caused by moving railway vehicles, fires, etc.).
- b) A serious air traffic accident is an event that includes circumstances indicating a high probability of an accident, related to the use of aircraft, occurring from the moment someone boards an aircraft with the intention of flying until all persons disembark from the aircraft or, in the case of unmanned aircraft, from the moment the aircraft is ready for takeoff until it comes to a complete stop at the end of the flight and the main propulsion unit is turned off.
- c) A serious maritime accident is a maritime accident involving fire, explosion, collision, grounding, strike, damage from weather, ice damage, hull fracture, or presumed hull defect resulting in the main propulsion machinery being inoperable, significant damage to superstructures, serious structural damage (such as hull penetration), rendering the ship incapable of navigation, marine environmental pollution involving a spillage of more than 50 tons of oil and oil products and other hazardous materials, or a breakdown or damage requiring towing or assistance from the shore.
- d) A serious inland waterway accident (hereinafter: serious inland waterway accident) is an extraordinary event on inland waterways occurring during navigation or use of a vessel, waterway, or facilities thereon resulting in the complete loss of the vessel, death or serious bodily injury, or serious damage to the environment involving a spillage of more than 50 tons of oil and oil products and other hazardous materials.
- e) An air traffic incident is an event related to the use of an aircraft, in the case of an aircraft with crew, occurring from the moment someone boards an aircraft with the intention of flying until all persons disembark from the aircraft or, in the case of unmanned aircraft, from the moment the aircraft is ready for takeoff until it comes to a complete stop at the end of the flight and the main propulsion unit is turned off, etc.
Analyzing a large number of traffic accidents in road, rail, air, and water transport, the following characteristics are important for protection and rescue efforts: a) a higher number of injured and fatalities; b) the necessity of strict adherence to prescribed protection and rescue procedures due to the nature and complexity of the situation; c) the presence of multiple hazards to victims and rescuers at the accident site; d) the need for using a large amount of diverse general and specialized equipment; e) the conditioned response by effective and collaborative intervention and rescue services; f) the necessity of logistical, administrative, and technical support for response actions; g) the use of innovative technical solutions for rescuing people, etc.
9.3.2. Organization and measures for protection in disasters caused by traffic accidents
Preventive and protective measures in road traffic are regulated by the Law on Road Traffic Safety (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 128/2020, Article 1), which details the system of road traffic safety, management of traffic safety, traffic rules, behavior of traffic participants, responsibilities of traffic safety subjects, traffic restrictions, traffic signaling, signs and orders to be obeyed by traffic participants, conditions for drivers, driver training, driver’s license exams, vehicle management conditions, issuance of driver’s licenses, issuance of vehicle stickers for persons with disabilities, vehicle requirements, technical inspections, vehicle testing and registration, special measures and authorities applicable in road traffic, and other matters related to road traffic safety.
Furthermore, specific protection measures in case of traffic accidents have been designed and implemented in every passenger vehicle, including reinforcement at impact points and motor shifting devices in case of collision, designated crumple zones to absorb collision energy, reinforcement in the roof, doors, and pillars, use of airbags and seat belt pre-tensioners, and the use of special glass to prevent lacerations, among others.
In Serbia, the Accident Investigation Center in Traffic has been established, representing a specialized organization responsible for conducting professional activities related to investigating accidents and serious incidents in air, rail, and water traffic, as well as other accidents and incidents in rail, air, and water traffic. It operates as a legal entity headquartered in Belgrade and possesses professional, technical, and financial capacities to fulfill its responsibilities independently of all authorities and organizations responsible for air, rail, and water traffic, as well as all legal and natural persons whose interests may conflict with the tasks and authorities of the Center.
It is noteworthy that the Center is led by a Chief Investigator, who holds the position of director of the special organization appointed by the Government for a five-year term upon the proposal of the Prime Minister. To be appointed, the individual must have at least nine years of experience in air, rail, or water traffic, including at least three years of experience in safety-related activities in air, rail, or water traffic, and accident investigation. The Chief Investigator is assisted by deputy investigators specialized in air, rail, and water traffic accidents. The Center conducts various professional activities related to air traffic safety, including determining the causes of accidents and serious incidents, providing safety recommendations, maintaining a database of accidents and serious incidents, and collaborating with relevant international organizations and authorities in the field of air traffic safety;
- b) In railway traffic: Investigation of serious accidents in railway systems with the aim of determining causes and possible safety improvements in railways and accident prevention; investigation of other accidents and incidents that under certain circumstances may lead to serious accidents; providing safety recommendations for improving railway safety; maintaining a database of accidents and incidents; compiling final reports on individual conducted investigations, which may contain safety recommendations for improving railway safety; reporting to the European Railway Agency (ERA) on the initiation of investigations of serious incidents, accidents, or incidents within seven days of the decision to initiate an investigation; publicly releasing final reports on conducted investigations in railway traffic and submitting them to the European Railway Agency (ERA); publishing annual reports on conducted investigations from the previous year, no later than September 30 of the current year, and submitting them to the ministry responsible for transportation (hereinafter: the ministry) and the European Railway Agency (ERA); participating in international conferences and seminars on investigation issues and training of personnel involved in conducting investigations.
- c) In water traffic: (1) In maritime navigation: conducting safety investigations to determine the causes of very serious maritime accidents, serious maritime accidents, and maritime accidents and proposing measures to avoid very serious maritime accidents, serious maritime accidents, and maritime accidents to improve maritime navigation safety; conducting safety investigations of very serious maritime accidents and maritime accidents, and in the event of serious maritime accidents and maritime incidents, conducting preliminary investigations to assess the need for safety investigations; providing safety recommendations for increasing safety in maritime navigation; reporting to the European Commission on very serious maritime accidents, serious maritime accidents, maritime accidents, and maritime incidents in accordance with the regulation governing the procedure for conducting investigations and providing data on the results of safety investigations from the database in accordance with the EMCIP scheme (European Marine Casualty Information Platform); maintaining a database of serious maritime accidents, serious maritime accidents, maritime accidents, and maritime incidents and exchanging data from the database with competent authorities for investigating accidents and incidents of interested states subject to data confidentiality; exchanging installations, equipment, and facilities for technical investigations of wrecks, ship equipment, and other objects significant for maritime safety investigations in the framework of mutual permanent cooperation, assistance, and work with competent authorities for investigating accidents and incidents of interested states; providing other authorities with information regarding the investigation of very serious maritime accidents, serious maritime accidents, and maritime accidents, providing technical cooperation or knowledge exchange necessary for conducting specific tasks, collecting and exchanging information relevant to the analysis of data on very serious maritime accidents and maritime accidents, and preparing appropriate safety recommendations; preparing, issuing, and publishing reports on maritime safety investigations; collecting data on measures taken to implement safety recommendations from reports on conducted safety investigations; cooperating with other authorities and organizations in the Republic of Serbia to conduct maritime safety investigations; maintaining a database of serious maritime accidents and maritime accidents; preparing annual analyses of serious maritime accidents and maritime accidents, and conducting other analyses as needed; participating in international conferences for personnel training involved in conducting investigations.
As mentioned, the Center issues safety recommendations based on the analysis of data and the results of conducted investigations. These recommendations cannot be used to determine fault or liability for an accident or incident. The recommendations are addressed to the Directorate, and in cases where necessary, to other authorities and organizations in the Republic of Serbia, as well as to interested authorities and organizations of other states and international organizations. The Directorate takes measures to consider the safety recommendations and to act upon them. Authorities and organizations to whom safety recommendations are addressed are required to submit to the Center at least once a year a report on the measures taken or planned to be taken based on the safety recommendations issued in the previous year (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 29/2018, Article 35).
9.3.3. Organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by traffic accidents
Interventions involving rescue actions from crashed vehicles represent one of the more complicated tasks. According to the Law on Investigation of Accidents in Air, Rail, and Water Transport (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 83/2018), the investigation of accidents and serious incidents in air traffic, serious accidents, other accidents, and incidents in rail traffic, very serious maritime accidents, serious maritime accidents, maritime accidents, maritime incidents, serious maritime accidents and incidents in water traffic, the jurisdiction and authority of authorities for conducting investigations and the procedure for investigation are regulated.
In rail traffic, accidents can be a serious nightmare for intervention managers considering the large number of people needing assistance, as well as the deformation of serious steel structures that are difficult to cut or straighten. In 2006, there was a derailment of a passenger train near Bioče in Montenegro resulting in 47 deaths and around 200 injuries. For these reasons, in the event of such accidents, a large number of members from various emergency services will be engaged, and various basic and specialized equipment will be used.
Such accidents can be further complicated by collisions of passenger and freight trains in tunnels, on bridges, or other inaccessible locations that hinder the organization of rescue activities. A particular danger arises when transporting hazardous materials by rail. In such situations, besides rescue operations, it is necessary to identify hazardous materials, safety procedures for response, neutralization, and informing the public about potential hazards. In addition to having complete personal protective equipment, injured individuals should be secured from further harm before the rescue action begins. Before any intervention, it is necessary to ensure that electrical power is disconnected, or the contact network is separated, and grounding is done.
The Regulation on Investigation of Accidents in Rail Traffic (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 58/2019) regulates the procedure and manner of reporting accidents and incidents in rail traffic, the procedure for conducting investigations of accidents and incidents in rail traffic carried out by the Accident Investigation Center (procedure for monitoring safety recommendations). It is envisaged that upon receiving notice of an accident or incident, based on the data received by phone, a decision will be made whether to proceed with the on-site investigation of the accident or incident. The Center and other competent authorities must conclude the on-site investigation of the accident or incident as soon as possible so that the operator can repair the damaged infrastructure and restore rail traffic (Articles 6 and 7).
According to the procedure for investigating accidents in rail traffic, the following is envisaged: 1. collision and avoided collision of trains: inventory of all towing and towed vehicles in the train/yard composition; condition of brakes on the train or during maneuvers (condition of brake indicators, whether the brake shoes are released or tightened, whether they are heated, and how they are positioned on the wheels); braking method of the train; on towing vehicles, determine the condition of all speedometer devices (type, model, serial number, functionality). Based on the records of the recording speedometer device, determine the speed and whether there was sudden braking or jerking during driving; condition of towing vehicles before the accident or incident and how many persons were beside the locomotive driver (assistant locomotive driver) in the locomotive cab, etc.
When it comes to traffic accidents, the service member undertaking rescue action must be familiar with all the positions of safety and protective elements characteristic of new vehicle technologies. In the cutting process with hydraulic shears, the tool should be prepared properly and with the shears maximally open. Special attention should be paid to airbags that may be activated afterward if they have not already been activated. Therefore, it is necessary to install protection from airbags, which involves covering the steering wheel with a protective bag. When cutting with hydraulic tools, always cut at a 90-degree angle to the axis of the object being cut. In addition, other rules must be followed: a) only one person is allowed to operate the hydraulic tool at a time; b) the engaged rescue team must be well trained and familiar with all general protective measures when performing actions with demolition tools; c) after completing activities with hydraulic tools, it is necessary to clean, lubricate, and prepare everything for the next use.
There are different types of rescues for victims in the aftermath of traffic accidents that occur during: collisions, vehicle rollovers, and crashes; at railway crossings; during the transportation of hazardous materials; in case of fires in vehicles; when vehicles fall from steep slopes; when vehicles are hit by avalanches; when vehicles fall into water bodies.
To conduct emergency rescue operations in clearing the consequences of accidents on vehicles, it is necessary to have: fire extinguishing means; tools and equipment (equipment, machinery) for lifting and moving heavy objects, cutting profiled metal, dismantling (cutting) structures; means for searching for victims and vehicles, lighting, communication tools, first aid to victims, and their evacuation; life support equipment for underwater work, collection and disinfection of hazardous materials. In some cases, equipment for rescuing people from heights and inaccessible terrain may be required. Depending on the situation that has occurred in the traffic accident, various rescue teams may be involved in rescuing the victims (Kusainov, 2013).
In the case of traffic accidents, the sites of emergency rescue operations are divided into three zones. In the first zone (within a radius of 5 meters from the accident object), specialists directly involved in providing assistance to victims are located. In the second zone (within a radius of 10 meters), the remaining members of the rescue teams are located, ensuring the readiness of equipment for emergency rescue. In the third zone (with a radius greater than 10 meters), there are means for transporting rescuers to the accident site, lighting, fencing, and other emergency technical equipment (Kusainov, 2013).
The manager of the accident consequences clearance directs all forces and technical means engaged in clearing the consequences, as well as organizing their interaction. Often, this is an appointed individual, and all units sent to the accident site report to him. He is responsible for organizing work, the safety of people, and the safety of rescue equipment. If the manager of one of the rescue forces or a traffic police officer arrives first at the accident site, he takes responsibility for clearing the consequences of the accident until the arrival of the manager. The manager must: conduct an inspection and assess the situation on the scene; immediately organize the rescue of people, avoid panic, and use available resources and means for that purpose; determine the decisive direction of work, necessary forces and means, methods and techniques of action; assign tasks to subunits (services) and ensure the execution of assigned tasks. The primary goal is to extract the injured person from the vehicle (either in the passenger compartment or under the vehicle) and provide them with first aid. If necessary, set up a medical aid station at the incident site; establish communication with the dispatch service and inform them about the exact coordinates of the incident, what happened, which forces and means were used, and what else is needed; maintain constant communication with them and inform them of any changes in the situation at the incident site and relevant decisions made; establish communication with the dispatch service and inform them about the exact coordinates of the incident, what happened, which forces and means were used, and what else is needed (Kusainov, 2013).
At the beginning of the intervention, assistance is provided to victims who are not trapped but stuck in a distorted passenger cabin and can exit the vehicle on their own or with the help of rescuers through non-glazed window openings, hatches, and doors. Then, the bent parts of the vehicle are loosened. Metal sheets and profiles are bent, seats are cut and extracted as needed. Shafts are drilled in the bodywork, roof, and floor, and in certain cases, the entire roof is removed. The vehicle is lifted using gears and lifting devices, or it is dug into the ground to extract the injured from underneath it. During rescue operations, rescuers must always be prepared to extinguish any flames that may arise during work, especially when using power equipment (Kusainov, 2013).
When it comes to accidents in rail traffic, upon entering a carriage (passenger or business), rescuers will enter through the entrance doors, which can be accessed from the outside or from the inside after they are secured. The use of metal cutting tools and other tools for their removal is necessary when doors get jammed. To enter a carriage through window openings, rescuers must use ladders and above-ground stairs, as well as other appropriate equipment. In some cases, it is possible to enter through a window and pull rescuers by their hands, while in some other cases, it is necessary to remove sharp pieces of window glass. When rescuers enter the train cabin, they start searching for the injured and provide first aid. Whenever victims are found underneath the vehicle, rescuers must remove the vehicle and free trapped people from the vehicle. These operations are performed with the help of lifting devices specially designed for harsh working conditions. Victims are extracted from their shelters by digging appropriate tunnels through the ground or cutting entrances into the structure in certain cases. When a fire breaks out in a train, passengers are at greater risk of injury. It only takes a few minutes for the fire to spread to the interior, structural voids, and ventilation (Kusainov, 2013).
The primary responsibilities of rescuers in the event of a passenger train fire are: rapidly locating and evacuating passengers to a safe location as soon as possible; searching for passengers who may have fled the burning train during the ride; and extinguishing the fire. Snow, landslides, rockfalls, avalanches, mud, and water can lead to passenger trains stopping at any moment. In these situations, the primary responsibility of rescuers is to locate victims, free them, and provide assistance. When firefighters-rescuers are dispatched to intervene in a railway fire, their primary responsibilities include assisting victims, extinguishing the fire, protecting nearby trains and infrastructure from fire, and protecting the environment.
During the burning of tanks containing flammable liquids, the flame can reach a height of 40-50 meters, and the ignition surface can cover an area of 150 square meters or more. When burning tanks containing flammable materials, it is necessary to plan for tank cooling with water. The tank cover must be closed under the barrel cover or a blanket must be placed over it in case vapors of the ignited liquid escape above the open tank throat. Spilled liquids can be drained into ditches or thrown into the ground to redirect the liquid to a safe location once collected. When multiple tanks are burning simultaneously, special attention must be paid to cooling the tanks and ensuring the safety of nearby vehicles and tanks. If there is a risk of the fire spreading to nearby trains, the burning tank must be moved to a safe location and destroyed immediately. Work must be carried out exclusively from shelters while gas cylinders are burning, which are compressed or in liquid form for safety reasons. Even if it is difficult to completely avoid the ignition of burning gas, its uncontrolled burning is allowed with a continuously water-cooled tank to reduce the likelihood of an explosion. Whenever there is a fire in a train park transporting toxic, poisonous, or explosive materials, the following procedures should be followed: move the burning train to a safe location; extinguish the fire with powerful water jets; coordinate actions with those monitoring the cargo; close the lid under the barrel protection or cover it with a blanket (tarpaulin). In the case of burning multiple tanks at the same time, efforts must be directed towards their cooling and protecting adjacent vehicles and tanks (Kusainov, 2013).
If an aircraft is involved in an accident near an airport, the airport is responsible for immediately organizing search and rescue operations for the crew and passengers of the aircraft, with the participation of air unit forces and resources (companies and organizations) based at the airport, regardless of their jurisdiction. Search and rescue operations in such situations are conducted by rescue teams, consisting of personnel from various services (fire and rescue, medical, engineering, special transport, police, etc.). In such an accident, evacuating passengers from the plane is usually the first measure of protection and rescue for those trapped inside it. According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), in the event of an aircraft accident, all passengers must use emergency exits located on one side of the fuselage within 90 seconds (Kusainov, 2013).
When planning rescue operations in the event of an aircraft fire, the following factors should be taken into account: the concentration of carbon dioxide in the passenger cabin reaches a lethal level after 2-3 minutes of fire burning; the temperature inside the passenger cabin rises sharply with its height; firefighting operations should be carried out in insulating protective equipment. It is important to evacuate people simultaneously while the fire is being extinguished from the wind. Due to their greater permeability than various drilling holes, it is recommended to first remove the doors from the fuselage. If the aircraft emits a distress signal, as well as if the radio station emits an emergency signal (beacons), search and rescue operations are initiated; if the aircraft does not reach the destination within 10 minutes of the scheduled arrival time and has no radio contact with the ground; if the aircraft does not reach the destination within 10 minutes of the scheduled arrival time and has no radio contact with the ground; if the aircraft does not reach the destination within 10 minutes of the scheduled arrival time (Kusainov, 2013).
Search and rescue operations begin from the moment the aircraft is ordered to take off and when orders are issued to begin search and rescue operations on the ground. Primarily, with their assistance, the location of the aircraft accident (helicopter) is discovered. After landing or disembarking, rescue teams begin to locate and transfer the injured to appropriate locations. Rescuing people is complicated because rescuers are expected to provide necessary conditions for their survival, protect them from inclement weather, and provide basic medical care. The collection of remains of the deceased for further identification began after the rescuers removed the bodies from the disaster area. If an aircraft accident results in the deaths of all on board, rescuers are obligated to search for and locate the bodies of the deceased, as well as the “black boxes,” and secure all valuables. In addition to the external inspection, determining the presence of the aircraft on the ground and evacuating the injured and deceased, no activity at the accident site should be carried out until the chief investigator arrives and initiates an investigation into the cause of the accident. Moving the aircraft before the arrival of the aforementioned commission is allowed only in the event that the damaged aircraft has fallen onto a railway track, highway, river, or airport and disrupts the safe movement of vehicles or the landing of aircraft on affected infrastructure (Kusainov, 2013).
The peculiarities of water accidents include: a wide range of vehicles differing in purpose, performance, and speed; the influence of water elements; a large quantity of simultaneously transported hazardous and harmful materials; finding emergency boats at a considerable distance from emergency-rescue services. Rescue services dealing with the aftermath of water traffic accidents include: search and rescue, search and rescue services, formations, teams, and units specially trained and certified according to regulations. The main causes of water traffic accidents are: loss of stability when a vessel capsizes on board or alongside; loss of vessel buoyancy; collision with another vessel or obstacle (reefs, underwater walls, platforms, ice floes); fires and explosions; spilling onto the water surface from a broken vessel, fuel (Kusainov, 2013).
A search and rescue coordinator must be appointed for each individual search and rescue operation. The designated coordinator must control the operation until it is completed or until it becomes clear that additional efforts would be futile, due to the fact that the operation may last longer. This is done to maintain unity of command. Coordinator responsibilities include: receiving and assessing all accident data; identifying the type of emergency equipment on floating vessels; providing information to entities involved in the operation about the condition of the water area and weather; developing a detailed operation plan, determining the commander of the site personnel, directing search and rescue service forces and resources, and specifying communication frequencies at the search site; informing the rescue coordination center manager of the decision made regarding the action plan; coordinating the operation with neighboring rescue services; organizing victim supply; chronologically listing victims (Kusainov, 2013).
When it comes to accidents in air traffic, the Regulation on the Investigation of Accidents and Serious Incidents in Air Traffic prescribes the procedure and conduct of accident investigation and serious incidents in air traffic, the procedure and manner of reporting accidents or serious incidents, providing information about the persons and hazardous materials involved in the aircraft participating in the accident or serious incident, the content of accident investigation reports and serious incidents in air traffic, the content and manner of database management on accidents and serious incidents, as well as the procedure for monitoring safety recommendations. According to the Regulation, after receiving notice of the start of the investigation (location, date and time of the aircraft accident or serious incident; type and model of the aircraft, state of registration and registration mark of the aircraft; data on the aircraft crew and the number of deceased and seriously injured persons; a brief description of the accident or serious incident; the likely cause of the accident or serious incident and safety recommendations, if necessary), investigative activities are initiated.
If an aircraft accident or serious incident occurs in the territory of a foreign state, and the Republic of Serbia is the state of registration, state of project, state of production, or state of aircraft user, the Center immediately upon receiving notice of the accident or serious incident, confirms receipt of the notice and at its request provides the competent authority of the foreign state on whose territory the accident or serious incident occurred with available information about the aircraft and crew involved in the accident or serious incident, as well as data on the appointed authorized representative of the Center (Regulation, Article 5). The Center takes all necessary measures to read the flight recording devices of the aircraft involved in the accident or serious incident as soon as possible. If suitable equipment for reading aircraft flight recording devices does not exist in the Republic of Serbia, the Center will read the flight recording devices using equipment provided by the foreign state, taking into account the equipment’s reading capability, time required for reading, and location of the reading equipment (Article 6).
9.4. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by hazardous materials
I believe that life on Earth is constantly at risk of destruction from catastrophes such as sudden nuclear war, genetically modified viruses, or some other danger.
Stephen Hawking
9.4.1. Concept and characteristics of disasters caused by hazardous materials significant for the organization of protection and rescue
The development of science and technology has contributed to the rapid emergence and development of numerous hazardous materials that can threaten human health. Often referred to as silent killers, households commonly possess various chemicals that can directly or indirectly cause harm. Therefore, a prerequisite for preventive protection of people is knowledge of the basic characteristics of the reaction and action modes of these hazardous materials. There are various ways hazardous materials can enter the body: a) by inhalation; b) absorption through the skin or eyes; c) ingestion; or d) injection. Depending on the material itself and the method of contamination, the overall tactics of intervention and rescue services will vary.
Hazardous materials refer to substances that, during production, transportation, processing, storage, or use in technological processes, release or create infectious, irritating, flammable, explosive, corrosive, suffocating, toxic, or other hazardous dust, fumes, gases, mists, vapors, or fibers, as well as harmful radiation in quantities that can endanger human life and health, material assets, and the environment at a shorter or longer distance from the facilities in which they are located. (Cvetković, 2012, p. 11). According to the U.S. Department of Transportation, hazardous materials are defined as any substance or material that can cause harm to humans, property, and the environment (Erkut, Tjandra, & Verter, 2007). Additionally, they can be substances that cause or contribute to increased injuries, deaths, or serious illnesses, or pose a significant threat to humans or the environment due to their chemical, physical, or infectious characteristics (ABAG, 1990). Depending on their toxicity, concentration, and quantity, specific hazards and actions of hazardous materials will differ.
According to international classification, hazardous materials are classified into the following classes (Cvetković, 2020):
– Class 1: Explosive materials – objects filled with explosive materials, igniters, fireworks, and other items are solid and liquid materials that, when impacted or rubbed, release energy in the form of heat or gases due to explosive chemical decomposition;
– Class 2: Compressed gases, in liquid form or dissolved under pressure – materials with a critical temperature lower than 50 °C or equal to 50 °C, and vapor pressure higher than 300 kPa;
– Class 3: Flammable liquids – liquids or liquid mixtures that have a vapor pressure lower than 300 kPa at 50 °C and a flashpoint below 100 °C;
– Class 4: Flammable solids – materials that, in dry conditions, can easily ignite upon contact with flame or spark but are not prone to spontaneous combustion;
– Class 5: Oxidizing materials – materials that decompose upon contact with other substances and can cause fires;
– Class 6: Toxic and infectious substances – synthetic, biological, or natural materials and preparations made from these materials that, when ingested or in contact with the body, can threaten human life and health or have harmful effects on the environment, as well as substances that emit unpleasant odors or contain microorganisms and their toxins;
– Class 7: Radioactive materials – materials with a specific activity exceeding 74 becquerels (0.02 microcuries) per gram;
– Class 8: Corrosive materials – materials that, upon contact with other materials and living organisms, cause their damage or destruction;
– Class 9: Miscellaneous hazardous materials – substances that pose a danger during transport but cannot be classified into any of the previously mentioned classes, or materials and items that can be final products, semi-finished products, intermediate products, by-products, raw materials, or waste, but have hazardous characteristics and can endanger human life and health and cause environmental pollution during transport.
We are increasingly witnessing frequent catastrophes caused by oil spills. Oil spills occur during: mineral exploration and assessment works; state geological soil surveys, mineral exploration, or production works; construction, installation, and operation of oil and gas pipelines on land, rivers, lakes, seas, and other inland waters; drilling, well repair, and oil production; production staff errors; disregard of spill prevention safety requirements; disregard of industrial safety conditions; pipeline mechanical damage due to human activities during operation and external disturbances; other oil operations; accidents on oil tankers, including grounding, fire, explosion; industrial accidents, including oil and gas blowouts, gas and oil appearance in water, fires, explosions, floods, coastal structure and platform collapse, negative environmental impact; cargo operations at terminals, tanker overflow, tanker damage during mooring operations; oil leakage from flooded wells; reservoir, pipeline, and technological equipment pressure reduction; auxiliary equipment failure (unloading system, mechanical seals, leak pumping, lubrication, electric motor cooling, instrumentation, and automation); metal corrosion on external, internal walls, and tank bottoms, internal metal corrosion; internal defects in pipeline metal related to the manufacturer’s plant defect or as a result of hidden mechanical damage occurring during construction, operation; pipeline insulation breach (Kusainov, 2013). In such situations, various measures are applied to prevent further spreading and eliminate the negative consequences of such spills, which will be further discussed.
9.4.2. Organization and measures of protection in disasters caused by hazardous materials
Industrial development has become unimaginable without the use of various hazardous materials in the production process. Furthermore, they become an inevitable companion of modern times, and their diversity particularly comes to the fore when analyzing the possibilities of their terrorist use, which could cause serious disasters. Radioactive, explosive, flammable, toxic materials, and biological agents, by their very nature, represent hazardous materials that can be easily used for such purposes (Cvetković, 2014c).
The system of protection and rescue in disasters caused by hazardous materials is conditioned by the knowledge of the characteristics of a larger number of hazardous materials that can cause serious consequences for people and their property in the process of production, storage, distribution, and transportation (Cvetković, 2019). In addition to knowing the characteristics of hazardous materials, it is significant to comprehensively understand their harmful actions, as well as the technical and technological process in which such materials are applied.
Efficiently addressing the consequences of such disasters largely depends on the mutual cooperation and coordination of intervention and rescue services, as well as the support of the broader community. There is no intervention and rescue service that can independently provide an adequate response solely with its own capacities and resources. Moreover, it is necessary to establish an effective organization of work, i.e., a management system that will adequately respond to all on-site needs. In such situations, there will be a need to establish strategic, tactical, and operational levels of work organization.
There are various decision support systems when assessing alternative paths of hazardous material distribution in terms of travel time, risks, and evacuation implications, with the coordination of decisions on emergency engagement with hazardous material routes. Such systems have the following functionalities: determining alternative paths of hazardous material distribution that do not dominate in terms of cost and risk minimization; specifying the locations of intervention and rescue service units to achieve timely response; determining evacuation routes from affected areas to designated shelters and estimating the associated evacuation time. One such system has been implemented, used, and evaluated for assessing decisions on redirecting alternative hazardous materials in Greece (Zografos & Androutsopoulos, 2008).
Regarding the characteristics of disasters caused by hazardous materials, interventions differ in situations where there are: a) spills of hazardous materials; b) fires of hazardous materials; and c) explosions of hazardous materials. In each of the mentioned types, protective measures taken will vary. Moreover, such events can occur within the areas where stationary systems are located, in the transportation of hazardous materials, public places, but also in certain illegal laboratories where such materials are produced, processed, stored, and prepared for distribution.
One of the most critical phases concerns transportation or transport of hazardous materials. Bearing in mind the potential hazards during the transport of these materials, there are detailed regulations governing this area. Namely, the Law on the Transport of Dangerous Goods (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 10/2019) regulates the conditions for conducting domestic and international transport of dangerous goods in road, rail, and inland waterway transport on the territory of the Republic of Serbia, requirements regarding packaging, mobile equipment under pressure, i.e., tanks, or vehicles intended for the transport of dangerous goods, conditions for the appointment of bodies examining and controlling packaging, mobile equipment under pressure, i.e., tanks, or vehicles for the transport of dangerous goods, conditions for authorizing bodies examining and controlling a ship for the transport of dangerous goods, responsibilities of state authorities and organizations in the transport of dangerous goods, conditions and obligations to be fulfilled by participants in the transport of dangerous goods, supervision, and other issues related to the transport of dangerous goods.
The transportation of dangerous goods within the territory of the Republic of Serbia is conducted in accordance with the provisions of numerous ratified international agreements. It is crucial to emphasize that the transport permit is issued upon request of the sender or recipient, or the transport organizer, and must contain: information about the manufacturer, sender, carrier, and recipient; UN number of the dangerous goods, as well as data and certificates prescribed in ADR/RID/ADN; information about the type, quantity, chemical and physical composition of the dangerous goods, as well as the type of packaging, mobile equipment under pressure, or tanks for the transport of dangerous goods; route designation; loading and unloading locations; start time and estimated transport completion time; information about the transport vehicle and the driver for the transport of dangerous goods in road traffic; rest time and place; approval from the competent authority of the neighboring country based on which import or transit is approved; name of the entry and exit border crossing points. Additionally, for the application for a permit for the transport of radioactive materials, a license for conducting the appropriate radiation activity or nuclear activity issued by the competent authority for protection against ionizing radiation and nuclear safety of the Republic of Serbia in accordance with the regulations governing protection against ionizing radiation (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 10/2019) must be attached.
Moreover, basic safety requirements are prescribed, according to which transport participants are obliged, considering the type of foreseeable hazards, to take all prescribed measures to prevent emergencies, or to minimize the consequences of emergencies to the greatest extent possible. Furthermore, it is explicitly prescribed that in case of danger or emergency, the driver in road traffic, carrier in railway traffic, railway infrastructure manager, or ship commander are obliged to immediately notify the competent authority for emergency situations and the police, and provide all necessary data for taking appropriate measures. Subsequently, it is envisaged that the carrier, sender, recipient, and transport organizer, as well as the railway infrastructure manager in the case of railway traffic, are obliged to cooperate mutually, as well as with the competent state authorities, in order to exchange data on the need for taking appropriate safety and preventive measures, as well as the implementation of procedures in case of emergencies. Considering the consequences of such events, the legislator has provided that in the event of spillage, leakage, release, or any other form of release of dangerous goods or immediate danger of spillage, leakage, release, or any other form of release of dangerous goods, after delivering the notification, the carrier is obliged to immediately secure, collect, remove, or dispose of the dangerous goods in accordance with the law regulating waste management or make it safe by other means, or take all measures to prevent further pollution (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 10/2019, Article 10).
The management of hazardous materials is carried out under conditions and in a manner that ensures the reduction of risks from their hazardous properties to the environment and human health in the process of production, storage, use, and disposal. It is also significant to emphasize that the legal and physical entity managing hazardous materials is obliged to plan, organize, and take all necessary preventive, protective, safety, and remedial measures to minimize the risk to the environment and human health to the greatest extent possible. The Minister, in cooperation with the ministers responsible for health, occupational safety, mining and energy, and internal affairs, prescribes closer conditions that must be met by warehouses of hazardous materials, as well as instructions on the conditions and methods of storing hazardous materials (Environmental Protection Law, Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 95/2018, Article 29).
It is also noteworthy that specific recommendations of the United Nations (ADR – road transport; RID – rail transport; ICAO-TI – air transport; AND – inland waterways) exist regarding the type of transport, based on which protective measures during such transport are detailed. Additionally, approval for the transport of Class I dangerous materials is issued by the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Serbia, Sector for Emergency Situations; Class VII by the Ministry of Infrastructure; Class VI by the Chemicals Agency. As one of the significant protective measures, documentation is issued for each shipment of dangerous materials: ADR certificate for the driver and vehicle; dangerous goods transport document; special safety instructions; and insurance policy. Handling of hazardous materials is specially regulated and is only allowed for adults who have the appropriate professional qualifications. Within the safety measures instructions, it is envisaged that it should include: the name and characteristics of the hazardous material; description of hazards; description of protective equipment; precautions in case of accidents, uncontrolled leakage, and fire; name, address, and phone number of the competent institution; procedure for persons coming into contact with hazardous materials.
For handling areas affected by hazardous materials, hazard labels are very significant as they provide information about the typical dangers associated with such hazards. They are of standard dimensions 25 x 25 cm or 30 x 30 cm, with different colors depending on the material itself. In addition to hazard labels, there are vehicle marking plates that are placed on the front and rear sides of the vehicle and must remain legible even after 15 minutes in a fire. The marking plate itself contains the identification of the type of hazard, and below it the identification of the substance, UN number. The significance of the numbers in the upper part of the plate is as follows: 0 – no additional hazards; 1 – risk of explosion; 2 – gas release due to pressure or chemical reaction; 3 – flammable liquids and gases or self-heating liquids; 4 – flammable solids or self-heating solids; 5 – oxidizing materials; 6 – toxicity or infectious hazard; 7 – radioactivity; 8 – corrosiveness; 9 – risk of spontaneous violent reaction. It is also noteworthy that the packaging containing hazardous materials must meet certain conditions and must be appropriately labeled: hazard label; UN number; proper shipping name; information about hazardous materials; hazard symbol; danger symbol; manufacturer’s information.
In accordance with the American system for hazard identification during interventions, a special system of packaging hazardous materials labeling has been defined. According to it, there are four different colors that indicate specific risks: a) blue color – health hazard level (0 – no special hazard; 1 – low risk. Breathing mask recommended; 2 – dangerous, mandatory breathing mask and lighter protective clothing; 3 – very dangerous. Use of full protective equipment; 4 – extremely dangerous. Avoid any contact with hazardous material); b) red – flammability hazard (1 – no risk of ignition under normal conditions; 2 – risk of ignition may occur only upon heating; 2 – risk of ignition occurs upon heating; 3 – risk of ignition under normal temperatures; 4 – extremely flammable at all temperatures); c) yellow – chemical reactivity (0 – no risk under normal conditions; 1 – becomes unstable when heated. Use protective measures; 2 – chemical reactions possible. Enhanced protective measures; 3 – risk of explosion upon heat or severe impact. Establish a safe zone; 4. high risk of explosion. Establish a safe zone. In case of fire, evacuate endangered areas immediately); d) white – unique hazards (W – do not use water for extinguishing; OX – material acts as oxidizer; ACID – material is acidic; ALK – material is basic; COR – material is corrosive; TOX – material is toxic; BIO – material is biologically hazardous; and the symbol for radioactive substance – three inverted triangles).
In order to prepare for such events, appropriate preparatory measures must be taken at the strategic, tactical, and operational levels. These measures undoubtedly include training and equipping intervention and rescue services for more effective work. In addition to training and equipping, it is necessary to have an established system for organizing the work of such services known as the emergency management system. Disaster management caused by hazardous materials is very complex because it is necessary to coordinate the work of intervention and other services in the shortest possible time, taking into account their safety and the efficiency of removing the consequences of the disaster. Managers in such disasters must be well-trained and prepared for very stressful and complex work. Trained units of the police, fire and rescue units, and emergency medical services must arrive at the scene of such disasters as soon as possible. The most important thing is for the managers and staff of the intervention and rescue services to understand that such disasters can occur at any moment and in any place (Cvetković, 2014).
9.4.3. Organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by hazardous materials
In disasters caused by hazardous materials, the tactics for protection and rescue depend on several factors: a) the type of hazardous material; b) the method of use or spillage; c) the area; d) weather conditions; e) the number of people present; f) infrastructure; g) the equipment and availability of protective measures. Essentially, when such a disaster occurs, the intervention leader may choose one of these three models (Combs, 2003): the offensive model (attack model) aimed at directing resources to contain the spread of harmful effects of hazardous materials; the defensive model (defense model) which directs resources (people, equipment, and materials) toward less aggressive objectives. The defensive plan may involve marking certain areas as closed and affected by hazardous materials, while the response to the incident involves efforts to limit further material actions; the non-intervention model means taking no action. The basic premise of non-intervention is that authorities allow the disaster to follow its natural course until the risk of intervention is reduced to an acceptable level (Cvetković, 2014).
Search and identification of affected individuals, provision of first aid, and evacuation to medical facilities; evacuation of unaffected population from the disaster area; sanitation of individuals, decontamination of clothing and footwear, protective equipment, terrain, facilities, equipment, and transportation are part of disaster relief operations involving hazardous materials (Kusainov, 2013). At the outset of organizing protective and rescue activities, it is necessary to conduct a chemical reconnaissance to determine the following: type and concentration, boundaries and dynamics of contamination zones, dimensions and character of objects, degree of contamination, terrain and air quality, and access routes to the least contaminated object. Identification of contamination foci is the initial phase in the chemical reconnaissance process. A comprehensive inspection of each room in the facility is conducted during reconnaissance. It is particularly important to pay attention to basements and other poorly ventilated areas. In addition to facility reconnaissance, terrain and community reconnaissance within the contamination zone are conducted. Chemical reconnaissance is conducted meticulously through villages, along main and minor streets, and in surrounding areas. Individual constructions, such as houses and other buildings, are also examined. Other responsibilities of chemical reconnaissance authorities include delineating boundaries of chemical contamination zones, searching and marking paths and directions for collecting (surveying) forces to prevent accidents and contamination-free evacuation, sampling air, water, and soil for analysis, and performing a series of other tasks (Kopylov & Fedyanin, 2005).
Common methods for recognizing and identifying hazardous materials include: 1. location and extent of action; 2. container shapes in which hazardous materials are stored; 3. labels and colors; 4. signs, labels, and hazard sheets; 5. transportation and other documents; 6. recording and detection instruments; 6. sensory reaction; 7. symptoms of resulting illnesses and diseases, etc. Additionally, efforts must be directed toward establishing good control of the affected area (location) and preventing contamination spread. Personnel exposed or contaminated must be isolated to prevent contamination from spreading outside controlled areas. Therefore, in such disasters, reconnaissance must first be conducted to determine the extent and nature of the problem.
After determining the physical extent of the disaster-affected area and adequate securing according to hazard zones, it is necessary to identify present hazardous materials. This issue is crucial for further on-site scenario development. The basic principles in identification are based on recognition, identification, classification, and verification of hazardous materials. Action is taken as follows: 1. detection of the presence of hazardous material; 2. identification of hazardous materials involved; 3. if it is not possible to accurately identify them, attempt classification and determine the type of hazard (e.g., corrosive material, toxic gas, etc.); 4. always confirm the information initially provided upon arrival at the scene. Never take primary received information as accurate (Cvetković, 2013).
These operations must be performed by personnel trained to handle hazardous materials. These operations can be classified as defensive or offensive. In cases of defense, the goal is to secure information about the territory, physical hazards, entry, and other conditions prevailing in the restricted zone. Reconnaissance is typically provided with protection, information exchange, etc. In the case of offense, the goal is to secure information about the disaster after physically entering the restricted zone. Entry tasks may include air control, sampling, and video and photo documentation for analysis.
During reconnaissance missions, the following are determined: the extent of the accident and a general idea of locating and mitigating its consequences; the nature of the spill and the direction in which the hazardous material is released; the danger of explosions and fires in the area of upcoming activities; the extent of debris removal works (if needed); requirements regarding manpower and equipment for locating and removing sources of contamination; and weather conditions. During reconnaissance, the commander assesses the complexity of the situation, makes decisions, and assigns specific responsibilities to rescuers and allocated equipment (Kopylov & Fedyanin, 2005).
Efforts to mitigate the consequences of chemical accidents encompass a series of measures that must be implemented as quickly as possible to assist the affected population and establish civil protection in the accident zone, prevent further losses, and restore life. The set of measures to prevent the consequences of chemical accidents includes the following activities: predicting possible consequences of chemical accidents; identifying and assessing the consequences of chemical accidents; rescue and other emergency operations; chemical decontamination; conducting special equipment treatment and human sanitation; and providing medical care to the injured (Kusainov, 2013).
Calculations and analytical procedures are used to predict potential consequences of chemical risk situations. They are used to implement emergency measures to preserve humanity of units involved in protection and rescue, as well as for the general public, for organizing results identification, conducting rescue and other emergency operations, and planning future disasters. To determine the consequences of disasters, it is necessary to conduct chemical and engineering reconnaissance. The scope and nature of the reconnaissance mission dictate the composition of the team and equipment used for the mission. The disaster management staff is responsible for gathering intelligence data. They are used to compile disaster implications assessments, as well as to develop strategies for mitigating such consequences. Saving lives and providing assistance to the injured during rescue and other emergency actions, conducted to locate and eliminate unintentional damage, determine circumstances for monitoring cleanup work, and saving lives (Kusainov, 2013).
Floating booms are the most effective technique for combating oil spills in waterways. Among their functions is to prevent oil spread on the water surface, reduce oil concentration to facilitate the cleaning process, and divert (pull) oil from environmentally sensitive locations. According to the requirement, there are three categories: a) protected water areas (rivers and reservoirs); b) coastal areas (for obstructing entries and exits to ports, docks, and shipyards); c) open sea surfaces. It is possible to distinguish the following types of floating booms: self-inflating (for rapid distribution in water areas); heavy-duty (for tanker containment at terminals); rotating (for shoreline protection); non-flammable (for burning hazardous materials on water); absorption (for simultaneous absorption of hazardous materials) (Kusainov, 2013).
Hazardous materials cause disasters when there is a certain deliberate or accidental error in the process of their production, transportation, distribution, storage. In such events, it is very important to anticipate the spread of hazardous materials, including speed, direction, concentration. All such data are important for conducting timely and adequate evacuation of the population.
In order to quickly and efficiently mitigate the consequences of such disasters, numerous tools and databases are available. In practice, the Gaussian dispersion model and the ALOHA software model are used, which allow decision-makers to make appropriate decisions. ALOHA stands for Areal Locations of Hazardous Atmospheres. The software is designed to model hazards using the CAMEO software package, which is used for planning and responding to disasters caused by hazardous materials. Details about actual or potential chemical/hazardous material releases can be entered into the ALOHA software, and it will generate hazard zone assessments for different types of hazards. ALOHA can model toxic gas clouds, flammable gas clouds, spreading boiling liquid explosions, fires, fires in pools, and vapor cloud explosions. Threat zone assessments are displayed on the ALOHA network, and can also be plotted on maps: MARPLOT, Esri ArcMap, Google Earth. The red danger zone represents the worst level of danger; orange and yellow danger zones represent reduced hazard areas (https://www.epa.gov/cameo/aloha-software).
Key features of the program: generates different scenario-specific results, including threat zone images, threats at specific locations; calculates how quickly chemicals are released from reservoirs and predicts how these release rates change over time; models many release scenarios: toxic gas clouds, spreading vapor explosions from boiling liquids, etc.; assesses different types of hazards (depending on the release scenario): toxicity, flammability, radiation heat, and overpressure; models atmospheric chemical dispersion on water (https://response.restoration.noaa.gov.pdf).
Decision-makers in disaster management processes can also use the “CAMEO” software package, an application used for planning and responding to chemical emergencies. This is one of the tools developed by the EPA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to assist planners and first responders in chemical emergencies. They can use CAMEO to access, store, and assess information critical for disaster planning. Additionally, it supports regulatory compliance by helping users meet reporting requirements. Its system integrates a chemical database and data management method, air dispersion model, and mapping capability. All modules work interactively to share and display critical information in a timely manner (https://www.epa.gov).
For rapid and efficient response by intervention and rescue services, the Emergency Response Guidebook (ERG2008) has been developed. As a comprehensive manual, it includes the following parts: an index of hazardous materials in numerical order by ID number (pages bordered in yellow); an index of hazardous materials alphabetically by substance name (pages bordered in blue); a section with instructions on actions to be taken in the event of an accident (containing 62 instructions); two tables (pages bordered in green) – types of recommended safe distances. Each instruction is divided into three segments: the first part describes the potential hazards that a particular material may cause; the second part describes public safety measures or information regarding: emergency site isolation, recommended protective clothing, and respiratory organ protection recommendations; the third part describes actions taken by intervention and rescue services that arrive first on the scene: precautionary measures.
In addition to the mentioned programs, “OPMAT” is used, which is needed by most fire and rescue units. It is used to search databases by simply entering the UN number, providing an overview of basic information about the requested material. Additionally, the “Cefic ERICards” program is used, which provides instructions in a similar manner to ERG2004 but in Croatian. There is also “ARGOS CBRN,” which allows real-time incident monitoring, response planning, serves for unit training and education. It can also be used for situation overview and specific forecast creation and incident consequence calculation. Besides the mentioned software, there are databases like “WISER” (a smartphone application providing a database of hazardous materials, evacuation safety procedures, intended for professional services) and “Plaques ADR” (searching for hazardous materials by UN number).
The “FACTS – Failure and Accident Technical Information Systems” chemical accident database contains information on multiple (industrial) accidents (incidents) involving hazardous materials that have occurred worldwide over the past 90 years. Each catastrophe caused by a specific accident has its main number in the database, as well as information about the country and year it occurred, then data on the logistical subsystem in which it was implemented (production, storage, handling, transport, and use), and consequences: number of fatalities (fatal outcomes) and number of injuries.
Depending on the collected data, the quality of the reports varies in terms of material damage to facilities, public infrastructure, or environmental consequences. The main goal of forming the database is to learn from accidents or incidents and to prevent them in the future. Not only analyzed and documented accidents involving serious damage or danger, such as large spills, huge explosions, and derailments, are included, but also near misses. The quality of information about recorded accidents is also related to their severity and impact. Detailed information is known for the most severe accidents. Three hundred thousand pages of basic information have been preserved, most in electronic form and remain available for further research purposes. The summaries are very accessible, so even the most complex accidents are easily understood (http://www.factsonline.nl/).
9.5. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by war devastation
War, the longest one, only shakes the issues that caused it, and their resolution is left to the times that come after the peace agreements.
Ivo Andrić
9.5.1. The concept and characteristics of disasters caused by war destruction are significant for the organization of protection and rescue efforts
Disasters caused by war imply a unique organization of weapon use or other forms of force by other states or social groups (Bremer, 1984). According to Clausewitz, war can be understood as the continuation of politics by violent means, i.e., a conflict of great interests resolved by bloodshed (Mijalković, 2015, p. 100). Depending on the purpose of the war itself, the severity of its consequences will vary. Due to certain disagreements over sovereignty, territory, natural resources, religion, ethnic tensions, war may erupt. Some wars may aim to liberate specific territories, while others may arise within a single state due to tensions between different factions, such as civil war.
In terms of the intensity of armed conflict, there are minor armed conflicts, which involve at least 25 fatalities in combat per year and 1,000 fatalities during the conflict; intermediate armed conflicts, which involve at least 25 fatalities in combat per year and a total of 1,000 deaths or slightly more than 1,000 in any given year; and wars, which represent an armed conflict involving 1,000 deaths per year (Williams, 2012, p. 223).
Disasters caused by war destruction are characterized by: a) a huge number of human casualties in terms of fatalities, injuries, and affected individuals; b) destructive material consequences in terms of completely or partially destroyed structures; c) completely or partially destroyed or damaged critical infrastructure; d) demographic, socio-economic, political, and cultural changes; e) depleted resources for rapid recovery and development; f) destabilization of the functioning and maintenance of vital services and utilities; g) the necessity of organizing and activating civil protection; h) huge financial resources for the recovery of all segments of the natural, social, and built system; i) difficult psychological recovery of people after the war (Cvetković, 2020).
9.5.2. Organization and measures of protection in disasters caused by war destruction
In wartime operations, besides the destruction of the enemy’s military, there often comes a threat to people or civilian populations. Various preventive and rescue measures are undertaken to reduce the direct and indirect consequences of war related to civilian losses. Civil protection implies multidimensional organized activity of civilians aimed at mitigating the consequences of various hostile actions from air, land, or sea and maintaining or restoring vital systems essential for the people’s lives (Military Lexicon, 1981).
The destructive consequences of such events influence the development of serious planning activities directed towards creating conditions necessary for preventing or reducing losses in case of war. However, such measures depend on numerous characteristics and factors such as area and object characteristics, economic and defense value, characteristics of the enemy’s destructive means, and time availability (Nassa, 2014). One of the most crucial methods of protecting the population in disasters caused by war destruction is their accommodation in shelters close to their workplaces and residences.
Since critical and potentially dangerous objects are likely targets of enemy attacks, precautionary measures are necessary to protect employees and the public near these objects, as well as measures to conceal objects of special significance that might be used as excuses for attacks. If unstructured refugee columns form, processes are established to ensure that their accommodation and food needs are met as quickly as possible. It is particularly important to organize ongoing public education about the situation and response methods, while maintaining a high moral and psychological level among the endangered population (Mladjan, 2015).
The Fourth Geneva Convention on the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War (1949) stipulates that in armed conflicts, civilians shall be treated humanely without any adverse discrimination based on race, skin color, religion, gender, birth, property status, or any other similar criteria. It prohibits offenses against life and physical integrity, such as all forms of murder, mutilation, cruelty, and torture, as well as taking hostages, violation of personal dignity, and punitive measures without prior trial by a regular established court with all judicial guarantees recognized as necessary by civilized peoples (Article 3).
In the latter part of the mentioned Convention, general protection of the population against certain consequences of war, such as the prohibition of any discrimination, is provided. It is also envisaged that on their own territory, sanitary zones and places and zones of safety can be established, if necessary, organized to place outside the scope of war the wounded and sick, disabled, elderly, children under fifteen years of age, pregnant women, and mothers with children under seven years of age (Article 14). Furthermore, it is prescribed that each party to the conflict may propose the creation of neutral zones for the wounded and sick, combatants or non-combatants, as well as for civilians not participating in hostilities and engaging in no military activities during their stay in these zones (Article 15). Additionally, it is defined that the parties to the conflict may sign a local agreement on the evacuation from besieged or encircled areas of the wounded, sick, disabled, elderly, children, and women in childbirth, as well as for the passage of priests of all denominations, medical personnel, and material intended for those zones (Article 17).
From the moment of the announcement or commencement of war, it is necessary to assess the correctness and functionality of all facilities essential for protection and rescue. All shelters must be activated, and sufficient stocks of food must be provided for the entire population. Alongside these activities, reserves of personal protective equipment are collected and prepared for their distribution to the general public, as well as the creation of reserves of material-technical means, food, sanitation materials, and other items of interest to civilian protection in order to meet the basic needs of the general public in the event of war. Additionally, informational and alarm systems are built for the broader public for use during conflict situations (Mladjan, 2015).
In armed conflicts, protection and rescue measures are applied, which involve carrying out some or all humanitarian activities aimed at protecting civilian populations from the dangers of hostilities or disasters and assisting them in overcoming their immediate effects, as well as providing conditions necessary for their survival (Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 on the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, Protocol I, Article 61). During armed actions, the following protection and rescue measures are applied: alert service; evacuation; provision and organization of shelters; implementation of blackout measures; rescue operations; sanitation service, including first aid and religious assistance; firefighting; detection and marking of hazardous areas; decontamination and other similar protective measures; provision of emergency accommodation and supplies; emergency assistance in establishing and maintaining order in affected areas; emergency establishment of necessary public services; emergency burial; assistance in preserving goods essential for survival; supplementary activities necessary for carrying out any of the aforementioned tasks, including but not limited to planning and organization (Protocol, Article 61).
Considering that after the war, one party may be occupied, certain facilitations necessary for the performance of certain humanitarian activities are provided. Within the framework of the aforementioned international norms, it is prescribed that under no circumstances shall the personnel of the occupying party be compelled to perform activities that would interfere with the proper execution of these tasks. The occupying force may disarm civil defense personnel for security reasons but may not deter them from proper use or requisition buildings or materials belonging to or used by civil defense organizations if such deterrence or requisition would be harmful to the civilian population (Article 63, Protocol I). In armed conflicts, the organization of civil defense is specially defined, and it is envisaged that personnel, buildings, and materials may be identified while solely engaged in civil defense tasks. The blue equilateral triangle on an orange background represents the international symbol of civil defense. It is used for the identification and protection of various civil defense organizations, their personnel, buildings, and materials, as well as civilian shelters.
The most significant measure for protecting the population in wartime circumstances is the evacuation of people. It is often carried out as an ad hoc measure and has its specificities: it is difficult to pre-assess areas that will be affected by combat actions; evacuation is often conducted during actual combat operations; communication usage is significantly hindered due to war activities and priorities of armed forces and other defense forces; evacuation is carried out in cooperation with competent military authorities whose units are conducting combat operations in that area; experiences have shown that planning evacuation is challenging due to the regular occurrence of fear and panic among the population and the occurrence of self-evacuation (Jakovljević, 2011, p. 91).
9.5.3. The organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by war destruction
In disasters caused by wartime destruction, there will be a need for all the mentioned protective and rescue measures depending on the secondary hazards caused. In the case of explosions caused by various enemy projectiles, all tactical principles commonly applied in situations involving fires will be implemented. If dams, bridges collapse, measures for protection and rescue envisaged for flood-induced disasters will be applied. The most important element of a state’s preparedness to protect its population and territory from hazards arising from wartime actions, or the consequences thereof, is the degree of readiness of the entities and the strength of protection and rescue forces to execute assigned tasks in such conditions (Marković, 1984, p. 147).
Depending on the nature of forthcoming wartime actions and consequences, the following protective and rescue measures are undertaken: relocation of population and material goods; evacuation and care for endangered and affected population; blackout and camouflage; terrain and facility sanitation; maintenance of order and safety; observation, notification, and alarm; first medical and veterinary aid; protection from collapses, floods, fires, and explosions, as well as radiological-chemical and biological protection, and many other measures and procedures for immediate personal and collective protection of workers based on self-help and mutual aid.
Certainly, in such situations, a whole range of different operational-tactical and technical measures aimed at preserving the facilities essential for the stable functioning of the economy and population life in wartime are undertaken. The basic prerequisites for maintaining facilities necessary for the stable functioning of the economy and population life in wartime are: conducting construction activities in the city and planning, deployment, and construction of economic infrastructure facilities while preserving the requirements of construction norms and rules of state standards, as well as accepted normative acts; timely implementation of a complex of organizational engineering-technical, sanitary-hygienic, anti-epidemic, and other special protection and rescue measures; implementation of measures to increase the stability of energy and gas supply, water supply, material-technical and transport security of facilities; creation of emergency-rescue formations and their training for eliminating consequences and restoring the functioning of facilities; implementation of measures for engineering protection of all other types of buildings and facilities; organization of staff protection, facility protection, and ensuring the functioning of life in these facilities (Kopilov & Fedyanin, 2005, p. 32).
An important element of organizing human rescue in disasters caused by wartime destruction is marking the damage to objects. In practice, the following markings are applied: a) the building has access and is safe for rescue operations; b) damage is minor. The likelihood of further destruction is low; c) the structure has significant damage, some areas are safe, others require reinforcement or demolition; d) the building is hazardous for rescue activities. It is significant to note that alongside the squares, the arrow indicates the direction to the safe entrance to the building. Search for victims in the rubble is done through the following main methods: visual, according to eyewitness testimony, with the help of search dogs, with the help of special devices. After surveying and securing safe working conditions, rescuers begin to dismantle the rubble to provide assistance to the injured (Kusainov, 2013).
General measures for transitioning the organization of protection and rescue measures from peacetime to wartime are: transitioning control organs to operate under wartime conditions (supplementing operational personnel, transitioning to wartime regime, information and communication systems; bringing existing protective facilities into a state of readiness for use, their deconservation, and checking technical devices. Creating new protective facilities and shelters by putting into use spaces adapted for these purposes, constructing shelters and facilities that can be quickly built; bringing reserves of personal protective equipment, equipment for radiological, chemical, and biological reconnaissance and protection to the level prescribed by norms, their checking and preparation for issue. If necessary, issuing protective equipment to certain categories of population and facility personnel; bringing reserves of all forms of material-technical means to the level prescribed by norms, preparation for issue; implementing measures to create civil defense formations from categories of local population and facility personnel; conducting exercises and training; bringing civil defense units to an appropriate level of readiness (demobilization of personnel, completing missing equipment, introducing equipment into use according to specification, supplying and refilling material-technical means, if necessary, deploying forces in concentration areas, and others) (Kopilov & Fedyanin, 2005, p. 35).
Discussion Questions
v Explain the conceptual definition and characteristics of nuclear and radiological hazards significant for the organization of protection and rescue efforts?
v Explain the conceptual definition and characteristics of industrial accidents significant for the organization of protection and rescue efforts?
v Explain the conceptual definition and characteristics of transportation and infrastructure hazards significant for the organization of protection and rescue efforts?
v Explain the conceptual definition and characteristics of hazardous materials significant for the organization of protection and rescue efforts?
v Explain the conceptual definition and characteristics of war-related devastations significant for the organization of protection and rescue efforts?
v How are measures organized and implemented for protection from catastrophes caused by nuclear and radiological hazards?
v How are measures organized and implemented for protection from catastrophes caused by industrial accidents?
v How are measures organized and implemented for protection from catastrophes caused by transportation and infrastructure hazards?
v How are measures organized and implemented for protection from catastrophes caused by hazardous materials?
v How are measures organized and implemented for protection from catastrophes caused by war-related devastations?
v Explain the rescue activities in catastrophes caused by nuclear and radiological hazards?
v Explain the rescue activities in catastrophes caused by industrial accidents?
v Explain the rescue activities in catastrophes caused by transportation and infrastructure hazards?
v Explain the rescue activities in catastrophes caused by hazardous materials?
v Explain the rescue activities in catastrophes caused by war-related devastations?
Further Reading Recommendations
¨ Adamantiades, A., & Kessides, I. (2009). Nuclear power for sustainable development: current status and future prospects. Energy Policy, 37(12), 5149-5166.
¨ Bell, W. C., & Dallas, C. E. (2007). Vulnerability of populations and the urban health care systems to nuclear weapon attack–examples from four American cities. International Journal of Health Geographics, 6(1), 5.
¨ Bremer, S. A. (1984). Resort to Arms: International and Civil Wars, 1816-1980. In: JSTOR.
¨ Cvetković, V. (2014). Upravlјanje u terorističkim vanrednim situacijama izazvanim upotrebom opasnih materija. Naučna konferencija: sigurnost urbanih sredina (63-72). Sarajevo: Fakultet za kriminalistiku, kriminologiju i sigurnosne studije.
¨ Malešič, M., Prezelj, I., Juvan, J., Polič, M., & Uhan, S. (2015). Evacuation in the event of a nuclear disaster: planned activity or improvisation? International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 12, 102-111.
¨ Mortelmans, L. J. M., Van Boxstael, S., De Cauwer, H. G., Sabbe, M. B., Emergency, A. B., & Study, D. M. (2014). Preparedness of Belgian civil hospitals for chemical, biological, radiation, and nuclear incidents: are we there yet? 21(4), 296-300.
¨ Peterson, M. J. (2009). Bhopal plant disaster appendix A: chronology. Accessed on Sept, 3, 2014.
¨ Smith, K., & Petley, D. N. (2009). Environmental hazards. Assessing risk and reducing disaster. In. Londona: Routledge.
¨ Zähringer, M., & Gering, F. (2019). Nuclear Emergency Preparedness in Germany: Lessons Learned from Fukushima and Chernobyl and Their Implementation. In Nuclear Emergencies (pp. 229-236): Springer.
¨ Galuškin, B., Azarov, S., Bagaev, N., Gračev, M., Kločkov, V., Korostin, A. S., Haričev, N. (1995). Spasatelьnыe rabotы po likvidacii posledstviй radioaktivnыh zagrяzneniй: Federalьnoe gosudarstvennoe bюdžetnoe učreždenie” Vserossiйskiй naučno.
X TACTICS FOR PROTECTION AND RESCUE IN DISASTERS CAUSED BY TERRORIST ATTACKS
Chapter summary
In the tenth chapter of the textbook, tactical principles and recommendations regarding the protection and rescue of people in disasters caused by terrorist attacks are examined. Within this chapter, tactical principles for the protection and rescue of people in disasters caused by chemical, biological, nuclear, or radiological terrorist attacks, as well as attacks using high-explosive devices, are explored. Additionally, special attention is given to the conceptual definition and characteristics of such hazards, which are significant for protection and rescue efforts. The organization and specific protective measures in such disasters are reviewed, formulated, and studied. Comprehensive and detailed descriptions and explanations of the organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by chemical, biological, nuclear, or radiological terrorist attacks, as well as attacks using high-explosive devices, are provided. Similar to the previous chapter, characteristics of the hazards themselves, organization, and protective measures, as well as the organization of rescue activities, are examined for each of the mentioned threats.
Keywords: protection and rescue tactics; conceptually defined; characteristics; chemical and biological terrorist attacks; nuclear terrorist attacks; high-explosive terrorist attacks; organization; protective measures; rescue activities.
Learning objectives
v Understanding the conceptual definition and characteristics of chemical, biological, nuclear, and radiological terrorist attacks relevant to protection and rescue;
v Familiarization with the organization and measures for protection andrescue in disasters caused by chemical and biological terrorist attacks;
v Familiarization with the organization and measures for protection and rescue in disasters caused by nuclear and radiological terrorist attacks;
v Familiarization with the organization and measures for protection and rescue in disasters caused by terrorist attacks using high-explosive destruction;
v Familiarization with the organization and measures for protection and rescue in disasters caused by hazardous materials;
v Familiarization with the organization and measures for protection and rescue in disasters caused by war destruction;
v Acquiring knowledge about the organization of rescue activities in disasters caused by terrorist attacks.
10.1. Organization and measures for protection and rescue in disasters caused by terrorist attacks
Even if you have drawn the bow countless times, continue to pay attention to how you set the arrow and how you tighten the bowstring.
Lao Tzu
The Republic of Serbia has a long history of terrorist threats. Starting from the end of World War II onwards, there are two main lines of terrorist threats: ideologically motivated terrorism in the former Yugoslavia and separatist terrorism linked to the aspirations of Albanians for the secession of Kosovo and Metohija, which escalated during the 1990s (Erjavec & Volčić, 2006). Today, alongside the continuous threat from Albanian terrorism, the Republic of Serbia is also confronted with international terrorism fueled by religious extremism. The only official document containing an assessment of terrorism threats to the Republic of Serbia is the “National Strategy for the Prevention and Combating of Terrorism for the Period 2017-2021.” The threat of terrorism is considered real and possible within the territory of Serbia.
The delicate security situation in Kosovo and Metohija and the developments in the Middle East and Africa, as well as their impact on the Western Balkans region, pose security threats. Additionally, Serbia, like its neighbors, faces increased radicalization and extremism, which could lead to terrorism if not addressed properly. The networking of advocates of radical Islamist movements and their intentions to spread radical ideas, coupled with the possibility of terrorists infiltrating amid mass migration and the return of terrorist fighters from conflict areas, make the Republic of Serbia even more vulnerable to threats. The exact number of Islamic State sympathizers and members from Serbia is very difficult to determine, as are their intentions and interest in carrying out attacks in Serbia (Cvetković, Noji, Filipović, Popović, Kešetović & Radojević, 2018, p. 280).
The National Security Strategy of the Republic of Serbia mentions that Serbia, in terms of global terrorism, “may be a target of terrorist activities, both directly and by using its territory for preparing and conducting terrorist actions in other states” (Government of the Republic of Serbia, 2017a). It also emphasizes that Serbia faces transnational and cross-border crime, making the link between terrorism and all forms of organized crime particularly important. According to Cvetković et al. (2018, p. 295) in their research, they provide recommendations encouraging the Sector for Emergency Situations to exploit differences in public perception of identified risks, to develop enhanced preparedness measures against terrorism by promoting behavioral change that accompanies the adoption of improved risk management procedures. They suggest that the broader public should be trained for initial victim care. Moreover, it is necessary to anticipate all possible scenarios of security threats to people and their property, as terrorism has become a very clear and present danger in Serbia and the wider region. All local self-governments in Serbia should have disaster plans tailored to specific scenarios and locations, rather than preconceived generalized and impractical plans. Incidents at airports, earthquakes, industrial disasters, and similar events differ greatly from terrorist attacks and require specific approaches to protect and rescue people and their property. Communications must be standardized, and triage should be better conceived and implemented. Engineers and decision-makers need to address more seriously the problems of possible building collapses caused by explosive devices.
Disasters caused by terrorist attacks, by their destructive nature, entail a large number of injured people and destroyed objects (Tahrir, 2002). The chaos that arises at the site of such a disaster will greatly hinder medical assistance to the injured (Kramer, 2009). Moreover, the scenario of the terrorist event that occurred on September 11, 2001, showed that even small groups of individuals have the ability to cause mass human casualties and material damage (Heyer, 2006, p. 3). It was precisely then that concerns increased that terrorists could be capable of obtaining and using weapons of mass destruction to inflict greater material and human casualties in pursuit of their political goals. It is indisputable that the prior acquisition of weapons of mass destruction is a prerequisite for the realization of any terrorist attack using weapons of mass destruction.
The implementation of a terrorist attack using weapons of mass destruction is tied to and conditioned by the following steps (Cvetković & Popović, 2011; Kramer, 2009): a) In the first step, terrorist groups must acquire lethal materials that enable them to produce weapons of mass destruction. As border security has increased, it is more challenging to smuggle ready-made weapons than the raw materials needed for their manufacture; b) In the second step, it is necessary to operationalize the lethal materials, i.e., to turn them into weapons. Such devices can be made in the simplest possible ways, such as, for example, a plastic bag filled with sarin punctured by an umbrella by a member of the Aum Shinrikyo group in the Tokyo subway, or more dramatically, such as a planned explosion of a train transporting chlorine while passing through a populated city in the Midwest; c) In the third step, it is necessary to be aware that individual actions show that each of these basic steps varies depending on the lethal material used, so all four categories of weapons must be individually studied.
Terrorists are motivated to use this type of weapon for a simple reason because by using this type of weapon, they effectively cause disorder and panic, and the majority of the population is insufficiently informed about this type of weapon, which creates additional psychological pressures on the state leadership. The choice of weapons of mass destruction (nuclear, chemical, biological, radiological, explosives) by terrorist organizations is conditioned by a large number of factors such as insufficient financial resources, inadequate levels of knowledge and expertise, underdeveloped technologies, lack of time for production, uncontrolled consequences of weapon use, the goal of the terrorist organization, the training of personnel, and others (Cvetković & Popović, 2011).
The extremism of terrorist groups and the subversive actions of individual states influence an increased level of risk that ideas of serious terrorist groups about using weapons of mass destruction can be put into action. In the past, terrorist groups have perpetrated violence against a smaller number of innocent civilians to achieve an intimidating effect on a larger and wider audience of observers, all for the purpose of achieving their political goals. The increased number of terrorist groups that have been active in recent years indicates a great interest in acquiring weapons of mass destruction (Cannisttraro, 2007).
The proliferation networks of weapons of mass destruction at the global level have been quite successful to date, especially considering that money and profit, which are at the heart of hidden motives, are extremely high, encouraging various criminal groups to take risks. The link between weapons of mass destruction and terrorism is feasible and real because historically, terrorists have already used weapons of mass destruction in the modalities of the scientific development of that time, and there is still a daily interest in acquiring weapons of mass destruction or materials related to their production (Cvetković & Popović, 2011).
The connection between terrorism and weapons of mass destruction is best illustrated by the analysis of a statement by a US national security advisor, Stephen Hadley: “They are seeking even more destructive power in attempts to obtain weapons of mass destruction” (Stephen, 2009, p. 28). As one of Al-Qaeda’s members warned: “We will attack you with all the weapons at our disposal, including conventional, chemical, nuclear, and biological weapons. You will experience even darker days than the events of September 11” (Hawley et al., 2002, p. 124). Moreover, weapons of mass destruction include chemical, biological, nuclear, radiological weapons, and high-explosives (Cvetković & Popović, 2011). There is no doubt that threats of terrorist attacks using weapons of mass destruction are real, as evidenced by numerous facts (Cvetković, 2012).
In addition to the aforementioned, a crucial example of the connection between weapons of mass destruction and Al-Qaeda is certainly their advertisement “WANTED” from September 2006, which reads: “We urgently need you – experts in the field of chemistry, physics, electronics, media, and all other sciences – especially nuclear energy scientists and explosive experts – to join the global war. The jihad area can satisfy your scientific ambitions, and the large American bases (in Iraq) are good places to test your unconventional weapons, whether biological or dirty, as they are commonly called” (Cvetković, 2012, p. 45).
The organization of work in the area affected by the manifested harmful effects of a terrorist attack-induced catastrophe is very complex due to the involvement of a large number of rescuers with different tasks, as well as the hazardous working environment. Efficiently addressing the consequences largely depends on the mutual cooperation and coordination of these services and the support of the broader community. There is no rescue service that can independently, with solely its own capacities and resources, provide an adequate response. Therefore, it is necessary to establish effective work organization that will adequately meet all the needs at the scene (Cvetković, 2013a).
The organization of work in areas affected by catastrophes resulting from terrorist attacks includes (Callan, 2002): a) establishing a command team; b) prioritizing assessments; c) developing and implementing an action-operational plan; d) maintaining an optimal range of control; e) coordinating the activities of all participants; f) disseminating necessary information to the media; g) monitoring costs; h) coordinating activities conducted by “external” services; i) managing available resources; j) developing appropriate organizational structures; k) determining operational objectives; and l) ensuring security. Establishing and implementing key steps in organizing work can greatly facilitate the job of rescue services.
The basic algorithm for mitigating the consequences of terrorist attack-induced catastrophes could include the following critical points (Combs, 2003; Cvetković, 2013): a) organizing work must be established by the intervention rescue service that first arrives at the disaster site and must be maintained to adequately coordinate all currently and subsequently available resources with necessary instructions to participants upon arrival; b) it is necessary to establish a unified organization of key services and, depending on the nature of the disaster, emphasize which one represents the main-leading service; c) establish a unified command post known to all subjects covered by disaster work organization, which is also suitable for use over a longer period if necessary; d) any safety lapse can lead to human casualties; e) defining basic strategic goals and priorities and ensuring they are known to all subjects and engaged services working on their implementation; f) focusing on patient triage, finding and identifying all victims, and establishing a prioritization system for patient treatment and transport; g) conducting control over victims, objects, and responsible services in a unified manner and using unified methods; h) no single service can effectively manage protection and rescue measures or care for all injured individuals; i) expanding the network of participants in disaster relief efforts continuously; j) avoiding bureaucratization and centralization when structuring and establishing disaster work organization.
To improve the preparedness level of competent authorities for timely and effective response, it is necessary to consider the following factors: the type of weapons of mass destruction that could be used in terrorist attacks; various mechanisms through which terrorists could employ different types of nuclear, chemical, or biological agents; types of conventional explosives terrorists could use; pathways through which someone may be exposed to these agents; types of health hazards that may arise from exposure to these agents; exposure minimization steps provided by security experts; potential treatment options for those exposed to agents; best methods for increasing survival chances in a nuclear explosion; emergency preparedness measures for various environments; prioritizing injury determination methods; staff decontamination procedures to be conducted before medical treatment; guidelines for reducing radiation exposure (Byrnes, King, & Tierno Jr, 2003).
The flow of each action taken in these catastrophes must be planned, considering the following (Mlađan & Cvetković, 2012; Cvetković, 2013): a) there is no plan that will cover all possible types and forms of hazardous materials; b) all important participants in plan implementation must be involved in the process of its creation; c) no single service can independently manage protection and rescue measures or care for all injured individuals; d) efforts should be made to constantly expand the network of participants in disaster relief; e) bureaucratization and centralization must be avoided when structuring and establishing disaster work organization.
The management system in these disasters is based on the following foundations, which enhance its efficiency and effectiveness (Mlađan, Cvetković, & Veličković, 2012; Cvetković, 2013): a) using a unified terminology by different involved services; b) establishing basic functions, planning, logistics, operations, and administration, and defining their interrelationship; c) a unified chain of command and adequate control range by the leader; d) flexibility and adaptability of the management system to the specific catastrophe; e) logistics and planning are key elements of the system. Research has identified four basic dimensions necessary for successful management of protection and rescue measures in catastrophes resulting from terrorist attacks (Jian et al., 2004): a) an efficient accountability system; b) a serious situation assessment; c) appropriate resource allocation; and d) an effective communication system.
The main components of organizing the management system in these disasters, or its main functions, are (Cvetković, 2013): management; planning; operations; logistics; finance; administration. Since it is a large-scale disaster, it is necessary to establish all components. Planning, logistics, operations, and administration/finance represent the foundation upon which the disaster management and command system rests and are the responsibility of the leadership team. In this regard, there will be a need to establish a strategic, tactical, and operational level of work organization. Setting aside the strategic level, in these situations, the tactical and operational levels of work organization will be applied, known as the Eight-Step Process. These steps are:
- Managing and controlling the area;
- Problem identification;
- Hazard and risk evaluation;
- Selection of personal protective clothing and equipment;
- Information flow control and resource coordination;
- Implementation of priority actions;
- Decontamination and site cleaning;
- Disaster termination.
Therefore, at the beginning of any disaster without warning, the operational level will be activated first. Escalation or the threat of worsening the situation may require transition to a higher level – tactical or strategic. The operational management level is the level within which work is done in the disaster area or surrounding areas and represents daily agreements regarding responses to immediate lower-level hazards. Intervention and rescue services involved in mitigating the consequences will take appropriate measures and assess the extent of the problem. They retain full control over the means and resources they use within their domain of responsibility. The operational level manager (bronze level) will direct resources to specific tasks within their domain of responsibility and act in accordance with prescribed duties until another command level is established. This management level will be adequate for effective coordination and resolution of a larger number of immediate lower-level hazards. The key role of the manager at this level will be to decide whether circumstances dictate the application of the tactical management level (Cvetković, 2013).
10.2. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by chemical terrorist attacks
We cannot solve our problems with the same thinking we used when we created them.
Albert Einstein
10.2.1. Conceptual definition of chemical weapons
Chemical weapons rank among the deadliest weapons of mass destruction, as evidenced by their consequences, unpredictable nature, and wide spectrum of effects. Traditionally considered a shameful method of warfare, it is therefore prohibited. Despite restrictions, terrorist organizations continuously strive to understand modalities of procurement and usage. When terrorist organizations decide on the weapon to execute a terrorist attack, chemical weapons have a significant advantage over conventional weapons due to their inherent properties and covert action time (Cvetković, Popović, & Sadiyeh, 2014).
The use of chemical weapons for terrorist purposes can seriously undermine and threaten a country’s national security. It is crucial to understand the basic properties of this weapon to take precautionary measures to preserve human life, health, and the environment (Cvetković, Popović, & Sadiyeh, 2014). The previous non-use of chemical weapons in terrorist acts is explained by numerous reasons: reluctance to experiment with unknown weapons, fear of harm to those producing and using the weapons, uncertainty about whether the effects will be too weak or too strong, fear of stronger government repression, and a lack of materials and capacity for producing this type of weapon.
Chemical weapons encompass toxic chemicals or chemical munitions intended to cause death or harm in some other way. The term “chemical weapon” includes: a) toxic chemicals and their precursors, except when intended for purposes not prohibited by the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction, as long as the types and quantities are consistent with such purposes; b) munitions and devices, specially designed to cause death or other harmful effects through the toxic properties of these toxic chemicals, which would be released as a result of the use of such munitions and devices; c) any equipment for use or directly related to the use of munitions and devices. The term “toxic chemicals” refers to any chemical that, through its chemical action on life processes, can cause death, temporary incapacitation, or permanent harm to humans or animals. The term “precursors” refers to any chemical reagent involved in any phase of the production of toxic chemicals by any method, as well as any key component of a binary or combined chemical system (Larsen, 2010, p. 67; Cvetković et al., 2014).
Therefore, chemical weapons comprise toxic chemicals, chemical explosive munitions, chemical equipment, launchers, and techniques. Chemical weapon agents can be both chemicals in military use and toxic industrial chemicals used in an improvised or systematic manner, as well as those produced and used for the purpose of deliberate victim poisoning. Chemical substances that aim to kill, injure, or incapacitate a targeted population through their physiological action fall under chemical weapons. In extensive literature, chemical weapons are also defined as a special type of combat agent designed for mass destruction and temporary incapacitation of living forces, plant and animal life, as well as the natural and working environment. The term “chemical warfare agents” also includes a narrow group of highly toxic compounds and substances which, together with other compounds, fall under the term “toxic chemicals” (Cvetković et al., 2014).
According to the Chemical Weapons Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction, which entered into force on April 29, 1997, the United Nations classified chemical weapons as weapons of mass destruction, and accordingly, any toxic chemical, regardless of origin, is considered a chemical weapon unless used in situations that are not illegal. On the Western European front, over four years, the consequences of chemical warfare agents led to the deaths of 1.5 million people (losses estimated at as much as 26.8% of total losses). Between the two world wars, chemical warfare agents were used by Italians in Ethiopia and by the Japanese in China (Cvetković et al., 2014).
Therefore, chemical weapons are a type of military weapon used with the intention of killing or incapacitating the enemy using chemical agents. It includes chemical toxins, smoke materials, and incendiary agents. These are hazardous chemicals capable of producing chemical reactions upon contact with human tissue, causing illnesses or destruction of living forces. These chemical materials are called poisons and can be of natural (plant or animal origin) or artificial origin (Radić, 2011, p. 64). Apart from killing or incapacitating through poisoning of humans, livestock, and plants, they are also used for contamination, smoke screening, or illumination. Chemical toxins are chemical materials capable of, through application (in combat operations or terrorist acts), causing injuries to living forces, contaminating living forces, material means, and the environment in which they are applied (Radić, 2011, p. 65; Cvetković et al., 2014; Cvetković, 2020).
According to the mentioned Chemical Weapons Convention, chemical agents that are sufficiently toxic to be used as chemical weapons or have the ability to produce such agents are divided into three groups (Hilderbrand & Glorise, 2000, p. 71):
- a) Group 1 – chemical substances that can only be produced for medical and pharmaceutical research purposes, or for protection purposes (e.g., testing sensors that can detect the presence of chemical agents). A substance falling into this group is the nerve gas ricin. According to this convention, for every production of a chemical substance that exceeds 100 grams, the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons must be notified, and the state producing a particular chemical substance cannot possess a quantity exceeding one ton;
- b) Group 2 – chemical substances that can be used either as chemical weapons or as components from which chemical weapons are made, but which have limited potential for use outside chemical weapons and as such can be produced in smaller quantities and used for some limited industrial purposes;
- c) Group 3 – chemical substances used extensively for industrial purposes. Examples include “phosgene and chloropicrin,” which have been used as chemical weapons in the past.
10.2.2. Types and characteristics of chemical weapons
10.2.2.1. Nerve-paralyzing chemical warfare agents
Until the development of nerve agents occurred shortly before and during World War II. They are described as agents that disrupt the nerve functioning mechanism and their communication with the stimulated organs. They act by sending incorrect nerve impulses to the body, thereby disrupting muscle function. Death occurs rapidly upon significant exposure. They are typically colorless, odorless, and heavier than water. Associated symptoms may include chest pain, vomiting, convulsions, and blurred vision. It is essential to differentiate them into “V” agents (VE, VG, VM, VKS), which are more lethal and stable than “G” agents (GA – tabun, GB – sarin, GD – soman, GE, GF). Nerve-paralyzing chemical warfare agents are classified into three groups: the “G” agents (tabun, sarin, soman, cyclosarin); the “V” agents or phosphoroamidates (VX-agent); and the “F” agents or fluoro-phosphoroamidates (Blum, 2002; Cvetković, 2014).
Tabun was discovered in 1936 as the first agent from the “G” group. It is a clear, colorless liquid with a weak fruity odor. Chemically, it is unstable but to a lesser extent compared to sarin and soman, making it suitable for contaminating water. Symptoms of tabun exposure include nervousness, runny nose, difficulty breathing, sweating, slowed heart rate, loss of consciousness, convulsions, paralysis, bladder and bowel failure, cessation of breathing, and lung blisters. The number and severity of symptoms vary depending on the amount of absorbed agent. Even small doses absorbed through the skin can sometimes cause sweating and trembling with narrowing of the bronchi. In comparison to sarin, if inhaled, it is less toxic but may irritate the eyes more than sarin. The use of tabun was characteristic during World War II, where Germans produced approximately 12,500 tons of tabun before the Soviets captured the facilities. During the war between Iraq and Iran, this nerve agent was found among the Iraqis (Cvetković, 2014).
Sarin is a colorless liquid without odor. It is classified as a weapon of mass destruction by the United Nations Convention. The production and storage of sarin itself are banned by the UN Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993. It was discovered in Germany in 1938 with the intention of developing stronger pesticides. It is the most toxic of the four G agents. By mid-1939, it entered the arsenal of the German army, which began its mass production for wartime needs. However, Germany eventually decided to refrain from using sarin against Allied forces. During 1950, sarin was adopted by NATO as standard chemical warfare, and since then both the Soviet Union and America have produced sarin for military purposes (Cvetković, 2014).
Inhalation and skin absorption of sarin pose a significant threat. Even if contaminated individuals survive, without proper medical assistance, they may suffer permanent neurological damage. It is estimated that sarin alone is about 500 times more toxic than cyanide. In 1994, two members of the Aum Shinrikyo sect, under the leadership of the head of the chemical department, attempted to release the nerve poison sarin from a truck near the courthouse in the Japanese city of Matsumoto. At that time, seven people suffered while 150 others were injured. Symptoms of sarin poisoning include runny nose, chest tightness, and bronchoconstriction. Shortly thereafter, victims experience difficulty breathing and nausea. This is followed by loss of bodily functions, vomiting, and uncontrolled secretion of bodily fluids. All these symptoms are accompanied by twitching, and the victim falls into a coma and dies in convulsions. During 1980 and 1988, Iraq used sarin in the war against Iran. It is estimated that Iraq still possesses a significant amount of sarin (Cvetković, 2014).
Soman belongs to highly toxic chemical substances. It is unstable, corrosive, and appears as a colorless liquid with a weak odor. It can often appear as a yellow or brown liquid with a strong smell. It was discovered in 1944 in Germany and was the latest discovery in the field of nerve agents during World War II. In cases of soman poisoning, in small doses, there is a change in behavior and anxiety, but not convulsions, which occur in cases of poisoning with larger amounts. Studies have shown that permanent memory damage is possible. Ketamine, verapamil, and atropine sulfate can be used as antidotes. Additionally, VX is the most well-known nerve agent from the “V” group. The treatment in terms of legislation is similar to agents from the “G” group. It is also noteworthy that it was discovered in Great Britain (Cvetković, 2014).
Due to its texture resembling motor oil, VX is highly dangerous because it persists in the environment. It has no smell or taste and can be distributed as a liquid or in aerosol form. If absorbed through the skin, early symptoms include muscle twitching and sweating, followed by nausea or vomiting. If inhaled as vapor, it can cause runny nose or chest tightness with difficulty breathing due to bronchial constriction. Primary assistance must first involve removing VX agent from the skin before evacuating individuals from the affected area. Atropine and diazepam can be used as antidotes (Heyer, 2006).
Currently, the only countries known to possess facilities for VX production are Russia and the USA. Saddam Hussein admitted that members of Al-Qaeda were working on producing VX, but due to failures in its production, its use for terrorist purposes was abandoned. The USA and Russia joined forces to reorganize a chemical weapons production facility into a facility for its destruction. The facility became operational in 2009. Due to its limited capacity, Germany began construction of a similar facility on its territory in the same year (Cvetković, 2014).
10.2.2.2. General purpose chemical warfare agents
In the literature, they are known as blood agents that achieve lethal effects on the victim by blocking the use of oxygen from the bloodstream, causing the victim to suffocate. The most well-known representatives are: cyanic acid, cyanogen chloride, arsenic hydride, phosphorus hydride, and carbon monoxide. They are highly unstable, with the most well-known being hydrogen cyanide and cyanogen chloride. The most dangerous cyanides are cyanic acid and its salts, such as potassium cyanide and sodium cyanide. Exposure to cyanide causes nausea, vomiting, confusion, coma, and death. What partly reduces the use of cyanide for terrorist purposes is the fact that it is less toxic than other chemical agents and releases vapor under high pressure. Cyanide is absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract, eyes, breathing, and in large quantities, through the skin. It is a highly toxic blood agent and has been used in chemical warfare (Cvetković, 2014).
Immediate injuries occur after contact with the eyes and respiratory organs. Symptoms may include drowsiness, runny nose, sore throat, coughing, confusion, nausea, vomiting, edema formation, loss of consciousness, convulsions, paralysis, and death. Due to polymerization, it is highly unstable and sometimes highly explosive, which also presents a challenge for its use for terrorist purposes. It is important to note that protective masks often do not provide sufficient protection when using cyanogen chloride. Chlorine dissolves limitedly in water and well in organic solvents. Toxic effects are based on the same mechanism as cyanic acid. Symptoms of poisoning appear very quickly in the form of tearing, difficulty breathing, unconsciousness, nausea and vomiting, convulsions, and loss of consciousness (Cvetković, 2014).
It is a known fact that terrorists have considered the use of numerous poisonous cyanide components, including “soda” and “potassium cyanide.” Cyanides are salts and other compounds of hydrocyanic acid (HCN). What is characteristic of cyanides is that many compounds of cyanide are very toxic, but it is also known that many are not. Prussian blue, for example, is used for printing and as an antidote in thallium and cesium 137 poisoning. Cyanides have often been used as poisons throughout history. Their most famous application is in mass Nazi killings during the Holocaust. It was used to murder Rasputin and in the suicide of Adolf Hitler and his associates (Bowman, 2007, p. 31). Regardless of the amount of cyanide to which the victim is exposed, death is always the outcome; the only difference lies in the onset period (Cvetković, 2014).
10.2.2.3. Battlefield toxins of cephalopod action
As their name suggests, they cause blisters on the skin exposed to their action, as well as on internal organs if the agents are inhaled or swallowed. Death mainly occurs due to respiratory failure, sometimes accompanied by blindness. These agents have varying toxicities and were not originally developed for use in mass killings but rather aimed at incapacitating soldiers in warfare, who would then seek medical assistance. Consequently, two additional soldiers would be engaged on the battlefield to assist the injured, thus reducing combat effectiveness during the battle. Cephalopod toxins include: lewisite, nitrogen mustard, phosgene oxime, and mustard gas (Frouz, 1991, p. 64; Cvetković, 2014).
Lewisite is produced in large quantities but is rarely used, and relatively little is known about its effects on humans (Bolz, Dudonis & Shulz, 2002, p. 51). It primarily damages the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract upon direct contact. Lewisite is a greasy, colorless liquid, although it can be yellow or brown, with a scent resembling musk. It can easily penetrate clothing and rubber. Contact with the skin causes immediate pain and itching with rash and swelling. Blisters, similar to those caused by exposure to tear gas, develop after 12 hours. Absorption of sufficient amounts of lewisite can lead to systemic poisoning, liver necrosis, or death. Inhalation of lewisite causes pain, sneezing, coughing, vomiting, and pulmonary edema. Ingestion leads to nausea, vomiting, and tissue damage (Bevelacqua, 2005, p. 51; Cvetković, 2014).
Nitrogen mustard was first effectively used in World War I by the German army against British and later French soldiers. Protective masks are inadequate as clothing does not prevent absorption through the skin. It is a persistent agent that remains in the environment for longer periods, and individuals who come into contact with contaminated areas can also become infected. What favors the use of this agent is the fact that several moments after contact with it, permanent damage occurs, without any symptoms indicating it (Cvetković, 2014).
Phosgene oxime is a potent chemical warfare agent. The substance itself is colorless and solid, but impure samples are often yellowish liquids. It has a strong, unpleasant odor and highly irritating vapor. It is highly soluble in water and corrosive. Poisoning with phosgene oxime can occur through inhalation, ingestion, or skin contact. The effects of poisoning occur almost immediately. Currently, there is no known antidote for phosgene oxime. Generally, any treatment will provide little help. Skin damage by phosgene oxime may be misidentified as an effect of exposure to tear gas. However, skin irritation due to exposure to phosgene oxide occurs more rapidly than with exposure to tear gas, which usually takes several hours longer to cause such skin irritation. Pulmonary edema and pulmonary thrombosis are consequences associated with damage to the respiratory tract. It is characterized by extravascular accumulation of fluid in the alveoli of the lungs due to increased pressure in the lung capillaries or impaired permeability of the capillary-alveolar membrane (Cvetković, 2012).
10.2.2.4. Chemical warfare agents of asphyxiating action
These toxins cause pulmonary edema (accumulation of water in the lungs), leading to suffocation of the individual in their own fluids (Ristić, 1978). The most significant representatives are: phosgene, diphosgene, chlorine gas, and chloropicrin. Their widespread use is favored by their abundance in the natural environment and low cost. They are regularly used in industrial production and transported in gaseous or liquid form under pressure. They are heavier than air, fall to the ground, and their main drawback is their instability. The most well-known toxins in this group are phosgene, chlorine, diphosgene, and trifosgene (Mauer, 2009, p. 51).
Phosgene is a colorless gas. In small quantities, it has a pleasant odor like freshly cut grass, while it has a sharp odor in larger quantities. It irritates the lower respiratory tract, eyes, and skin. It acts in three phases: first – throat irritation, coughing, chest pain, nausea; second – the exposed person feels well; third – difficulty breathing, severe coughing, accumulation of water in the lungs, and death by suffocation. If the person exposed to phosgene recovers, permanent brain damage is possible. It is used as a chemical warfare agent, while in the chemical industry, it is used for the production of dyes, pesticides, and methanol. Primary protection involves the use of rubber products to protect body parts and respiratory tract. Unlike chlorine, it acts more slowly, so the victim can die 24 hours after exposure to phosgene. When used, phosgene creates a white cloud of vapor. Its volatility is quite high, making it suitable for use in winter conditions (Cvetković, 2014).
Chlorine is a yellow-green gas, about two and a half times heavier than air, with an unpleasant, suffocating odor, highly toxic (Heyer, 2006, p. 54). It is used as a bleaching and disinfecting agent. It is a component of many salts and other compounds. It is widespread in nature and can be found in almost every living organism. Chlorine has very high biological significance, it belongs to macroelements. It is widely used in the production of products used in everyday life – dyes, foodstuffs, insecticides, plastics, petroleum products, medicines, solvents, and chemical weapons. It is also used to produce bleaching powder and bromine (Cvetković, 2014).
In the human body of 70 kilograms, there is about 95 grams of chlorine. Gaseous chlorine irritates the respiratory system and mucous glands, and in larger quantities, it causes death. It can be detected in the air at concentrations as low as 3.5 ppm, but the dangerous concentration is only above 1000 ppm (Cvetković, 2012, p. 64). Because of these properties, it was used as a chemical warfare agent in World War I. To neutralize it, vapors of ethanol or diluted ammonia solution are inhaled. When used, it produces a yellow-green cloud of vapor. The greater the exposure to chlorine, the more severe the symptoms and the faster they occur (Cvetković, 2014).
Chemical weapons have accompanied human civilization from its inception to the present day. It is the oldest and has the most extensive military and everyday use in ordinary life, as evidenced by numerous examples. The use of chemical weapons by terrorist groups is real, given the fact that certain states could directly supply chemical weapons to terrorist groups, as well as insufficiently secured warehouses of chemical weapons (Cvetković, 2014).”
10.2.2.5. Chemical warfare agents of psychochemical action
Chemical warfare agents of psychochemical action include a group of toxins that alter or damage the psyche and senses of poisoned individuals. This group of toxins includes B3 toxin, some organophosphorus compounds, alkaloids of certain plants (mescaline and psilocybin), and the semi-synthetic compound LSD-25 (Gary, Jeremy, 2009). These are compounds that have a specific effect on the central nervous system. This effect manifests in disturbances of the individual’s physical condition (coordination of movements, temporary blindness) or in the deformation of mental state (fear, hallucinations). It is assumed that the mechanism of toxic action of these chemical warfare agents is related to the decreased activity of certain enzymes of the central nervous system, along with disruption of the process of nerve impulse transmission in brain cells (Cvetković, 2014).
10.2.2.6. Chemical warfare agents of irritant action
They act on the skin and mucous membranes of the nose, mouth, upper respiratory tract, and digestive tract. They belong to the group of short-term toxic chemicals. They are not subject to prohibition and continue to be developed. They produce temporary physiological or mental effects, which render the individual incapacitated in performing their activities. They are designed to prevent major casualties in a timely manner by acting with calming, disorienting, and even temporary paralysis effects. These agents do not kill or lead to permanent damage but produce transient effects lasting several hours or days, allowing recovery without any treatment. What characterizes this type of agents is their adaptability for storage. In the use of these agents so far, 1% of victims have suffered, but this data is attributed to the fact that each person reacts differently to them. Their use is dangerous in enclosed spaces if used in large doses or if accidents occur during handling and use. The term ‘incapacitated,’ when used in a general sense, does not correspond to the concept of ‘person with disabilities,’ which is used in medicine and denotes the inability to perform tasks due to physical or mental impairments. Irritants include tear gas and sternutators (Cvetković, 2014).
Tear gases irritate the mucous membranes of the eyes and upper respiratory tract, causing intense tearing, stinging, and pain in the eyes and nose. Tear gases include: chloroacetophenone, CS, hydrogen cyanide, and chloropicrin. Sternutators irritate the mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract, causing chest pain and vomiting. Known sternutators include: adamsite, diphenylchloroarsine, and diphenylcyanoarsine (Cvetković, 2014).
10.2.3. Possibilities of Chemical Weapons Misuse for Terrorist Purposes
Positive Characteristics of Chemical Weapons Increase the Risk of Their Use for Terrorist Purposes. Documents seized from houses where Al-Qaeda members stayed in Afghanistan illustrate the efforts of terrorist groups to use chemical weapons. The found plans envisage the production of huge quantities of chemical weapons with detailed schematics and guides on how to produce devices filled with chemical agents that would kill thousands of people. Some documents explain where and how to place the agent or chemical to be most effective (Cindy, 2003, p. 272). Chemical weapons are of a different form than conventional or nuclear weapons, with no visible immediate effect, unlike conventional weapons where effects like bomb explosions are visible. It is important to note that the use of living organisms (e.g., anthrax) for military purposes is considered biological, not chemical weapons. However, toxic products of living organisms (e.g., botulinum and ricin) are considered chemical weapons (Ford & Schmidt, 2000, p. 119; Cvetković, 2014).
The use of chemical weapons can occur from tanks, grenades, mines, bombs, rockets, smoke canisters, and other means. The widespread use of chemical weapons is also contributed to by the fact that they do not have to be in a pure state to cause casualties and that the consequences of their use occur rapidly. Some experts disagree that every terrorist chemical attack would be equally successful. Agents that kill humans and animals must be dispersed in the form of aerosols that can be inhaled, and for particles to enter the body through the lungs, they must be between one and five microns in diameter.
Experts disagree with assessments that terrorists would be able to produce such aerosols. On the other hand, besides its instability, the drawbacks of its use include: the expertise and equipment needed for production, special handling procedures, and dangers associated with production and use. Terrorist groups could hire an unemployed expert willing to sell their expertise. They could attract or hire chemists who can easily produce combat agents. According to one Albanian military official, a certain amount of chemical weapons was stolen from military depots in Albania in 1997, posing a serious health risk (Larsen, 2010, p. 42; Cvetković, 2014).
Rapid identification of chemical agents is not always possible, so their recognition is based on the symptoms they cause: asphyxiation syndrome – cardiovascular manifestations due to tissue hypoxia – cyanides; cholinergic syndrome – inhibition of cholinesterase – nerve agents; lung irritation – choking agents; skin changes – blister agents (Gary & Jeremy, 2009, p. 47). The most significant characteristics of chemical weapons are: it is difficult to detect in the body, and if it is an attack on an individual, it is difficult to determine if the death was artificial; the time of death can be estimated depending on the type, method of ingestion, and quantity; the terrorist has a good chance of escaping unnoticed and surviving the attack. Characteristics of chemical weapons, which attract terrorist groups to use them for their purposes, include the following: this weapon does not cause physical damage; it can be used against objects, even though their precise location is unknown; it is perfect for use in open spaces as well as in vehicles, facilities, shelters that are not hermetically sealed and pressurized; it is capable of causing serious health problems and suffering to a large number of people requiring large hospital capacities for care and treatment; the time of action is limited and can be approximately estimated, and each attack causes panic; decontamination is not required after the action period (Cvetković, 2014).
The negative characteristics of chemical weapons are the inability to accurately assess the effects of their actions because their effectiveness depends on meteorological conditions, training, protective equipment, and they can pose a danger to the terrorists themselves if the wind changes direction. General characteristics of chemical weapons that are recommended for the weapon to be effective are: high toxicity (small amounts cause poisoning of a large number of people), different toxic effects (acts on different organs), has a hidden initial effect, cannot be detected by senses, it is constantly present on the ground and in the air, weak detection and identification capabilities (Bevelacqua, 2005, p. 91; Cvetković, 2014).
Toxic substances, as active components of chemical weapons, can be applied through various means: by using chemical munitions, rockets, and aerial bombs; through the utilization of thermal generators (which employ high temperatures to disperse toxic chemicals, typically with the toxic chemical contained within a pyrotechnic mixture activated by an appropriate igniter to induce combustion). With mechanical chemical generators, the toxic chemical is expelled under pressure through an opening into the atmosphere and a device for watering or spraying; through the use of mines and grenades, toxic-smoke canisters, chemical hand grenades, and other guerrilla means (Blum, 2002, p. 79). Many production components readily available on the open market for industrial purposes, along with detailed information on how to set up a chemical laboratory, significantly encourage its use by terrorist groups (Cvetković, 2014).
Based on all the aforementioned, it can be said that chemical weapons possess significant destructive potential that can be exploited for terrorist purposes. This is particularly contributed by the wide variety of toxic chemicals, which, in different ways and with the aid of various delivery mechanisms, can be utilized. Terrorist groups have already employed chemical weapons on multiple occasions. However, the future brings even more destructive combinations for the use of toxic materials. Chemical weaponry is constantly evolving and improving. In doing so, terrorist groups must first select a chemical agent, and subsequently determine its delivery and dissemination method, which depends on the form, size of the agent, and the type and purpose of the terrorist target. When selecting the agent, particular attention is paid to its ability to produce a real or psychological effect on humans. Critical entry and dissemination points, such as ventilation systems, basements, passages, halls, and warehouses, are also considered (Cvetković, 2014).
Terrorist groups pay special attention to the biological and physicochemical properties of chemical weapons. Depending on the idea behind the terrorist attack, the type of chemical weapon that fully meets all conditions regarding dissemination, area of effect, duration of action, environment, and level of contamination will be employed. Terrorist groups can acquire chemical weapons in various ways. They may steal them from warehouses, produce them themselves, or receive them from a state. The probability of them being used for terrorist purposes is much higher compared to other weapons of mass destruction (Cvetković, 2014).
10.2.4. Measures for protection and rescue in disasters caused by chemical terrorist attacks
In disasters caused by chemical terrorist attacks, intervention leaders must organize protection and rescue measures in accordance with several different factors and circumstances: a) the physical, chemical, and toxic properties of the chemical weapons used; b) the results of reconnaissance at the disaster site; c) methods of treatment and first aid provision to injured individuals; d) the safety of the engaged personnel of intervention and rescue services; e) the availability of protective equipment (personal protective gear; respiratory protective equipment; rescue gear; collective protective equipment; medical protective equipment; and resources for implementing various measures).
Additionally, it is necessary to consider the hazard classification according to the degree of impact on human organisms. In this regard, the following indicators need to be considered: the maximum permissible concentration in the work zone (mg/m3); the median lethal dose concerning ingestion through the digestive tract (mg/kg); the median lethal dose concerning absorption through the skin (mg/kg); the average lethal concentration of exposure through air in space (over 30 to 60 minutes); and the ratio of inhalation and poisoning possibilities.
Table 14. Classification of hazards according to hazard classes. Source: Abramov et al., 1995.
| Name of the indicator | Hazard class | |||
| Maximum allowable concentration in the work zone (mg/m3) | Less than 0.1 | 0.1-1.0 | 1.1-10.0 | More than 10 |
| Average lethal dose in relation to ingestion via the digestive tract (mg/kg) | Less than 15 | 15-150 | 151-5000 | More than 5000 |
| Average lethal dose in relation to absorption through the skin (mg/kg) | Less than 100 | 100-500 | 501-2500 | More than 2500 |
| Average lethal concentration of exposure through the air in the area (from 30 to 60 minutes) | Less than 500 | 500-5000 | 5001-50000 | More than 50000 |
| Ratio of inhalation to poisoning potential | Less than 300 | 300-30 | 29-3 | Less than 3 |
During the reconnaissance process, various civil-military equipment will be utilized to determine the specific chemical material involved. Broadly speaking, there are devices based on a) the use of indicator tubes, as well as b) mobile automatic detectors. Additionally, it is significant to note that most chemical-warfare agents are highly flammable and explosive, thus continuous monitoring of their flammability and explosiveness is crucial. Besides the mentioned methods, the services of military-chemical laboratories can also be utilized (Abramov et al., 1995, p. 27).
During reconnaissance, it is necessary to consider the following: a) it is conducted directly at the disaster site, taking into account all parameters necessary for assessing safety conditions; b) in addition to the disaster site, reconnaissance is conducted in surrounding areas, considering potential changes in wind directions; c) the entire reconnaissance is carried out while considering meteorological indicators.
Members of intervention and rescue services have the following tasks in such a process: a) detecting the onset of a chemical reaction; b) determining the location of the source of chemical contamination, the nature and rate of release of hazardous materials, and their impact on the environment in relation to the quantity of released material; c) determining the boundaries of contamination within the disaster area; d) identifying potential evacuation zones for people, directions, and key locations for temporary relocation; e) determining the level of contamination present on people and objects; f) sampling air, water, soil to determine the degree of contamination (Abramov et al., 1995). Furthermore, it is necessary to gather all intelligence and security information from the relevant authorities of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Security Information Agency.
The reconnaissance procedure in such disasters should be based on an action plan issued by the competent Headquarters. It should specify the forces and resources to be used in the reconnaissance process; how chemical reconnaissance of people, objects, and equipment will be organized; and how information will be transmitted from the field to the main headquarters for decision-making in such disasters. In this process, several departments may be formed, each with similar or different tasks to expedite reconnaissance. In such a space, reconnaissance from multiple directions is necessary. To achieve this, there must be control points representing border zones where the entry and exit of competent teams will be organized.
Specific tasks are to be assigned to reconnaissance patrols, such as: assessing the possible situation at the disaster site, i.e., in the restricted zone where chemically hazardous materials have been used; providing a specific description of activities to be undertaken in such areas; providing clear and unambiguous routes of movement; establishing communication and maintaining contact between the command-operational center and engaged patrols; assembling personal protective equipment; determining the duration of patrols in the disaster area; identifying dangers and peculiarities to be aware of when entering and exiting the restricted zone; preparing instruments and adjusting them; properly marking the level of contamination; outlining the sequence of actions; and reacting and evacuating in case of danger (Abramov et al., 1995). After receiving clear instructions, appropriate patrols are directed to the control point through which they enter the restricted zone. They can move on foot or by suitable motor vehicles depending on the hazards and response speed. Sampling is conducted every 10 to 15 meters in open spaces and 20 to 30 meters in closed spaces. Special attention is required for areas where the accumulation of chemically hazardous materials is possible (e.g., under walls, specific objects). If the presence of chemically hazardous materials is detected, appropriate markers indicating the quantity and type of hazardous material are set up. For each street, object, or other unit, appropriate “contamination passports” or relevant documentation are compiled, containing all relevant information.
Regarding rescue activities, after receiving a report about the incident, the intervention manager assesses the situation, particularly the extent of contamination and the number of affected individuals exposed to the danger. Based on this, the intervention manager decides on the method and scope of rescue activities, the sequence of their execution, as well as the forces and resources to be engaged, safety measures during rescue activities, evacuation routes and locations, and the organization of management (Abramov et al., 1995).
To determine the extent of chemical contamination, areas susceptible to such contamination, meteorological conditions, duration of exposure, and the nature of potential hazards are considered. Rescue operations for people in disasters caused by chemical terrorist attacks are managed from an appropriate command-operational center. It is important to emphasize that all engaged personnel must use appropriate protective equipment, as previously mentioned. In the disaster-affected area, various services with similar or different tasks will interact. For these reasons, it is necessary to regulate responsibilities, priorities, task allocation, start and end times of all activities, mutual coordination, and cooperation.
Within the framework of rescue activities, engaged personnel will enter the restricted zone with appropriate protective equipment and begin inspecting the affected area, including specific objects in the given area. Search and rescue efforts involve visually inspecting the area, objects, and spaces, as well as using special equipment to search the terrain. Members of such units will be equipped with appropriate tools such as digging tools, marking tools, fire extinguishing and first aid equipment, communication devices, etc. To improve search efficiency, witness statements from rescued victims, residents in the area, representatives of certain administrations, etc., will be used. Once victims are found, their evacuation from the endangered zone begins. The choice of evacuation method depends on the type and severity of injuries, threats and hazards faced by rescuers, available resources, and the length of the evacuation route. After evacuating the injured person from the restricted zone and conducting decontamination, first aid is provided aimed at preventing further poison absorption into the body, eliminating toxins from the body, restoring and maintaining vital functions, and using preventive measures.
10.3. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by biological terrorist attacks
There are two problems for our species’ survival – nuclear war and environmental catastrophe – and we’re hurtling towards them. Knowingly!
Noam Chomsky
Centuries ago, biological agents were used for warfare, terrorism, or criminal activities. It could be argued that the signing of the Biological Weapons Convention contributed to making it just an unpleasant memory of times when it was used. However, bioterrorism has become a reality of the modern world due to its characteristics and the consequences it causes. The expansion of high technology on one hand, and the ability of biological weapons to cause “mass destruction” or “mass casualties” on the other, shifts the focus of the public and experts from the question of “if” to “when will a terrorist attack with biological weapons occur” (Cvetković, 2013b).
By widening the gap between rich and poor regions, conditions have been created for the application of “asymmetric methods,” where in the fight against the rich, everything that is available to humans, organizations, or states is used. Hence, biological weapons are beginning to be called the “atomic bomb of the poor” (Čobeljić et al., 2003). Certainly, the increased danger of its use has also been contributed by the development of molecular genetics and biotechnology, resulting in the emergence of a large number of research laboratories, whose work can be abused (“dual use”) (Cvetković, 2013b).
Various simulations of biological weapon attacks have shown that developed countries are very vulnerable, and that such weapons can be easily deployed, for example, through ventilation systems in underground railways (Bolz et al., 2002). Indeed, the best example is the terrorist attack in March 1995 when the Aum Shinrikyo sect in Tokyo used sarin (a type of chemical weapon), resulting in the death of 11 people and at least 5,500 others falling ill (Bowman, 2007). Immediately thereafter, biological weapons were found in one of the raids on the premises of this sect. In this regard, various experts have estimated that the number of victims would have been much higher if this sect had used botulinum toxin or anthrax (Cvetković, 2013b).
Although biological weapons have never been successfully used in large-scale warfare except in the case of Japan, which has been proven to have used biological weapons for very cruel purposes, terrorists have become aware that the massive introduction of infectious and deadly viruses to create a depressive and extraordinary situation among the population is the most effective way to endanger national or international security (Cookson, 1970). It is also very important to note that it is believed that at least 12 countries in the world are working on biological weapons development programs, and this number is on the rise because possession and work on biological weapons can always be justified under the pretext of defensive purposes, i.e., for testing the possibility of protection from its use (Metcalfe, 2002).
It is unlikely that any state will decide to use biological weapons easily in a war conflict, so its application as a means of conducting subversive warfare (inciting and controlling political crises) is more realistic (Cvetković, 2013). In 1997, out of 74 criminal investigations related to weapons of mass destruction, 30% (22) were related to the use of biological material. In 1988, 181 investigations related to such weapons were conducted, of which 62% (112.9) were related to the use of biological material. However, the FBI has emphasized that more than half of these “biological” investigations were conducted based on false reports (Noll et al., 2002; Cvetković, 2013b).
Recent events confirm that it is most attractive for terrorist groups, religious sects, and individuals. In Edinburgh in 1990, there was an outbreak of giardiasis after intentional contamination of a water tank with fecal matter; in 1995, a group in Minnesota was convicted of producing ricin, which was intended to be used against members of the local government; in 1996 in Ohio, an individual associated with an extremist group managed to obtain a culture of the plague pathogen through the mail; the Rajneesh sect contaminated food with salmonella in Dallas in 1984, causing an epidemic and 750 illnesses. It has also been found that some political assassinations have been carried out with ricin-impregnated pellets fired from umbrella-like weapons (Hawley et al., 2001). The consequences of this weapon and how many deaths it will cause cannot be reliably predicted. However, it can be reliably predicted that the radius of psychological effects (fear effects) would be far greater than the radius of death and injury (Stern, 2004; Cvetković, 2013b).
The need for cooperation among states in eliminating the threat of bioterrorism is more pronounced in the 21st century than ever before. In the world, twelve countries are conducting biological weapons development programs, and this number is trending upward because possession and work on biological weapons can always be justified under the pretext of defensive purposes, i.e., for testing the possibility of protection from its use (Heyer, 1999). Rapid advancements in science, technology, and knowledge carry harmful consequences of unprecedented magnitude if they are misused (Cvetković, 2013). Accordingly, genetic engineering can be utilized to increase the infectivity of a particular biological agent, its resistance to known antidotes, vaccines, and drugs, or to make it more resistant to environmental conditions that may reduce its lethality.
Protection from the effects of biological weapons is crucial and involves the application of measures used in the prevention and control of infectious diseases, such as: recognizing a biological attack, detecting and identifying biological agents, caring for exposed individuals, and biological decontamination (Radić, 2011; Cvetković, 2013b).
Protection from biological weapons differs significantly from protection against chemical and nuclear weapons due to their vast differences, but some procedures and principles can be used for counter-biological defense. Additionally, a significant challenge is responding to the question of whether it is a natural illness or bioterrorism. If bioterrorism is suspected, field epidemiological investigations are necessary to collect all relevant data to confirm or refute suspicions. It is also necessary to determine the possible means and paths that led to the illness as soon as possible to take effective suppression measures (Cvetković, 2013b).
Generally speaking, if bioterrorism is confirmed, biological decontamination must be conducted. It involves measures and procedures to remove or neutralize pathogenic microorganisms to eliminate the risk of infection (Radić, 2011). Decontamination can be complete or partial and can be carried out by an individual or a group (self-decontamination, mutual decontamination). Complete decontamination outside the area of biological weapon use involves mass bathing and showering, thorough washing of hairy body parts and nails, while partial decontamination is carried out immediately after exposure to the biological agent. Additionally, items and clothing are subjected to physical and chemical agents, with exposure to high temperatures being the most effective. The decontamination process involves shaking, brushing, and cleaning clothes and shoes, washing exposed body parts with soap and water, and disinfecting the skin (Cvetković, 2013b).
Considering the characteristics and types of biological weapons, it can be freely said that efforts in defense against biological weapons are primarily focused on the development of vaccines and therapeutic agents (drugs). Bioterrorism represents a new branch of epidemiology that requires increased activity at all levels of prevention. Although recognized bioterrorist attacks have been relatively rare, so data related to them are very limited, biological weapons are unique because they are made from pathogenic organisms that can reproduce (except toxins) and cause uncontrolled infections in a large number of hosts. Additionally, the methods of biological weapon application through air, water, and food, as well as the longer period for the manifestation of contamination, particularly increase the cost of this weapon from the perspective of terrorist groups. Therefore, its use for terrorist purposes has great potential to cause psychological stress in victims and rescuers (Cvetković, 2013b).
Moreover, they are relatively inexpensive, and the equipment used for their production can be found in commercial sale. It is especially necessary to bear in mind that the perpetrators can be military or intelligence forces, which prefer clandestine (secret) attacks, as well as individuals and terrorist groups. They can utilize agents from all three categories (A, B, C), and any type of medium can be used as a dissemination means. In order to achieve biological security, close cooperation among biologists, national security experts, and the industrial sector is necessary because efforts are focused on the development of vaccines and therapeutic agents (drugs) are insufficient. In this regard, the field of defense against biological weapons can be divided into three main sub-areas: early prevention (vaccination), urgent prevention before and after exposure (use of protective measures before and after an attack – before the disease symptoms develop), and treatment (Cvetković, 2013b).
10.3.1. Conceptual definition of biological weapons
Biological weapons refer to biological agents capable of reproducing and emitting toxic products causing mass illnesses or death in humans, animals, and plant life (USА Department of Healht and Human Services, 2001, p. 43). Thus, biological weapons consist of microorganisms or their products (toxins) used to intentionally induce illnesses or death, leading to the destruction of humans, animals, or plants (Taylor, 2000, p. 78). Biological weapons include microbes or other biological agents or toxins, of any origin, whose use cannot be justified for protective or other peaceful purposes, as well as weapons, equipment, or delivery methods designed for the use of such agents or toxins for hostile purposes (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 1992).
In the past, the concepts of biological weapons and biological warfare officially emerged after World War II, following a session of the United Nations General Assembly held in 1947, when biological weapons, alongside nuclear and chemical weapons, were categorized as weapons of mass destruction (Bolz et al., 2002, p. 98). Since then, biological weapons have been considered potentially the most dangerous weapons for mass destruction of humans, animals, and plants, with potentially unforeseen consequences (Цветковић, 2013b).
Furthermore, according to the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction, biological weapons include: a) microbiological or other biological agents or toxins, regardless of their origin or method of production, which by type and quantity are not intended for use for prophylactic, protective, or other peaceful purposes; b) weapons or equipment intended for the use of such agents or toxins for hostile purposes or in armed conflicts (Bowman, 2007, p. 31). The Convention was signed in 1972 in London and entered into force in 1975 to legally regulate the international prohibition on the development and storage of biological materials and research on biological agents for military purposes. The Convention was supplemented by the prohibition on the use of biological weapons from the Geneva Protocol, and signatories committed to providing the United Nations with all data on past research, knowledge, and the existence of biological weapons. To date, 163 countries have ratified it (Bowman, 2007, p. 75; Цветковић, 2013b).
Regarding biological weapons, bioterrorism is often mentioned, which refers to the intentional use of bacteria, viruses, or toxins isolated with the intention of killing or causing diseases in humans, animals, and plants.
Biological terrorism is also defined as the possibility of using harmful agents by individuals or groups motivated by political, religious, environmental, or other ideological reasons (Paulun, 2003, p. 23). Until the 1990s, discussions and writings mainly focused on nuclear threats, while there was much less discussion about the alarming development and proliferation of biological weapons and the means of their delivery (Bowman, 2007, p. 76). However, in recent years, parallel to the growing awareness of the consequences of releasing biological agents, bioterrorism has become a very concerning phenomenon (Цветковић, 2013b).
Biological weapons can be classified in various ways, using different criteria (Radosavljević, Belojević, 2011, p. 14). According to the “type of agent” causing infection, the following types are distinguished: bacteria, viruses, fungi, and toxins. In a document on the harmful effects of the potential use of biological weapons in warfare, compiled on the proposal of the United Nations General Assembly, an international commission of experts from 14 countries identified which microorganisms could be considered biological weapons (Цветковић, 2012, p. 56). Bacteria, viruses, rickettsiae, and fungi are included in the group of microorganisms capable of causing infectious diseases in humans and animals.
One of the widely accepted classifications of biological agents that can be used as biological weapons is the classification by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The mentioned Center classifies biological weapons into three categories: A, B, and C categories (Čobеljić et al., 2003, p. 17; Цветковић, 2013b).
Category A weapons include the deadliest microorganisms known today. Their high infectivity complicates treatment, as there is a high likelihood of infecting medical personnel responsible for triage and aid to the infected. They easily spread or transmit from person to person, causing high mortality rates, with the potential to impact the health of a wide range of populations. Included in such weapons are: smallpox, anthrax, plague, tularemia, filoviruses (Цветковић, 2013b).
Category B weapons include biological agents that, compared to Category A weapons, have the potential to be modified into less lethal weapons. Their decontamination requires adequate health capacities and numerous specificities in their diagnosis, as well as necessary systems for their detection and surveillance. Despite certain characteristics that some of these agents possess and by which they could be classified as Category A weapons, their classification into Category B weapons is primarily conditioned by the lower degree of their infectivity. Each of these agents carries numerous risks if used as a weapon. Thus, Category B biological weapons include agents that are relatively suitable for spreading and are characterized by low mortality rates but are difficult to detect. Included here are: Coxiella burnetii (Q fever), Brucella (brucellosis), Burkholderia mallei, alphaviruses, ricin (derived from castor oil), Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxins, staphylococcal enterotoxins, causative agents of foodborne toxin infections such as Salmonella, Shigella, Cryptosporidium, and others (Цветковић, 2013b).
Category C weapons include both known and new agents, such as Nipah viruses, hantaviruses, tick-borne encephalitis viruses, and multidrug-resistant “Mycobacterium tuberculosis.” It can be said that this group encompasses agents that will be the subject of research and development in the future.
There are other classifications of biological weapons, such as the classification according to military-epidemiological criteria (Milić, 2010, p. 32). According to this criterion, biological weapons are divided into: a) by effect; b) by contagiosity; c) by speed of action; and d) by survival in the external environment. According to the effect: agents with lethal effects (mortality over 25% – causative agent of pulmonary anthrax, plague, botulinum toxin, hemorrhagic fever viruses); agents for incapacitation (mortality 1-2% – cholera, bacillary dysentery); agents for disturbance (rare lethal cases – staphylococcal enterotoxin).
According to contagiosity (possibility of interhuman transmission, or transmission from person to person): highly contagious (smallpox viruses and most hemorrhagic fevers); moderately contagious (causative agents of typhoid fever, bacillary dysentery); non-contagious (causative agents of tularemia, brucellosis, biological toxins). According to the speed of action: agents with fast action (a few hours – toxins); agents with delayed action (incubation 2 to 7 days – causative agents of tularemia, plague, anthrax, and cholera); agents with delayed action (incubation longer than 7 days – causative agents of typhoid and spotted fevers, brucellosis, Q fever); according to survival in the external environment: non-resistant agents (surviving a few hours – most viruses); relatively resistant agents (surviving up to 24 hours – causative agents of plague, tularemia, and brucellosis); very resistant agents (surviving for days, weeks, months, years – causative agents of anthrax, Q fever) (Цветковић, 2012, p. 29). In conclusion, traditional biological weapons include natural microorganisms or toxins characterized by easy production, high toxicity, stability, and multiple transmission possibilities.
10.3.2. Types and characteristics of biological weapons
10.3.2.1. Bacteria
Bacteria are living microorganisms, and the diseases they cause can often be treated with antibiotics. Depending on the environment and conditions in which bacteria develop, some species can be very beneficial, but in some cases, they can be very harmful, even deadly. For example, Escherichia coli (Escherichia coli) bacteria live in the human and animal gastrointestinal tract and are a regular part of the stomach flora. E. coli not only protects the stomach mucosa from other harmful bacteria but also produces vitamin K, which we need. The problem with E. coli arises when it somehow gets into a different environment from the gastrointestinal tract, mutates, and starts to multiply. E. coli can pass through feces, or in some other way, into the urinary and/or vaginal tract and cause infections and inflammations. Uncontrolled multiplication or changes in characteristics in a new environment will cause problems such as urinary, vaginal, pulmonary, or skin infections (Clarke, 1970, p. 64; Cvetković, 2013).
Bacteria are highly adaptable and easily adapt to new environments (Clarke, 1970, p. 16). One of the main causes of the spread of infectious bacteria is poor hygiene and neglect. Just a few hundred years ago, during a lack of soap and warm water, epidemics claimed hundreds of thousands of lives. Today, bacteria that possess certain resistance to antibiotics are used for terrorist attacks. Antibiotics are not a human invention. They are older than humans by about three billion years. The literal translation of the word “antibiotic” means “against life.” Bacteria resist antibiotics in several ways. One of them is that the bacteria simply degrade the antibiotic. Another way is for the bacteria to block the entry of the antibiotic into the cell or to expel it from the cell if it has already entered. Some bacteria, for example, can deceive the antibiotic and redirect its action to something else, rather than what it was created for (Taylor, 2000, p. 131; Cvetković, 2013).
Only minimal resources are needed for their production, and characteristic representatives of bacteria used as biological weapons are: the causative agent of anthrax (Bacillus anthracis), tularemia (Francisella tularensis), plague (Yersinia pestis), glanders (Burkholderia mallei), brucellosis (Brucella spp.), typhoid fever (Salmonella typhi), bacillary dysentery (Shigella spp.), cholera (Vibrio cholerae), Escherichia coli (Escherichia coli), and Q fever (Coxiella burnetii) (Carus, 1998, p. 47; Cvetković, 2013).
10.3.2.1.1. Anthrax
Anthrax is a disease caused by the gram-positive bacterium known as “Bacillus anthracis.” It is a single-celled organism that attacks the skin, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract. It is an infectious disease caused by bacteria found in herbivores. Anthrax symptoms are similar to the flu, without specific characteristics, and the incubation period lasts for seven days. It causes headache, often coughing, fever, difficulty breathing, and respiratory problems, and in some cases, abdominal pain. As the infection spreads, it leads to tachycardia and chest pain, pneumonia in rare cases, cyanosis, shock, and ultimately death (Tahrir, 2002, p. 201; Cvetković, 2013b).
In the natural environment, humans can be infected with anthrax by contact with infected animals or through animal-derived products. According to expert estimates, one gram of anthrax can kill millions of people (Cordesman, Burke, 2008, p. 67). Anthrax can enter the human body through the skin, inhalation of spores, or through the gastrointestinal tract. The mortality rate of untreated cases of anthrax infection through the skin is up to 20%, and for the other two modes of infection, it’s 100%. The most dangerous form of anthrax entry, which causes the most harmful consequences to the body, is inhalation, leading to acute respiratory problems. Anthrax spores are resistant to many environmental conditions, becoming active only after entering a living human body. Although there is a vaccine against anthrax infection, it is not perfected (Combs, 2003, p. 87). In 1942, Great Britain tested an anthrax bomb on Gruinard Island in Scotland (Eric, 2002, p. 43). At that time, all life on the island was completely eliminated for over 40 years until the British government sponsored decontamination and clearance of the area from still-infectious spores (Cvetković, 2013b).
German agents believed they infected horses, mules, and cattle with anthrax upon their return to Europe during World War I (Cvetković, 2012, p. 19). Japan started a biological warfare program in Manchuria in 1937, which included the use of anthrax. In terrorist attacks in the USA using anthrax-laden letters on September 18 and October 9, 2001, five people died out of 22 infected. It was determined that the disease agents belonged to a strain known as “Ames” – a strain used in laboratory experiments. It was an extremely fine powder containing one trillion spores per gram of substance, easily forming an infectious aerosol. The number of casualties was small, but the remaining consequences were catastrophic: about 1.125 million material samples were bacteriologically processed, 3.75 million doses of antibiotics were spent to protect over 10,000 individuals exposed to anthrax spores, approximately one billion dollars were spent on improving healthcare preparedness, and President George Bush proposed to Congress to allocate six billion dollars in the budget for the next few years for the anti-biological warfare program (Torr, 2005, p. 64; Cvetković, 2013b).
10.3.2.1.2. Tularemia
Tularemia is a disease transmitted to humans through the skin and mucous membranes by contact with tissues and body fluids of infected animals (Cordesman & Burke, 2008, p. 65). Tularemia can also be contracted through bites of infected animals, usually insects, as well as through the gastrointestinal tract by ingesting contaminated water or food, and by inhalation, although these forms of tularemia infection are rare in practice. Like anthrax spores, tularemia is highly resistant to environmental conditions and can survive for weeks, but on the other hand, heat and disinfectants can eliminate it (Cvetković, 2013b).
It is caused by the gram-negative bacterium “Francisella tularensis,” which can be found in small animals such as rabbits and mice (Heyer, 1999, p. 23). In aerosol form, it is highly infectious, posing a particular risk to laboratory workers (Dennis, 2005, p. 76). However, transmission of tularemia from person to person does not pose a significant risk, hence there is no need for isolation. The tularemia vaccine contains the bacterium but in a less toxic form, and laboratory workers who routinely handle tularemia and the bacteria that cause it are required to receive the vaccine (Cvetković, 2013b).
Symptoms vary from fever, chills, headache, weakness, formation of sores at the infected site, and can often be accompanied by lower back pain and severe pneumonia (Tahrir, 2002, p. 121). If inhaled, it causes dry cough, chest pain, or discomfort without signs of pneumonia. The incubation period typically ranges from one to 14 days, depending on the mode of tularemia infection, the dose introduced into the body, and the type of tularemia itself. Mortality ranges from 1% with adequate treatment of the infected individual to 5% – 15% if left untreated (Cvetković, 2015, p. 55). When diagnosing, these symptoms can be confused with symptoms caused by plague and Q fever.
10.3.2.1.3. The plague
The plague is an infectious disease humanity arguably fears the most. Research by the World Health Organization has shown that if the bacterium causing the plague, Yersinia pestis, a gram-negative bacterium, were to be released above a city with five million inhabitants, approximately 25% of the population would succumb to pneumonic plague (Tucker, 2000, p. 76). Statistics indicate that over 200 million people have died from this disease. Historically, the plague claimed the lives of about 40% of the population from the 7th to the 14th century (Plesh, 2006, p. 43). The plague is still present worldwide today. Infected fleas carrying the bacterium initially attack rodents, causing their widespread death. Later, infected fleas leave their natural host and move on to humans, spreading the plague. These fleas spread bubonic plague.
The bacterium itself can survive in water and grains for several weeks, as well as in dry vomit, flea excrement, and dead bodies. Bubonic plague appears on the legs in the form of flea bites and spreads through the lymph nodes (Birtašević, 1998, p. 137). It entails general weakness accompanied by fever, enlargement of the liver, and central nervous system infection through the bloodstream. Depending on the form of the plague, symptoms may also include chest pain, coughing up blood, shortness of breath, diarrhea, sepsis, and organ failure (Cvetković, 2012, p. 51).
The incubation period lasts between one and six days. Besides the bites of infected fleas spreading bubonic plague, the plague, particularly pneumonic plague, can also spread through respiratory pathways. The form of the plague that caused major pandemics in Europe is bubonic plague. Pneumonic plague, representing the deadliest form, arises from lung infection with the bacterium Yersinia pestis. The plague vaccine ceased production in the United States in 1999. However, the vaccine was intended for treating bubonic plague, not pneumonic plague (Bevelacqua, 1997, p. 71; Cvetković, 2013b).
10.3.2.2. Viruses
Viruses are the smallest microorganisms that depend on a host and have difficulty surviving outside of it, and the diseases they cause can be treated with antibiotics in a small number of cases (Perkins, Popovic, 2002, p. 42). Their production for biological weapons is significantly more expensive and slower compared to bacteria. The most commonly used types of viruses by terrorist groups include: variola virus (smallpox), yellow fever virus, alphaviruses (Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis, eastern and western equine encephalomyelitis), filoviruses (Ebola, Marburg hemorrhagic fever), tick-borne encephalitis viruses, and hemorrhagic fevers, hantaviruses (Win & Masum, 2006, p. 131; Cvetković, 2013b).
10.3.2.2.1. Measles
Measles is a disease that has been known and present for centuries. The last major epidemic of such a disease, specific to humans, was in Somalia in 1977 (Metcalfe, 2002, p. 93). Thanks to a vaccination program that was mandatory worldwide, this disease has been eliminated. The first use of measles as a biological weapon dates back to the period from 1754 to 1767, when British soldiers gave blankets used by individuals infected with measles to Native Americans (Torr, 1998, p. 46). In 1980, the World Health Organization recommended that all stocks of this disease be destroyed or transferred to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, USA, or to an equivalent institution in the Russian Federation (Chobeljić et al., 2003, p. 18; Cvetković, 2013b).
Measles can occur as small and as major measles, the latter being the most dangerous. The mortality rate for individuals who contract major measles and have not received the vaccine ranges from 20% to 40% (Perkins & Popović, 2002, p. 58). Measles is highly contagious, and besides being transmitted from person to person, it can also be transmitted through infected clothing and bedding, where it can survive for months due to its resilience. People are mostly infected through the respiratory tract, while infection through the skin and eyes is less common. The incubation period lasts between seven and 17 days, while treatment lasts up to four weeks. Two to three days after the incubation, individuals develop symptoms characteristic of measles, including high fever, headache, and a distinctive rash that is most pronounced on the face, legs, and arms.
Major measles is suitable for distribution in aerosol form (Jahrling, 2003, p. 178). The vaccine against major measles is primarily used today for individuals classified as high risk for infection, such as laboratory workers. In July 2002, a vaccination program began in America for around 500,000 people classified in these categories, due to fear of a terrorist attack using biological weapons, which was particularly prevalent after the anthrax attacks (Carys, 2002, p. 130; Cvetković, 2013b).
10.3.2.2.2. Fungi
They represent a large group of microorganisms and are among the most widespread living organisms on Earth. Since they do not perform the fundamental function of plant photosynthesis as they lack chlorophyll, and they do not move or reproduce sexually like animals, they belong to a specific type of plants (Preston, 1998, p. 74). To date, around 100,000 species have been described, but it is estimated that there are about 1.5 million extant species. Due to the large differences in the size of the vegetative body, the terms “micromycetes” and “macromycetes” are often used (Weber, 2007, p. 112). Fungi “parasites” that attack living plants, animals, humans, and other fungi are particularly significant for terrorist groups. They can be utilized for terrorist attacks because these fungi absorb nutrients from living or dead organic matter through a network of thin feeding threads. The most commonly used species of fungi as biological weapons are: coccidioidomycosis (Coccidioides immitis) and histoplasmosis (Histoplasma capsulatum) (Roffey et al., 2002, p. 46).
10.3.2.2.3. Toxins
Toxins are not living organisms, so there is a justified dilemma whether they constitute chemical or biological weapons. Moreover, toxins can be artificially produced in laboratories (Klietmann & Ruoff, 2001, p. 136). However, in nature, certain species of plants, animals, and microorganisms produce toxins themselves. Microbial toxins are divided into three groups: exotoxins (exhibiting specific affinity for certain types of tissues such as kidneys, nervous tissue, cardiac muscle), endotoxins (weaker poisons than exotoxins and unlike them, do not exhibit affinity for specific types of host tissues), and mesotoxins (weakly bound to the cell) (Birtasevic, 1989, pp. 385-416). The most significant representatives used as biological weapons are: botulinum toxin, staphylococcal enterotoxin B, aflatoxin, ricin toxin, tetrodotoxin, trichothecene (Hawley et al., 2001, p. 94). From the perspective of synthesis capability, it is justified to classify toxins as chemical substances.
10.3.3. The possibilities of misuse of biological weapons for terrorist purposes
The first written records of humans combating infections date back to 1770 BCE. In his proclamation to the people, the ruler of Sumeria in Mesopotamia ordered the infected population to stay in their city and not to travel to cities where the infection had not spread (Knobler et al., 2002, p. 73). During the siege of the fortress of Kaffa, the Mongols catapulted their soldiers infected with bubonic plague over the fortress walls in 1346 with the intention of weakening the enemy forces. This type of attack eventually proved successful. Ancient Romans used dead animals to contaminate the water of their enemies. In the 4th century BCE, Roman legionnaires in Africa experienced an epidemic of plague and cholera, resulting in the deaths of around 30,000 Roman soldiers. Hannibal expelled infected people, women, and children from conquered territories, thus spreading disease among his adversaries (Tahrir, 2002, p. 34; Cvetković, 2013b).
During World War I, the use of biological weapons on humans was rare. However, during this period, Germany was the most intensive in the production and use of biological weapons, mainly focused on infecting and destroying animals. Great Britain researched the effects of anthrax, while Japan analyzed the consequences of plague, anthrax, dysentery, and typhoid. The biological weapons development program in the United States began in 1942, and by the end of the war, 250 facilities with 6,500 employees were engaged in offensive and defensive biological agent research (Shea & Gottron, 2004, p. 72; Cvetković, 2013b).
During the 1970s, members of the French and German security services found an improvised laboratory for the production of biological agents and a certain amount of Botulinum type A toxin in a base of the terrorist organization “Red Army Faction,” which was prepared for water contamination in Paris (Burce, 1969, p. 201). According to statements by Cuban experts, Cuba faced an epidemic of dengue fever caused by members of the counter-revolutionary group “Omega 7”. The “Rajneesh” sect, in 1984, in the state of Oregon, contaminated food in restaurants with salmonella typhimurium to influence the results of local elections, causing an epidemic of enterocolitis that affected 751 people (Burce, 1969, p. 123).
In October 2001, after the attack on the World Trade Center, some congressmen and media representatives received mail containing anthrax (Preston, 1998, p. 99). Five postal workers lost their lives. To date, there have been several terrorist attacks using biological weapons. The Japanese sect “Aum Shinrikyo” attempted in May 1993 to disperse a substance believed to be anthrax from the roof of an eight-story building to infect Chinese. Interestingly, the police did not investigate this incident, although local authorities received more than 200 reports from residents who noticed white smoke coming from the sect’s building (Gregory, Yvorra, 2005, p. 23; Cvetković, 2013b).
There is a wide range of biological agents that can be used for terrorist acts (Hawley et al., 2002, p. 28). Moreover, in legitimate biomedical and biotechnological institutions, various microorganisms are used daily, which, even without special modifications, represent very effective biological agents that can be used for terrorist purposes. Terrorist groups can obtain biological agents in various ways: through theft from official institutions, purchase on the black market, receiving from friendly governments, and through their own production in equipped or improvised laboratories (Alberts, 2005, p. 74).
The use of biological weapons by terrorists is facilitated by their accessibility, primarily in clinical and microbiological laboratories, as well as in government institutions, certain schools, and similar facilities. Terrorist groups are motivated by the destructiveness of biological weapons. For example, “botulinum toxin” is 17,500 times stronger than sarin, which belongs to the group of nerve-paralyzing chemical weapons (Cvetković, 2012, p. 30). It is estimated that just one gram of this toxin would be sufficient to cause the death of eight million people (Blum, 2002, p. 17). This fact remains within the realm of mathematical estimates because, besides the theoretical, there is no other possibility for distributing one gram of toxin into such evenly distributed doses. Another alarming fact is that smallpox killed 120 million people in the 20th century. According to the World Health Organization, if the spread of smallpox had not been stopped, there would have been about 350 million new infected persons in the past 20 years (Eric, 2002, p. 58; Cvetković, 2013b).
Furthermore, biological weapons are attractive due to their simple and inexpensive production, covert and effective application, specific effects, ability to cause mass illness, panic, problems, inability for complete control, dependence on various conditions, experts, and lack of information (Čobeljić et al., 2003, p. 9). Moreover, the specifics of biological weapons are reflected in the following: contamination can last from several hours to several weeks; effects and symptoms that cause disability or death are delayed; most liquid agents degrade rapidly; the effects of agents are often unpredictable (susceptibility to temperature and weather conditions); the method of agent use determines the degree of danger to victims (Cvetković, 2013, p. 8).
One characteristic of biological weapons is their ability to spread – for example, with a small amount of biological weapon, a victim can become infected and become a source of infection for new victims (Mauer, 2009, p. 12). When selecting biological agents for a terrorist attack, terrorist groups specifically consider: the possibilities of simple production and storage; the stability of pathogenic properties (which represents the ability of a biological agent to cause illness in small doses in the host); consequences and existence of multiple infection methods; the low infectious dose. The infectivity of the agent represents its ability to settle relatively easily in the host’s body; high contagion and lethality; resistance in the external environment, difficult detection, and identification (Hoffman, 1999, p. 172).
Biological agents can be transmitted very efficiently through the air, i.e., aerosols, and through water. Transmission of biological agents is also possible through food, but the number of infected persons is generally smaller compared to the number of water users (Brajević, 1968, p. 37). Before 2001, terrorists occasionally used toxic compounds or pathogens in targeted attacks on civilians. With very small costs, accessible equipment, and widely available knowledge, the production of these agents is very easy. On the other hand, the lack of biological weapons is conditioned by the obligatory protection of those who handle them, and for them to have effective action, it is necessary to store them in a precisely prescribed manner to retain their characteristic agents. Transport and delivery are also problems (Beshidze, 2007, p. 57; Cvetković, 2013b).
One of the problems that manifests all its negative implications in the field of biological weapons is the fact that a large number of biological agents that represent potentially biological weapons are already present in nature. The indisputable fact that a large number of viruses and pathogenic organisms are present in nature does not mean that all of them are suitable for use in terrorist purposes (Larsen, 2010, p. 33). Namely, after selecting an adequate pathogenic organism, the next step is to take its sample. However, their isolation from nature is very difficult. Moreover, they rarely occur in pure form in nature, which can reduce their virulence. Also, the convention on biological and chemical weapons is not implemented quickly enough in practice due to a lack of monitoring, verification, and implementation capacity (Shirley, 2011, p. 67). This mentioned fact causes further problems in distinguishing situations where the infection was deliberately spread from situations that occurred naturally. The development of the global economy, transport networks, and free movement of people and goods increase the risk of spreading infection worldwide.
10.3.4. Measures for protection and rescue in disasters caused by biological terrorist attacks
In disasters caused by biological terrorist attacks, protective and rescue measures are undertaken with the aim of efficiently saving lives and preserving human health, reducing environmental damage, and halting further spread of biological hazards. Bioterrorism undoubtedly represents a new branch of epidemiology that requires increased activity at all levels of prevention. The need for cooperation among states in eliminating the threat of biological terrorism is more pronounced in the 21st century than ever before.
In the world, twelve states conduct programs for the development of biological weapons, and this number tends to increase because possession and work on biological weapons can always be justified under the pretext of defensive purposes, i.e., for testing the possibilities of protection from its application (Heyer, 1999, pp. 48-57). The rapid development of science, technology, and knowledge carries harmful consequences of unforeseen proportions if used for wrong purposes (Cvetković, 2013, p. 9). In line with this, genetic engineering can be utilized to increase the infectivity of a certain biological agent, its resistance to known antidotes, vaccines, and drugs, or to make it more resilient to environmental conditions that may diminish its lethality. Therefore, protection from the effects of biological weapons is very important and involves the application of measures used in the prevention and control of infectious diseases, such as: recognition of a biological attack, detection and identification of biological agents, care for exposed individuals, and biological decontamination (Radić, 2011, p. 274; Cvetković, 2013, p. 135).
Protection from biological weapons has little in common with protection from chemical and nuclear weapons due to significant differences among them, but some procedures and principles can be used for antibiological defense. Additionally, a significant problem is responding to the question of whether it is a natural disease or bioterrorism. If suspicion arises regarding bioterrorism, field epidemiological investigations are necessary to collect all relevant data that will confirm or dismiss suspicion. Similarly, it is necessary to determine the possible method and route that led to the illness as quickly as possible in order to take effective control measures (Cvetković, 2013, p. 135).
Generally speaking, if it is determined that it is bioterrorism, biological decontamination must be conducted. This involves measures and procedures to remove or neutralize pathogenic microorganisms to the extent of eliminating the risk of infection (Radić, 2011, p. 278). It can be complete or partial, and it can be performed by an individual or a group (self-decontamination, mutual decontamination). Complete decontamination, which is carried out outside the zone of application of biological weapons, involves mass bathing and showering, thorough washing of hairy body parts and nails, while partial decontamination is conducted immediately after exposure to a biological agent. Additionally, items and clothing are subjected to the action of physical and chemical agents, with exposure to high temperatures being the most effective. The decontamination process involves shaking, brushing, and cleaning clothes and shoes, washing exposed body parts with water and soap, and cleaning the skin with a disinfectant. Considering the characteristics and types of biological weapons, it can be said that the main efforts in defense against biological weapons are focused on the development of vaccines and therapeutic agents (medicines) (Cvetković, 2013, p. 136).
Although recognized bioterrorist attacks have been relatively rare, so data related to them are very limited, biological weapons are unique because they are made from pathogenic organisms that can replicate (except toxins) and cause uncontrolled infections in a large number of hosts. In addition, the routes of application of biological weapons via air, water, and food, as well as the longer time period for the manifestation of contamination, particularly elevate the value of this weapon from the perspective of terrorist groups.
Its use for terrorist purposes has the potential to cause psychological stress among victims and rescuers. Moreover, they are relatively inexpensive, and the equipment used for their production can be found in commercial sale. It is especially important to consider that perpetrators can be military/intelligence forces, who prefer covert (secret) attacks, but also individuals and terrorist groups. They can utilize agents from all three categories (A, B, C), and any type of medium can be used as a means of dissemination. In order to achieve biological security, close cooperation between biologists, national security experts, and the industrial sector is necessary because efforts focused on the development of vaccines and therapeutic agents (medicines) are insufficient. In this regard, the field of defense against biological weapons can be divided into three main subfields: early prevention (vaccination), urgent prevention before and after exposure (use of protective measures before and after an attack – before symptoms of the disease develop), and treatment (Cvetković, 2013, p. 136).
10.4. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by nuclear or radiological terrorist attacks
If you want to find the secrets of the universe, think in terms of energy, frequency, and vibration.
Nikola Tesla
One means of protection against nuclear weapons is legal regulation at the global level. The Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons came into force on March 5, 1970, and was signed by the governments of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the United States, and the USSR, along with 93 other countries, with the aim of preventing an increase in the number of countries possessing nuclear weapons. The Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I) was signed by the United States and the USSR on July 31, 1991, just five months before the dissolution of the USSR, and it came into force on December 5, 1994. START I limited the number of nuclear warheads to no more than 6,000 and the number of carriers to which they are attached to 1,600. The Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START II) was signed by the President of the United States, George H.W. Bush, and Russian President Boris Yeltsin on January 3, 1993. The treaty banned the possession of intercontinental ballistic missiles with one or more nuclear warheads. Finally, the New START Treaty, signed on April 8, 2010, in Prague by Russian President Dmitry Medvedev and US President Barack Obama, envisaged reducing the nuclear arsenals of both countries by about a third, significantly reducing the number of missiles and launchers, and establishing effective control mechanisms (Ostojić, 2008; Cvetković & Mlađović, 2015).
All aspects related to nuclear weapons are primarily regulated by bilateral and multilateral agreements, placing this deadliest weapon within legal frameworks. However, in the era of globalization, the threat of nuclear weapons takes on an entirely new dimension due to the possibility of their (mis)use. We are confronted with terrorism that takes on attributes of global evil. Modern technological development, advancing into the 21st century, has enabled changes in all significant aspects of terrorism technology and has caused terrorism to cross a threshold that protection experts have feared and anticipated for decades.
In addition to the well-known traditional terrorism, we are increasingly confronted with so-called postmodern terrorism or superterrorism. This term is widely used in academic circles and in practice to denote the use of weapons of mass destruction for terrorist purposes. It seems that we are dealing with postmodern terrorism that “plays the old game by new rules” (Luqucr, 1996, p. 24). A typical means of committing a terrorist act is, among others, a bomb. It is estimated that, based on the availability of materials, the possibility of producing them in small dimensions, mobility, and great destructive power, in the future, this could easily be a nuclear bomb (Cvetković & Mlađović, 2015).
Due to the escalation of terrorist acts worldwide and the possibility of using nuclear weapons for terrorist purposes, concern among the international community has grown. As a result, the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism was adopted by the UN General Assembly on April 13, 2005, in New York. This convention entered into force on July 7, 2007, in accordance with Article 25. The convention was based on the Declaration on Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism contained in the annex to UN General Assembly Resolution No. 49/60 of December 9, 1994, which prescribes, among other things, that UN member states unequivocally condemn any act, method, or practice of terrorism, regardless of where it is committed and who commits it, emphasizing that it is necessary for UN member states to urgently review existing international legal provisions on the prevention, repression, and elimination of terrorism in all its forms and manifestations with a view to adopting a comprehensive act.
In our criminal legislation, the act of committing this criminal offense consists of undertaking some general dangerous actions, and for example, the most typical action prescribed by law is causing an explosion and fire. In addition to undertaking a general dangerous action or act of violence, the act of committing can also be a threat to undertake some general dangerous action or use a general dangerous means. The law specifically prescribes the threat to use nuclear, chemical, or bacteriological general dangerous means. This legal solution was not prescribed by the Basic Criminal Law (Official Gazette of the SFRY, No. 44 of 8, Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 39 of April 11, 2003), which was valid until the Criminal Code of RS entered into force (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 121/2012). What further determines the act of commission is that it must be the cause of the consequence of the criminal offense, i.e., it must be such that it creates a feeling of fear or insecurity among citizens.
In addition to the act of commission and its consequences, for the existence of this criminal offense, it is necessary for the act of commission to be undertaken with the intention of endangering the constitutional order or security of Serbia. This intent excludes any potential negligence, so the offense can only be committed with direct intent. This subjective element gives this criminal offense a political dimension, distinguishing it from other, generally less serious criminal offenses that can also be committed by undertaking some general dangerous action or violence. This difference is particularly noticeable in the example of the criminal offense of terrorism in the Criminal Code of France: “(…) constitute acts of terrorism when they are committed intentionally, individually or collectively, with the aim of seriously disturbing public order and peace by intimidation or terror, the following criminal acts: 1. intentional homicide, manslaughter, hijacking of aircraft, ship and other means of transport provided for in Section II of this Code; (…) 4. acts relating to weapons, explosives, or nuclear material provided for in Section I, Article L. 1333-9 (…).” (Code pénal France, Consolidated version of the code as of December 23, 2012). This means that all acts already exist as standalone offenses, but the essence lies in the intention. For our consideration, the incrimination related to nuclear material is particularly important. In the Criminal Code of France, there are five criminal offenses that mainly relate to negligent storage and handling, leaving nuclear material unattended, damaging and destroying containers with nuclear material. In addition to these acts being able to be committed independently, they can also be methods of committing the criminal offense of terrorism, so there is no overlap with these criminal offenses (Cvetković & Mlađović, 2015).
10.4.1. Conceptual definition and types of radiological weapons
Radiological weapons refer to radiological dispersal devices, better known as “dirty bombs.” Certainly, such weapons do not imply nuclear weapons capable of causing nuclear explosions; rather, they primarily refer to devices containing radioactive material that disperses into the environment after an explosion (Prockop, 2006; Wirz & Egger, 2005). Therefore, radiological weapons encompass any device (made in various ways), including weapons or equipment for its dissemination, which is not nuclear weapons but contains radioactive materials intended to disperse them to cause destruction, damage, or injuries by the radiation produced by the decay of such materials (Ursano et al., 2003). Radiological weapons should not be equated with dirty bombs, which are one type of radiological weapon (Cvetković & Filipović, 2017b; Cvetković & Martinović, 2021).
Radiological weapons utilize radioisotopes (americium-241, californium-252, cesium-137, cobalt-60, iridium-192, plutonium-238, radium-226, strontium-90) that through their radiation can dislodge electrons from atoms and disrupt chemical bonds in human body tissues, leading to cell damage (Karam, 2005). There are several ways to make radiological weapons. One of the most popular methods is undoubtedly the “dirty bomb.” It involves the construction of conventional explosives and radioactive materials, designed so that activation of such a device in a populated area can significantly disrupt the health of people at the explosion site, cause panic, hinder the efforts of intervention and rescue services in providing assistance, and remove the consequences of such an emergency situation (Skorga et al., 2003; Timins & Lipoti, 2003).
The radiological material required to produce radiological weapons can be obtained in various ways: it can be found in the form of lost or discarded radiation sources after legitimate use, stolen from a licensed user or manufacturer, or purchased improvised legally, whereby the buyer presents themselves as a legitimate user (Anderson & Bokor, 2013; Shan-qiang, 2004).
Table 8. Presentation of radiological isotopes with primary purpose and mode of action (Maurer, 2009; Cvetković & Martinović, 2021).
| Radiactive isotopes | Mode of action | Primary purpose |
| Americium | Alpha | Smoke detectors, radiography |
| Californium | Alpha | Radiography |
| Cobalt | Beta, gamma | Food sterilization, radiotherapy devices |
| Iridium | Beta, gamma | Industrial radiographic equipment |
| Plutonium | Alpha | Thermoelectric generators |
| Radionuclide | Alpha | Old radiotherapy devices |
Since atomic energy has long been used in civilian technology, millions of sources of radioactive radiation are used daily for medical, industrial, agronomic, and other purposes. It is also crucial to clarify the concept of radiological incidents, which are also related to radioactive isotopes. Disasters caused by the use of radiological materials involve exposure of the environment or people to radiation resulting from misuse of radioactive substances, technical accidents, or abuse by criminal organizations (Joyner & Parkhouse, 2009; Maerli, Schaper, & Barnaby, 2003; Cvetković & Martinović, 2021).
Some examples of such situations include: traffic accidents during the transport of radioactive isotopes for research or medical purposes; terrorist attacks with radiological dispersal devices; fires in hospitals or warehouses containing radioactive waste; accidents at nuclear power plants; detonation of nuclear weapons; spills of radioactive liquids in laboratories; accidental excessive exposure to radiation sources by medical staff and patients, and others (Tyson, 2012).
Cordesman (2002) divides radiological weapons into two groups: 1) radiological dispersal devices that use explosive fillings to disperse radioactive particles, and 2) simple radiological dispersal devices, radiological weapons without explosive fillings. Therefore, radiological weapons can take the form of radiological dispersal or radiological emission devices. The main difference between them is that radiological dispersal devices involve placing radioactive material together with explosives to spread radioactivity over a wider area, while radiological emission devices do not use explosives and cover a smaller, localized area (Cvetković & Martinović, 2021).
10.4.2. Abuse potentials of radiological weapons for terrorist purposes
Individuals and terrorist groups possess sufficient knowledge of nuclear physics and technology to produce various types of by-products and devices with radiotoxic effects, capable of causing strong radiological contamination, carcinogenic diseases, and long-term consequences for humans and other living organisms (Ackerman & Tamsett, 2009; Zimmerman & Loeb, 2004). Thus, terrorists whose primary goal is mass physical elimination of adversaries, as well as psychological impact, have the capability to utilize nuclear weapons and radioactive material for their actions. Unfortunately, this is no longer just a hypothesis but a real threat of nuclear terrorism that must not be underestimated.
Terrorist groups could threaten populations by poisoning them with plutonium dust (Kahn & Frank, 2004). Specifically, just a few tens of grams of plutonium injected into a water reservoir are enough to make the water highly radioactive, rendering it unfit for drinking due to life-threatening risks. The use of such water can cause the immediate death of tens of thousands of people, with effects of secondary contamination of others lasting for decades, necessitating the closure of such a reservoir and prohibiting its further use. Besides plutonium, long-lived radionuclides such as strontium, polonium, radium, and actinium are particularly dangerous (Cvetković & Martinović, 2021).
A large number of improvised radiological products are suitable for supplying terrorist groups worldwide (Kayyem & Pangi, 2003). Like with other types of weapons of mass destruction, radiation sources are not exclusively linked to nuclear-processed materials and their by-products but can be found in nature as well, in ceramic and porcelain products, certain foods, some metals, industrial production equipment, and medical equipment (Hoffman, 1999). Radioactive medical and industrial waste can also be used to create “dirty bombs.” Although often studied together with nuclear weapons, it’s important to note that this weapon spreads radioactivity differently from nuclear weapons. This weapon disperses radioactive material with the help of various devices or explosives that disperse it into the air (Cvetković & Martinović, 2021; Timins & Lipoti, 2003).
Radiological weapons were included in weapons of mass destruction at the end of the 20th century, due to the increased threat of the use of “dirty bombs,” especially by terrorist groups (Taylor, 2000). Radioactivity itself represents a long-term and constant danger to humans, and the fear of it further spreads due to the fact that sometimes we cannot protect ourselves from it even with numerous layers of protective material (Cvetković, 2013a). Exposure to even low levels of ionizing radiation can have lasting and serious consequences for humans, such as the development of cancer (Bromet, 2012; Cvetković & Mlađović, 2015).
During radioactive decay, three basic types of radiation can be emitted: alpha, beta, and gamma. Alpha particles are emitted, among others, by uranium, radium, radon, and plutonium. They are the largest radioactive particles. Although they travel only 2 to 3 centimeters through the air, they are extremely dangerous, especially if they enter the body through inhalation, ingestion, or contact with open wounds (Gurr & Cole, 2002). They can be found in nature in certain rocks, salts, and minerals, in the air as radon gas, and in water in the form of radium, uranium, or radon. These particles are also emitted by nuclear power plants. Individuals and objects exposed to alpha radiation can be contaminated but not radioactive.
Unlike alpha particles, beta particles can penetrate the skin to about 1 centimeter but not internal organs, and they also have a range of several meters (Alexander et al., 2006). Beta radiation can be found in nature in certain minerals and salts, and it is also used in various therapeutic and diagnostic purposes in medicine. Gamma rays represent the most dangerous form of radiation. They cover large distances and have the ability to pass through human tissue. Therefore, exposure implies that the body has been exposed to radiation, which can have a lasting effect on the human body, depending on the type of radiation and the duration of exposure. Radiation can cause two main types of damage to human bodies.
The energy released can primarily damage cells, disrupting their normal functioning and causing various diseases and death in cases where a significant number of cells are damaged (Torr, 2005). This mentioned energy determines the consequences that the human body suffers when exposed to large amounts of radiation. Radiation can also lead to damage and modification of DNA strands, which carries consequences for future generations. What is most worrying is the fact that constant exposure to low levels of radiation can later lead to serious health problems later in life (Callan, 2002; Cvetković & Filipović, 2017b).
Terrorists, in the development of weapons, rely on materials and components that are easily modifiable and adaptable for specific attacks, hence there is a probability that they will use industrial chemicals and radioactive materials to cause mass injuries and spread panic. A suitcase containing radioactive material can serve as an example of the use of radiological emission devices if left in a subway, on the street, or in a building, potentially irradiating passersby without their knowledge. In Argun, Chechnya, in December 1998, a radioactive improvised explosive device was discovered hidden near a railway line. Russian authorities neutralized the radioactive improvised explosive device but failed to identify the involved radionuclides. When the presence of such a device is finally discovered, panic spreads, causing further indirect damage (Byman, 2008). Upon detonation of the explosive, i.e., “dirty bomb,” radioactive material spreads into the environment, with naturally lower levels of heat intensity and radiation than nuclear weapons (Allison, 2004; Cvetković & Martinović, 2021).
The effects of detonating a dirty bomb depend on the type of radioactive material, the quantity used, wind direction, and strength. The shorter the exposure time and the farther the distance from the source, the lesser the consequences. What doesn’t favor the use of such weapons for terrorist purposes is the impossibility of transporting them unnoticed, their high sensitivity to weather conditions like wind direction and strength, their low lethality at the impact site, and the fact that their effectiveness in use increases proportionally with the difficulty of handling (Ferguson, Potter, & Sands, 2005).
One of the most significant features of a terrorist radiological attack is the psychological discomfort it creates in people. The reason for this psychological discomfort lies in people’s insufficient knowledge, and as a result, they often confuse radiological attacks with nuclear ones. Consequently, a general fear of radioactivity could produce widespread panic. The fact that it’s very difficult to recognize that it’s a radiological bomb explosion further motivates terrorist groups to use it. Since the visual effect will not differ, it is necessary to use appropriate equipment (radiation detectors) (Hyams, Murphy, & Wessely, 2002). Terrorist groups are particularly attracted to the fact that constructing radiological weapons does not require specialized technological knowledge, at least not more than making a conventional bomb. However, various studies have shown that, for the combination of explosives and radioisotopes, an expert is still required; otherwise, the strong explosive will destroy the radioactive material itself.
10.4.3. Conceptual definition and types of nuclear weapons
Nuclear weapons belong to the group of the most powerful and destructive weapons, whose destructive power originates from nuclear reactions caused by the process of splitting atomic nuclei of heavy elements (fission) or merging nuclei of light elements (fusion). Nuclear fission is a process in which a large nucleus can split into two nuclei. As a byproduct, neutrons are released. Fission of heavy elements triggers an exothermic reaction, releasing a large amount of energy (Cvetković & Mlađović, 2015). Nuclear fission is the main process used in nuclear power plants and begins when a neutron collides with the nucleus of another atom, making that atom unstable and causing it to split into two or more atoms, releasing neutrons that now collide with other atoms, thus initiating a chain reaction.
On the other hand, nuclear fusion is a process in which multiple nuclear nuclei merge, creating a heavier nucleus. This is accompanied by the release or absorption of energy depending on the mass of the involved nuclei. Significant energy is required to induce nuclear fusion, even in elements with the smallest mass, such as hydrogen. It is an exothermic process that can sustain itself. The energy released in most nuclear reactions is much greater than the energy of chemical reactions, because the binding energy holding nucleons together in the nucleus is much greater than the energy holding electrons around the nucleus of an atom (Cvetković & Mlađović, 2015).
The term “nuclear weapons” refers to a complex of nuclear and thermonuclear explosives and projectiles, means for their deployment, and launching techniques (Jović, 1999). Two atomic bombs were dropped by the U.S. on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, killing almost instantly more than 200,000 people. Several years later, the USSR developed the same (atomic) weapons, thus causing the U.S. to lose its nuclear monopoly. Nuclear weapons have never been used for similar purposes again. Nuclear weapons of lower explosive power are significantly more potent than the most powerful conventional explosives and are capable of destroying or seriously incapacitating entire cities. Nuclear weapons are often referred to as atomic bombs, hydrogen bombs, fission and fusion bombs, nuclear, and thermonuclear weapons. A bomb in which energy partly arises from fusion is called a hydrogen bomb, while the term atomic bomb is used for a bomb whose action is based on the principle of atomic nucleus fission (Cvetković & Mlađović, 2015).
The definition of atomic weapons can be found in the agreement between the Chancellery of Germany and Western powers from October 1954, by which Germany undertakes not to produce any atomic, biological, or chemical weapons on its territory. In the same act (Annex II), atomic weapons are defined as: any weapon that contains, or is intended to contain, or uses nuclear fuel or radioactive isotopes, and which, upon explosion or other uncontrolled nuclear transformation of nuclear fuel or radioactive isotopes, is capable of causing mass destruction, mass injury, or mass poisoning (Braudweiner, 1956). One of the greatest challenges to global security is nuclear terrorism, which Graham Allison described in one of his works on terrorism as the “ultimate catastrophe that can be prevented” (Graham, 2004). The most common hypothetical scenarios of nuclear terrorism involve detonation of fission or fusion weapons or the use of radiological weapons, i.e., dirty bombs (Cvetković & Mlađović, 2015).
Nuclear weapons can be classified in various ways, using different criteria. Generally, there are two main types of nuclear weapons. The first is a weapon that produces its explosive power solely through nuclear fission reactions. This type is known by names such as atomic bomb, A-bomb, or fission bomb. The second type of nuclear weapon produces a huge amount of energy through nuclear fusion reactions and can be a thousand times more powerful than a fission bomb. They are known as hydrogen bombs, H-bombs, thermonuclear bombs, or fusion bombs. Only six countries: the U.S., Russia, the United Kingdom, China, France, and India have detonated, or attempted to detonate, hydrogen bombs (Bronstein & Phillip, 1994).
According to their origin, there are: fission projectiles (fission in nuclei of heavy elements), fusion projectiles (fusion in nuclei of light elements), neutron weapons (modification in nuclei of light elements – fusion with dominant neutron radiation). According to the mode of application, there are: tactical nuclear weapons (projectiles of small from 0.1 to 10 Kt and medium power from 10 to 50 Kt), operational nuclear weapons (projectiles of large and medium power: from 50 to 500 Kt), and strategic nuclear weapons (thermonuclear projectiles and warheads: over 500 Kt). According to the explosive power of the projectile, there are: projectiles of very small power (up to 1 Kt-micro projectiles), projectiles of small power (from 1 to 10 Kt), projectiles of medium power (from 10 to 50 Kt), projectiles of large power (from 50 to 500 Kt), and projectiles of very large power (over 500 Kt) (Arnold & Robyn, 2003; Cvetković & Mlađović, 2015).
10.4.4. Possibilities of Nuclear Weapons Misuse for Terrorist Purposes
Nuclear terrorism is conditioned by a complex production process or theft of radioactive material. Difficulties with the spread or dissemination of nuclear material at the international level, as well as nuclear facilities, inevitably hinder the probability of nuclear terrorism. However, the practice of international politics regarding nuclear weapons is characterized by two opposing processes: the proliferation process, or the multiplication and spread of nuclear weapons, on one hand, and the reduction process, or the reduction of nuclear weapons, on the other hand (Cvetković & Mlađović, 2015).
Although the technology of building nuclear weapons is a defined priority of many terrorist organizations, the key to building this weapon lies in acquiring fissionable material. The extent to which terrorist organizations have gone is evidenced by the fact that schematics detailing the construction of nuclear weapons were found by American soldiers (Beshidze, 2007). Theoretical attempts by terrorist groups to obtain key fusion materials for nuclear weapons have been documented (Cordesman & Seitz, 2008): in September 1998, one person was arrested for attempting to purchase enriched uranium in Western Europe; in February 2001, Bin Laden’s assistant admitted involvement in a business aimed at acquiring uranium; in September 2001, Al-Qaeda attempted to purchase spent nuclear fuel. A Bulgarian businessman claimed that Bin Laden’s assistant approached him to buy spent fuel from a local factory. Spent fuel can be used for the production of conventional weapons as well as for the production of nuclear weapons. In Pakistan, a large number of nuclear scientists were arrested on suspicion of assisting Al-Qaeda in developing nuclear technology (Cvetković et al., 2014).
The justification for fear regarding the use of weapons of mass destruction by terrorists can be found in the fact that radiological weapons, such as “dirty bombs,” can contaminate a large number of drinking water sources. The easy construction method and availability of necessary components certainly further fuel concern. Considering the consequences and destructiveness, nuclear weapons are potentially the deadliest weapons terrorist groups can use to achieve their goals (Pejanović, 2011). Nowadays, making a nuclear bomb is not difficult. According to Theodore Taylor, the author of a study on the danger of “nuclear terrorism,” the only problem with producing a nuclear bomb is nuclear material, which is available on the black market to anyone willing to pay well. After the use of chemical weapons by a terrorist group in Japan, it became clear to ordinary citizens that terrorists would move on to the next level of violence, which can be achieved by acquiring and using nuclear weapons (Davis & Purcell, 2006).
The total length of a nuclear explosive device could be about 1 meter, with a diameter of about 25 centimeters and a weight of 300 kilograms. Such a nuclear explosive device can be easily transported and activated from a van or car. Ideal material for the production of a nuclear explosive device would be enriched uranium, but due to availability, terrorist organizations are increasingly focusing their attention on plutonium. Therefore, nuclear weapons require either highly enriched uranium or plutonium. A minimum of about 25 kg of radioactive material is needed for a “crude” fission device (Davis & Purcell, 2006).
Terrorist groups can attack facilities and institutions for the production of nuclear energy, as well as nuclear weapons during production, transportation, and storage. All states possessing nuclear weapons keep information about their nuclear arsenal secret. However, to create an approximate picture of the size of the nuclear arsenal, the following data can be used: the United States has 5,968 strategic warheads, 1,000 operational tactical weapons, and about 3,000 reserve tactical and strategic warheads; Russia has 4,978 strategic warheads, about 3,500 operational tactical warheads, and more than 11,000 reserve tactical and strategic warheads; China has about 300 strategic and 120 tactical warheads; France has about 350 strategic warheads, while the United Kingdom has fewer than 200 strategic warheads. However, distinguishing between an accident at a nuclear facility and a terrorist attack is very difficult (Cvetković & Mlađović, 2015).
In practice, certain parts of a state’s nuclear arsenal can be intentionally or unintentionally gifted to certain organizations. There may be things that a non-governmental organization can achieve that the national government either does not want or dares not undertake. Concerns about national proliferation may involve government operatives working secretly or anonymously, but the real threat involves weapons being surrendered to uncontrolled or independent groups that have some authority over what they do with them. As an alternative, government blackmail, which possesses weapons or material related to weapons, is one option for obtaining “gifts.” For those who are aware of the development of secret weapons and have the ability to damage the government or people involved, extortion would be particularly crucial. When it comes to corruption, “bribery and extortion” usually go hand in hand; therefore, “gift, blackmail, and purchase” can be seen as unilateral intentional transfers motivated by various incentives (Schelling, 1982).
Terrorist groups use various methods to obtain raw materials for the production or weapons of mass destruction. Namely, terrorist groups have 4 alternatives: a) production or acquisition of fissionable material required for nuclear weapon fuel; b) finding a sponsoring state that already possesses weapons of mass destruction and could provide them with such weapons. This is highly unlikely for the following reasons: the weapon is very expensive and difficult to smuggle across borders of multiple countries; the sponsoring state cannot have any guarantees that the weapons of mass destruction will be used against a defined target; c) theft of weapons of mass destruction, which is a complex task because it is stored in the best possible way. One of the first and most important measures to prevent a nuclear terrorist attack is to prevent terrorists from obtaining weapons of mass destruction or raw materials for their production in any way possible (Cvetković & Popović, 2011).
Most experts agree on the low probability of terrorist organizations securing safe production and use of nuclear weapons. Nuclear and military facilities are well secured, and obtaining the necessary components for nuclear weapons is difficult, if not impossible, from those sources. However, securing nuclear weapons in other parts of the world is not as strong, so there is a possibility of theft and smuggling of nuclear material in other countries. The size of nuclear weapons or necessary components, when compared to the huge number of daily shipments and containers in U.S. ports, further speaks to the possibility of smuggling nuclear weapons or their components (Cvetković & Popović, 2011).
The consequences of using nuclear weapons for terrorist purposes would be as follows: within a radius of 900 meters from the center of the explosion, everyone would die from radioactive radiation; radioactive particles of various sizes would fall from the sky during the first 24 hours. Victims of radioactive fallout would die within 2 weeks. Radiation sickness would affect everyone within a radius of 30 kilometers, while the number of cancer patients would increase, even hundreds of kilometers away (Stern, 2004; Cvetković & Mlađović, 2015).
10.4.5. Protection and rescue measures in disasters caused by nuclear and radiological terrorist attacks
In order to reduce the possibility of misuse of nuclear and radiological materials, it is necessary to implement a series of preventive measures both in their production process and during transportation and use, as previously discussed in the section related to nuclear disasters (Cvetković, 2020). However, sometimes even preventive measures cannot prevent highly motivated individuals from accessing them. That’s why it’s very important for members of intervention and rescue services to be well-prepared to respond to such situations in order to mitigate the consequences as quickly as possible.
To raise the level of preparedness of these services, it is necessary to develop appropriate action plans, enhance the training of responders, and acquire suitable equipment. Besides the national-level comprehensive plan developed for intervention and rescue services, each individual service must possess its own plans and procedures to be applied in such events. These plans and procedures must be mutually aligned to avoid overlap or conflicts of jurisdiction at the disaster site. Additionally, it’s crucial to raise public awareness about the possibilities of such events and educate them on how to react in such situations (Cvetković & Filipović, 2017; Cvetković & Martinović, 2021).
Following the terrorist attacks in 2001, various programs were established to enhance community preparedness (Citizen Corps; Ready Campaign). Although awareness of the risks of different threats increased among citizens, they are still not adequately prepared for them (Hoffman, 2014). Local authorities should have a ready contingency plan for community cohesion, which can be utilized to respond to disasters, covering: disseminating information and reassuring vulnerable and majority communities, liaising with local religious and other social leaders to reassure the community, engaging with key council members and chief executives of local authorities to publicly meet with social leaders, social groups providing public messages of solidarity, developing and implementing strategies for conflict resolution, deploying mediation resources, positive engagement with youth and other hard-to-reach groups (London Emergency Services Liaison, 2007; Cvetković & Martinović, 2021, p. 132).
Moreover, the community impact assessment should include the following aspects: current situation – what makes individuals, families, and social groups vulnerable, police and interagency factors – what resources are available, whether there are communication problems, and the extent of media involvement, future options – how the incident will unfold, what are the likely needs of individuals, social groups, and many others (London Emergency Services Liaison, 2007). In middle-income and low-income countries, where disaster risk management is underdeveloped, precautionary measures taken by households before the disaster occurs could significantly reduce loss of life, injuries, and property damage (Van der Keur et al., 2016). Individuals participating in social gatherings can benefit from exchanging useful information, learning about disasters, and spreading warnings. Social connectedness, strong family ties, as well as high levels of trust towards government services positively influence preparedness (Witvorapong, Muttarak, & Pothisiri, 2015; Cvetković & Martinović, 2021).
Disaster response is an important component of reducing the risk of loss due to disasters, especially human life loss. It involves a multitude of agencies such as defense, energy, interior, foreign affairs, health, food, environment, etc., and requires complex coordination (Yamin, 2011; Cvetković & Martinović, 2021). The release of radionuclides can be categorized into three phases: early phase follows emergency measures to protect the public after declaring a state of emergency; the intermediate phase is the time when the disaster is brought under control and there is no further release of radionuclides (the decision to consider either extending or withdrawing emergency countermeasures); the final phase is the recovery phase where long-term countermeasures need to be implemented (Sohier, 2002). Hazard-contamination zones arising from the spread of a radioactive cloud (radioactive fallout) can be divided into: moderate contamination zone (Zone “A”) up to 2.4 Gy/h absorbed dose; strong contamination zone (Zone “B”) up to 0.8 Gy/h absorbed dose; dangerous contamination zone (Zone “C”) up to 0.08 Gy/h absorbed dose (Mladjan, 2015; Cvetković & Martinović, 2021).
Table 15. Characteristics of zones of radioactive contamination in the event of a nuclear accident (source: Mladjan, 2015).
| Contamination zone | Absorbed dose of radiation, Dap (Gy) | Dose rate, R (Gy/h) | Contaminated zone surface, S (km2) |
| A – weak | 0,056 | 1,4·10-4 | 0,8(LА’ BА’- LA.BA) |
| A – moderate | 0,56 | 1,4·10-3 | 0,8(LA·BА–LБ·BБ) |
| B – strong | 5,6 | 1,4·10-2 | 0,8(LБ·BБ–Lв·Bв) |
| C – dangerous | 16,8 | 4,2·10-2 | 0,8(Lв·Bв –LГ·BГ) |
| D – extremely dangerous | 56 | 0,14 | 0,8 LГ·BГ |
Figure 4. Zones of radioactive contamination in the event of a nuclear accident (source: Mladjan, 2015).
Outside the outer boundary of the zone, which is also the boundary of radioactively contaminated land, personnel will not receive doses greater than permitted, but there is a risk of contamination entering the body (Mladjan, 2015).
Figure 5. Illustration of the spread of contamination zones during the spread of a radioactive cloud from a nuclear explosion 1 hour after the explosion (Mladjan, 2015).
The protective measures against ionizing radiation implemented to safeguard human life, health, and the environment from the harmful effects of ionizing radiation include: systematic examination of radioactivity in the environment; establishment of conditions for the production, trade, and use of sources of ionizing radiation; provision and use of equipment and means for protection against ionizing radiation and monitoring the effectiveness of such protection; examination of radioactivity, restriction or prohibition of production, trade, and use of products and raw materials contaminated with radionuclides above prescribed limits; keeping records of sources of ionizing radiation; keeping records of materials and raw materials used in technical processes where the concentration of natural radionuclides exceeds prescribed limits; keeping records of exposure to ionizing radiation for occupationally exposed persons, patients, and the population; determination of work conditions and implementation of prescribed protective measures against the harmful effects of ionizing radiation; control and monitoring of the health status of occupationally exposed persons; training and qualification of personnel in the field of protection against ionizing radiation; personal and collective protection of individuals against ionizing radiation; implementation and application of measures from the Action Plan in case of accidents; collection, storage, treatment, and disposal of radioactive waste; establishment of quality management systems for measures of protection against ionizing radiation; control of radioactivity of goods during import, export, and transit; prevention of unauthorized trafficking of radioactive and nuclear material; decontamination of individuals, workplaces, and the environment (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 36/09, 93/12; Cvetković & Martinović, 2021).
Table 16. Length (first number) and width (second number) of the radioactive contamination zone in the event of an aboveground explosion (average wind speed 25 km/h) (Mladjan, 2015).
| Explosion size (kt)
|
Contamination zone (km) | ||
| V | B | A | |
| 20 | 1,4-1,9 | 24-3,3 | 58-7,2 |
| 100 | 31-4 | 49-6,1 | 116-12 |
| 400 | 40-6 | 60-8 | 170-18 |
In the event of suspicion of a terrorist threat, the police and the competent operational center of the Sector for Emergency Situations of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Serbia are immediately informed, who then provide information to the Security-Information Agency, the Republic Staff for Emergency Situations, and the Directorate for Radiation and Nuclear Safety and Security. All urgent and necessary measures are taken to reduce radiological, psychological, and economic consequences. The response activities are managed by the Republic Staff for Emergency Situations in consultation with competent experts in the field of nuclear and radiation safety and security. In the radiological part of the response, authorized legal entities provide assistance by conducting measurements and assessing the situation. Information is provided by authorized personnel of the Ministry of Internal Affairs or the Staff for Emergency Situations (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 30/18; Cvetković & Martinović, 2021).
The response to the accident begins and proceeds according to the Plan for Action in case of accidents of the Public Enterprise “Nuclear Facilities of Serbia”. When this is not possible, the responsible person of the Public Enterprise “Nuclear Facilities of Serbia” announces the accident, specifying the hazard class according to previously established criteria from the Plan for Action in case of accidents at the facility, and informs the competent operational center, the local community, the Director, and the relevant inspection (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 30/18). The competent service of the facility where the accident occurred assesses the spread of radioactive material and conducts contamination measurements in the planned emergency protection zone. The facility staff takes measures to prevent and reduce further contamination spread (Cvetković & Martinović, 2021).
The Directorate orders authorized legal entities to conduct measurements within the framework of emergency monitoring and radiological assessment. Within 24 hours, the Staff for Emergency Situations orders the establishment of a triage center or processing facility to check the contamination of the population and other facilities necessary for the accident response. The response to the accident is managed by the responsible person of the licensee, or in the case of a fire at the facility, by the head of the firefighting and rescue unit; in later phases, it is managed by the competent Staff for Emergency Situations. Emergency medical teams care for and transport irradiated and contaminated individuals to appropriate healthcare facilities according to the plan and schedule of the ministry responsible for health matters. The competent operational center and the Staff for Emergency Situations provide teams of emergency response and rescue services. Based on measurement results and radiological assessment, and according to previously established criteria, the Staff for Emergency Situations orders the implementation of protective measures. The affected population follows the recommendations of the competent Staff for Emergency Situations. Based on the assessment, preparation, development, and implementation of a plan for mitigating and long-term consequences removal are carried out (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 30/18; Cvetković & Martinović, 2021).
10.5. Protection and rescue in disasters caused by terrorist attacks using high-powered explosives
That’s what I consider true generosity: You give all of yourself, yet you always feel as if it costs you nothing.
Simone de Beauvoir
10.5.1. Conceptual definition and types of explosive materials
Explosive materials refer to chemical compounds or heterogeneous mixtures that can rapidly release their potential energy through a chemical reaction, resulting in the sudden generation of a large volume of hot gases, i.e., thermal energy, and a rapid increase in pressure, as they are highly sensitive to impact, friction, heat, and certain impulses (Jovanov, Ockoljic, & Sikanja, 2000, p. 41; Bošković & Cvetković, 2017).
According to the Law on Explosive Materials, Inflammable Liquids, and Gases (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 54/2015), explosive materials include (Article 3): a) industrial explosives; b) means of initiating explosives; c) pyrotechnic products; d) industrial ammunition; e) gunpowder; f) raw materials of explosive nature for production. Industrial explosives are materials used for demolition or shaping of objects and materials using the energy released by chemical reactions of explosive decomposition. Means of initiating explosives include all types of caps, igniters, and fuses used in mining. Pyrotechnic products include items used for fireworks, anti-hail rockets, and other rockets used in scientific, industrial, and other purposes, as well as objects containing explosive components, burst components with explosive effects, or other components used to achieve blasting, fire, light, noise, or smoke effects. Industrial ammunition includes bullets, cartridges, and shells fitted with a cap and filled with gunpowder. Gunpowder refers to black and smokeless gunpowder intended for mining and sports purposes. Finally, raw materials of explosive nature include materials that, by chemical composition and sensitivity to ignition, possess explosive properties and are capable of explosive decomposition, intended for the production of explosive materials (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 54/2015).
According to their purpose, chemical properties, and practical use, explosive materials are divided into: initiating – priming and detonating – blasting. Initiating explosives are very sensitive to impact, friction, and heat. The explosive process of these explosives typically involves detonation. They are used as a means to initiate explosive processes of other explosives, most commonly in detonating caps. The main representatives of initiating explosives are lead azide and mercury fulminate.
Detonating explosives are much less sensitive to external influences (impact, friction, and heat). To start the detonation process, they require the initiation of initiating explosives. They have wide applications in demolitions and are considered basic military explosives. The main representatives of this group are: trinitrotoluene (TNT), triacetone triperoxide (TATP), cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX).
There are several classifications of explosives. Generally, explosives can be classified based on their characteristics into: primary (extremely sensitive to touch, friction, heat, or electrostatic source. The most famous primary explosives are: mercury fulminate, lead azide, and lead styphnate), secondary (relatively sensitive to impact, friction, and heat. The most famous secondary explosives are: trinitrotoluene (TNT), triacetone triperoxide (TATP), cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX)), tertiary (insensitive, requiring the use of secondary explosives, with a typical mixture of ammonium nitrate and fuel), and binary (consisting of two separate components that cause an explosion after mixing).
The main representatives of deflagrating explosives are black and smokeless gunpowder; pyrotechnic mixtures representing mechanical mixtures of flammable mixtures and oxidants. The fundamental form of the explosive reaction of gunpowder is combustion, initiated by a spark. They are most commonly used as propellant fillings in the production of various types of ammunition. Exceptionally, they can be used for demolishing materials of low resistance, but in such cases, they are used in well-sealed boxes. Under certain (special) conditions, they can undergo a detonation process. They are highly sensitive to external influences and are used in the production of signaling ammunition. The main representatives of pyrotechnic mixtures are sulfuric acid and phosphorus (Cvetković, 2012, 2020).
10.5.2. Possibilities of misuse of explosive materials for terrorist purposes
Explosives are frequently used by various terrorist groups. At Domodedovo Airport, a bomb with a destructive force equivalent to 7 kilograms of TNT exploded. The explosion resulted in more than 50 injuries, with 36 of them being severe. The explosion occurred in the baggage claim area. It is not ruled out that the bomb was concealed in one of the suitcases; the force of the explosion caused the roof of the airport building to collapse. Immediately after the tragedy, 20 emergency medical service vehicles arrived at the scene, and the injured were transported to four Moscow hospitals. Following the terrorist attack, authorities initiated an investigation into the causes of the explosion, and additional personnel were dispatched to the airport.
According to experts, the possibility cannot be excluded that the terrorist’s plan was for the bomb to explode while the plane was in the air, resulting in a much higher number of casualties. They are cheaper than all other means of mass destruction, easily obtained and used, easy to transport and camouflage, and suitable for use against a wide range of targets. Their use for terrorist purposes is conducive to mass casualties and property destruction, expensive area rebuilding and rehabilitation, as well as disruptions in infrastructure that can affect both electrical and transportation systems (Cvetković, 2012).
Analyses of terrorist events show that terrorist groups most commonly opt for conventional weapons such as explosive devices. Certain types of conventional explosives, in very small quantities with appropriate tactics of use, can cause serious human and material damage. Terrorists used Triacetone triperoxide (TATP) explosives in July 2005 in bombing attacks on transportation in London. This type of explosive is produced by a combination of acetone, hydrogen peroxide, and sulfuric acid (Cvetković, 2012).
The effects of mechanical action from an explosion or detonation manifest as a strong gas blast that causes deformations and material destruction. During the explosion, two forms of external effects are manifested: brisant-destructive and thrust-blast. Brisance is the ability of the explosive to perform work in an open space. It manifests as breaking, tearing, penetrating, and destroying materials near the explosive at the moment of the explosion. The best utilization of brisant action is achieved by placing the explosive against the object to be demolished. If the explosive charge is placed at a distance greater than two diameters of the explosive charge, the brisant action of the explosive transforms into thrust. Thrust action is the ability of the explosive to perform work in an enclosed and sealed space. Blast action manifests as breaking and discarding the medium surrounding the explosive at the moment of the explosion. The value of the blast action of the explosive is measured by the amount of material ejected per kilogram of explosive (Cvetković, 2012, 2020).
One example of a conventional explosive device is a bomb made of fuel oil and certain types of fertilizers, which was used in the attack on the federal building in Oklahoma City. One drawback that can be mentioned is the possibility of detection with specialized equipment or trained dogs, as well as the weak psychological impact they have compared to other weapons of mass destruction. Components and explosive materials can be found at numerous construction sites, commercial fertilizer manufacturers, and can also be produced domestically (Cvetković, 2012).
Terrorist groups most commonly use explosives in their terrorist attacks for the following reasons: explosives are easy to obtain, training is brief and does not require additional resources, maximum effect is achieved with minimal investment, the consequences of the explosion are catastrophic and visible, which is especially suitable for spreading fear and panic (Kahn & Frank, 2004). There is a possibility of combining different explosive compounds and preparing explosive mixtures for various purposes.
10.5.3. Measures for protection and rescue in disasters caused by the misuse of explosive materials
All subjects engaged in any type of explosive activities are obliged, within the scope of their legal powers, to adopt adequate protective and supervisory measures to eliminate the causes and dangers of conducting explosive acts. When the Sector for Emergency Situations detects anomalies with explosive chemicals, it is obliged to take necessary actions of legal and accountable persons who have ordering, prohibiting, or suspending character. As a result, the actions of the Sector for Emergency Situations can be preventive in order to prevent violations of laws and other regulations, corrective, involving issuing orders and prohibitions with repressive elements, and repressive measures involving submitting requests to the competent authority to initiate appropriate procedures (Bošković & Cvetković, 2017).
Additionally, in the Law on Explosive Materials (Article 15), it is prescribed that joint work organizations engaged in the production of explosive materials are obliged to properly keep records of the produced explosive materials containing (Article 15): a) data on the type and quantity of produced explosive materials; b) the name and seat of the joint work organization to which these materials were sold; c) the name of the authority, number, and date of the decision approving the purchase as well as data on the type, quantity, and packaging markings of sold explosive materials; d) data on the type and quantity of explosive materials used for works for own purposes, basic data on the works, and the time of their execution; e) data on the type and quantity of explosive materials used for testing quality and similar purposes and the time of testing.
In the supervision, the competent internal affairs authority may (Article 32): a) order the identified irregularities to be rectified within a deadline determined by it; b) prohibit further handling of explosive materials, flammable liquids, and gases by persons who are not professionally qualified to handle these materials; c) temporarily prohibit performing a specific action related to the production, trade, or use of explosive materials, flammable liquids, and gases if the prescribed conditions regarding the place, time, and manner of performing those activities are not met; d) halt the construction and reconstruction of warehouses or other premises for storing explosive materials, flammable liquids, and gases for whose location, construction, or reconstruction there is no consent or approval of the competent authority – until consent or approval is obtained; e) prohibit the production and trade of explosive materials, flammable liquids, and gases whose vessels and other packaging, packaging, and labels are not in accordance with the law – until identified deficiencies are rectified; f) prohibit the use of warehouses or other storage premises that do not meet the conditions prescribed by law and technical standards; g) confiscate explosive materials, flammable liquids, and gases from an individual who holds or uses these materials contrary to the law; h) order the taking of other prescribed measures concerning the production, trade, handling, and storage of explosive materials, flammable liquids, and gases.
It is of crucial importance to timely and preventively identify and assess the risks of explosives, as this approach enables the perception of potential hazards and the timely implementation of appropriate technical, technological, organizational, physical-technical, legal, and other necessary measures contributing to the construction of an effective protection system. It is necessary to observe and analyze the situation in the field of protection from the trade of explosives in order to identify specific dangers and anticipate possible consequences, especially those manifested in qualitative and quantitative changes in the lives and health of people, the environment, and material (Bošković & Cvetković, 2017).
Explosive compounds are not usually listed as a means of committing criminal offenses. As a result, certain illegal criminal acts can be committed only by foreseeing acts of necessary legal measures involving explosives or other dangerous chemicals, but without their actual activation, i.e., triggering an explosion. Other criminal acts can also be committed without the use of explosives or other hazardous materials if the act is performed using another means or action, provided that an explosive or other hazardous material is activated during that act. Although explosive materials are not listed as means of execution in one group of criminal offenses, they can be used as a means of committing these criminal offenses, as well as criminal offenses that can be committed violently or presumptively with materials containing explosive materials, which they can exploit (Bošković & Cvetković, 2017).
Using the basic criteria for categorizing criminal offenses that can be committed using explosive materials, these criminal offenses can be divided into three categories (Bošković & Cvetković, 2017):
- a) There are criminal offenses that can be committed solely using explosives or other dangerous materials without their activation, meaning there is no explosion of the explosive material. Unauthorized handling of explosive and flammable materials, production and acquisition of weapons and means intended for committing criminal offenses, unauthorized possession of weapons and explosive materials, unauthorized import of dangerous materials into Serbia, and unauthorized processing, disposal, and storage of dangerous materials fall into this group.
- b) Criminal offenses that can be committed by activating explosive or other dangerous materials as a means of execution, along with some other means and actions, resulting in the explosion of the explosive material. This group includes the following criminal offenses: causing general danger, terrorism, international terrorism, endangering the safety of air traffic by violence, illegal fishing.
Unlike the previous group of criminal offenses, this group includes criminal offenses that, in addition to explosive and other dangerous materials, can also be committed using some other means or action, which results in the activation of explosive materials, depending on the specific criminal offense;
- c) Criminal offenses that do not contain specific means of execution in their description, but, in addition to other means, can also be committed using explosive materials, where the execution also results in the explosion of the explosive material. This group includes the following criminal offenses: murder, sabotage, environmental pollution. This group is characterized by criminal offenses that can be committed using various means, or with any means suitable for their execution, depending on the specific situation (Bošković & Cvetković, 2017).
Discussion Questions
¤ Explain the conceptual definition and characteristics of chemical, biological, nuclear, and radiological terrorist attacks relevant to the organization of protection and rescue efforts.
¤ Explain the potential misuse of chemical and biological weapons for terrorist purposes.
¤ Explain the potential misuse of nuclear and radiological weapons for terrorist purposes.
¤ Explain the potential misuse of high destructive power explosive weapons for terrorist purposes.
¤ How are measures for protection against disasters caused by chemical and biological terrorist attacks organized and implemented?
¤ How are measures for protection against disasters caused by nuclear and radiological terrorist attacks organized and implemented?
¤ How are measures for protection against disasters caused by high destructive power explosive terrorist attacks organized and implemented?
Further reading recommendations
¨ Adamantiades, A., & Kessides, I. (2009). Nuclear power for sustainable development: current status and future prospects. Energy Policy, 37(12), 5149-5166.
¨ Ackerman, G., & Tamsett, J. (2009). Jihadists and weapons of mass destruction: CRC Press.
¨ Alexander, G. C., Larkin, G. L., & Wynia, M. K. (2006). Physicians’ preparedness for bioterrorism and other public health priorities. Academic emergency medicine, 13(11), 1238-1241.
¨ Allison, G. (2004). Nuclear terrorism: The ultimate preventable catastrophe: Macmillan.
¨ Beshidze, R. (2007). Weapons of mass destruction and International terrorism. Georgia: Project, Final Report.
¨ Bromet, E. J. (2012). Mental health consequences of the Chernobyl disaster. Journal of radiological protection, 32(1), N71.
¨ Byman, D. (2008). Iran, terrorism, and weapons of mass destruction. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 31(3), 169-181.
¨ Byrnes, M. E., King, D. A., & Tierno Jr, P. M. (2003). Nuclear, chemical, and biological terrorism: Emergency response and public protection: CRC Press.
¨ Cvetković, V., & Martinović, J. (2021). Upravlјanje u nuklearnim katastrofama. Naučno-stručno društvo za upravlјanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama, Beograd.
¨ Cvetković, V., & Mlađović, I. (2015). Mogućnosti zloupotrebe nuklearnog oružja u terorističke svrhe i krivičnopravna zaštita. Subjekti sistema bezbednosti u ostvarivanju bezbednosne funkcije države. VII međunarodni naučni skup ,,Dani bezbjednosti”, Banja Luka: Fakultet za bezbjednost i zaštitu.
¨ Cvetković, V., & Popović, M. (2011). Mogućnosti zloupotrebe oružja za masovno uništavanje u terorističke svrhe. Bezbednost, 53(2), 149-167.
¨ Cvetković, V., Popović, M., & Sadiyeh, A. (2014). Mogućnosti zloupotrebe hemijskog oružja u terorističke svrhe. In S. Mijalković (Ed.), Suprotstavljanje savremenom organizovanom kriminalu i terorizmu (pp. 341-359). Beograd: Kriminalističko-policijska akademija.
¨ Ferguson, C. D., Potter, W. C., & Sands, A. (2005). The four faces of nuclear terrorism: Routledge.
¨ Hyams, K. C., Murphy, F. M., & Wessely, S. (2002). Responding to chemical, biological, or nuclear terrorism: the indirect and long-term health effects may present the greatest challenge. Journal of health politics, policy and law, 27(2), 273-292.
¨ Kahn, L., & Frank, N. (2004). Protection against weapons of mass destruction. Princeton: Princeton University.
¨ Kayyem, J. N., & Pangi, R. L. (2003). First to arrive: state and local responses to terrorism: MIT Press.
¨ Kramer, W. M. (2009). Disaster planning and control: Fire Engineering Books.
XI TACTICS FOR PROTECTION AND RESCUE IN DISASTERS CAUSED BY MAJOR FIRES
Chapter summary
In the eleventh chapter of the textbook, tactical principles and recommendations regarding the protection and rescue of people in disasters caused by major fires are discussed. Within this chapter, conceptual definitions, characteristics, and types of fires are examined, with a focus on basic characteristics, burning processes, and extinguishing methods. Additionally, preventive measures for fire protection are considered: structural, technological, measures for wildfire protection, and measures for protecting against fires involving hazardous materials. Furthermore, special attention is given to fire extinguishing agents: water, powder, carbon dioxide, and foam. The organization and protection measures in disasters caused by fires are discussed, with a focus on technical-rescue interventions. Finally, the identification of the causes of fires and explosions is analyzed in detail.
Keywords: protection and rescue tactics; conceptually defined; characteristics; burning; solid materials; liquid materials; preventive fire protection measures; structural and technological measures; fire protection measures on electrical installations; wildfire protection measures; fire protection measures for hazardous materials; water; powder; carbon dioxide; foam; high-rise structures; areas; vehicles; industrial facilities; technical-rescue interventions; causes of fires; explosions.
Learning objectives
v Understanding the conceptual definition and characteristics of fire;
v Familiarization with the basic characteristics of the burning and extinguishing processes;
v Understanding preventive fire protection measures: structural measures; technological measures; fire protection measures for electrical installations; wildfire protection measures; fire protection measures for hazardous materials;
v Introduction to the organization and measures of protection and rescue in disasters caused by terrorist attacks using high-explosive devices;
v Acquiring knowledge about fire extinguishing agents: water; powder; carbon dioxide; foam;
v Acquiring knowledge about basic tactical firefighting actions in high-rise structures and vehicles;
v Acquiring knowledge about basic tactical firefighting actions in industrial facilities;
v Understanding the organization and measures of protection in disasters caused by fire;
v Acquiring knowledge about technical-rescue interventions and determining the causes of fires.
11.1. Conceptual definition, characteristics, and types of fires
If anything kills over 10 million people in the next few decades, it’s most likely to be a highly infectious virus rather than a war.
Bill Gates
Fire, as a frequent and serious threat to human safety and property, represents the process of uncontrolled combustion of fuel material, requiring the presence of fuel material, availability of oxygen, an energy source, and the interaction of these elements (uninterrupted chain reaction) (Cvetković & Gačić, 2017). The Fire Protection Law defines fire as the uncontrolled combustion process that endangers human life and health, property, and the environment (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 87/2018).
The harmful effects of fire are manifested in the creation of basic combustion products, i.e., smoke, which may contain water vapor, carbon dioxide (complete combustion), or carbon monoxide (incomplete combustion) toxic products. It is crucial to emphasize that carbon dioxide is a non-toxic gas and heavier than air (causing suffocation and disorientation in space), and carbon monoxide (poisonous gas causing serious poisoning, lighter than air). The combustion process involves certain material decompositions leading to specific vapor emissions that later burn. Moreover, from these reasons, it is possible to differentiate the ignition temperature of volatile components, as well as the ignition temperature of the solid part. Unlike solid fuel materials, flammable liquids can only burn in the gas phase (Cvetković, 2020). Flammable liquids are liquids with flash points equal to or lower than 60°C and are classified into one of three hazard categories: category 1 with a flash point <23°C and an initial boiling point ≤35°C, category 2 with a flash point <23°C and an initial boiling point >35°C, and category 3 with a flash point ≥23°C and ≤60°C; Gasoline, diesel, and light fuel oils with flash points between ≥55°C and ≤75°C can be classified into category 3 (Cvetković, Filipović, & Gačić, 2019, p. 459).
According to Cvetković (2020), fires can be classified based on several different criteria, such as size: small, medium, large, catastrophic, or block; place of occurrence: indoor and outdoor; while the phases of fire development are divided into the initial, flaming, and live embers phases. According to the international classification of fires, based on fuel material, fires are divided into 5 basic categories A – F: Class A includes fires of solid fuel materials, Class B includes fires of flammable liquids, Class C includes fires of flammable gases, Class D includes fires of flammable metals, and Class E includes fires of oils and fats (Ponomarenko et al., 2019).
There are also other classifications of fires: a) by size (small – small quantity of fuel material, medium – one or more rooms or larger quantities of fuel material, large – entire buildings, roofs, floors, and catastrophic or block – multiple buildings, settlements, large forest complexes, and large open warehouse areas); b) by place of occurrence: indoor (developing in an enclosed space) and outdoor (affecting external parts of the building); c) by the type of fuel material: Class A – fires of solid fuel materials such as wood, paper, textiles; Class B – fires of flammable liquids such as gasoline, diesel, paints, resins; Class C – fires of flammable gases e.g., natural gas, methane, butane; Class D – fires of flammable metals e.g., aluminum, magnesium; Class F – fires of oils and fats; and by phases of development: a) initial – low-intensity burning, low temperature, and slow spread; b) flaming phase – higher burning speed and intensity reaching maximum; c) live embers phase – the main mass of fuel material has burned (Mlađan, 2009, pp. 187-188).
Fires can also be distinguished based on whether they occurred in buildings, industrial sectors, transportation vehicles, underground pits, etc. The causes of fires can vary depending on the heat generation processes. Thus, there are natural causes (solar heat, lightning strike), mechanical (friction), electrical system failures, self-ignition (thermophilic bacteria), explosions, static electricity (Cvetković, 2020).
In the Republic of Serbia, fire protection is achieved by: 1) organizing and preparing fire protection entities for fire protection implementation; 2) providing conditions for fire protection implementation; 3) taking measures and actions for the protection and rescue of people, property, and the environment in the event of a fire outbreak; 4) supervising the implementation of fire protection measures (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 87/2018). In this regard, the fire protection system encompasses a set of measures and actions for planning, financing, organizing, implementing, and controlling fire protection measures, for preventing fire outbreaks and spread, detecting and extinguishing fires, rescuing people and property, protecting the environment, determining and eliminating fire causes, as well as providing assistance in eliminating the consequences caused by fire (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 87/2018, Article 2).
In the Fire Protection Strategy for the period from 2012 to 2017, it was specified that entities should direct and ensure the strengthening of awareness of the importance of fire protection through the education and upbringing system, scientific research and technological development, improvement in the work process, and public information (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 21/2012). It is also emphasized that efforts will be made to raise awareness of the importance of fire protection among fire protection entities, accepting fire protection not only as an obligation but as a way to improve overall safety, primarily through the education and upbringing system, scientific research and technological development, improvement in the work process, and public information.
Furthermore, mechanisms for informing the public about the state of fire protection will be created and improved, along with developing ways to exchange information and coordinate activities important for fire protection. The mentioned law particularly highlights that to acquire the knowledge, skills, and habits necessary to improve and consolidate positive attitudes and behaviors relevant to fire protection among children and students, competent school and preschool institutions are required to establish and implement fire protection education programs within school and preschool curricula (Cvetković, 2017). Additionally, it is prescribed that a citizen who notices immediate danger of a fire outbreak or detects a fire is obligated to remove the danger or extinguish the fire if they can do so without endangering themselves or others. If a citizen cannot extinguish the fire themselves, they are obliged to immediately inform the nearest firefighting and rescue unit or police station.
In 2008, with a focus on preschool institutions and educational institutions in the territory of Serbia, an educational campaign was conducted aimed at educating children in fire protection. A total of 228 preschool institutions and 341 educational institutions were covered. Moreover, with the support of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the Ministry of Internal Affairs conducted an educational campaign dedicated to child safety in case of fire in 2010 (Cvetković, 2017).
According to data from the Sector for Emergency Situations, from 2011 to 2013, there were 79,886 fires in which 1,280 people died or were injured. In 2012, the damage caused by fires in Serbia amounted to around 50 million euros. Forest fires also pose a serious problem to the safety of people and their property. From 1900 to 2013, there were 742 forest fires, resulting in 7,037 deaths, 10,732 injuries, affecting 11,525,769, and leaving 363,282 people homeless (Ivanov & Cvetković, 2016; Cvetković, Gačić, & Jakovljević, 2016).
According to official data for a period of 16 years (2000-2015), 336,507 fires and explosions were registered in the Republic of Serbia, resulting in 1,351 fatalities (an average of 84.5 per year), 4,568 injuries (an average of 285.5 per year), and 4,414 rescues (for the period 2006-2015) (Laban, Draganic, & Djolev, 2020). According to the mentioned authors, the increase in the total number of fires and explosions during the observed period was due to equipment wear, obsolescence of work tools, technological deficiencies, insufficient investment in fire protection, violation of technological and work discipline, disregard for protection measures in production, use, and transportation of goods and services, irresponsible attitude towards open and forest space, lack of all types of professional staff, and inadequate training of employees and the population.
11.2. The basic characteristics of the combustion and extinguishing process
Sometimes even the most innocent things in the world can become weapons when they fall into the hands of the wicked.
Ludmila Petrushevskaya
11.2.1. Burning of solid materials
In most cases, fires involving solid combustible materials (wood, plastic, rubber, animal products) occur, which differ according to certain properties that characterize them. In the process of burning, there is first evaporation and thermal degradation, followed by combustion of the gaseous phase and fine particles, and finally, combustion of the solid phase. For these reasons, two temperatures are characteristic: the ignition temperature of evaporable components and the ignition temperature of the solid part (coke residue) (Mlađan, 2009). Certain solid materials melt and burn only their vapors, while there are also other types of plastics that have specific additives that make them more or less flammable.
The rate of fire growth can be determined by a formula based on exponential growth, which varies depending on the fire growth coefficient of the burning material. Moreover, the rate of fire growth is an important factor determining fire fatalities, as many fatal incidents are characterized by rapid fire development after its initial discovery (examples – Boston 1942, 490 people, Puerto Rico 1986, 83 deaths, Sweden 1998, 63 deaths, Netherlands 2001, 14 deaths) (Kobes, Helsloot, De Vries, & Post, 2010). If there has been an accidental fire in a building, the fire plume produces hot gases that rise to the ceiling and then turn and flow radially outward as a ceiling jet. As the ceiling jet spreads radially, the ceiling will be convectively heated (Richards, Munk, & Plumb, 1997; Richards, Ribail, Bakkom, & Plumb, 1997).
11.2.2. Burning of liquid materials
In relation to their specific properties, liquids can be flammable or non-flammable, easily or less easily ignitable. Flammable liquids can only burn in the gas phase. For flammable liquids to ignite, it is necessary for the ignition temperature to be higher than the boiling temperature, and it is necessary for a mixture of flammable liquid vapors and air to form. The flammability range represents the area between the lower (the lowest concentration of flammable liquid vapor with air at which it can ignite) and upper (the highest concentration of flammable liquid vapor with air at which it can ignite) limits of flammability (Mlađan, 2009). Moreover, if the concentration exceeds the upper flammability limit, combustion cannot occur regardless of the temperature of the mixture. The degree of danger from the combustion of liquid materials depends on the flow of thermal radiation and the duration of its influence (Table 10).
Table 17. Radiation intensity of flame during oil combustion. Source: (Bulanenkov et al., 2001).
| Ignited area,
m2 |
Flame radiation intensity (kW/m2) at a distance from it in meters | ||||
| 2 | 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | |
| 1 | 3.8 | – | – | – | – |
| 2 | 7.0 | 4.2 | – | – | – |
| 3 | 11.1 | 7.0 | 4.2 | – | – |
| 5 | 14.0 | 8.1 | 4.9 | 2.1 | – |
| 7 | 16.5 | 9.2 | 5.5 | 2.3 | – |
| 10 | 18.0 | 10.5 | 6.3 | 3.1 | – |
| 15 | 20.5 | 15.6 | 8.1 | 3.9 | – |
| 20 | 30.0 | 24.0 | 11.1 | 5.6 | 2.4 |
| 50 | 45.0 | 30.0 | 11.5 | 5.8 | 2.5 |
| 100 | 75.0 | 40.0 | 12.5 | 6.0 | 2.8 |
| 150 | 82.0 | 45.0 | 14.0 | 8.0 | 4.2 |
11.3. Preventive measures for fire protection
Today’s terrorism is not a product of traditional history of anarchism, nihilism, or fanaticism. It is, in fact, the contemporary partner of globalization.
Jean Baudrillard
Fires have been an inevitability accompanying humanity since the discovery of fire. Preventive measures for fire protection are based on eliminating one of the necessary elements for the combustion process. For these reasons, literature distinguishes: a) construction measures; b) technological measures; c) fire protection measures on electrical installations; d) fire protection measures in nature; e) fire protection measures for hazardous materials. Given the amount of money invested in educating people about fires and reducing their likelihood, it seems practically imperative to take proactive measures to prevent them from happening altogether (Canter, 1980).
Building fire safety is unthinkable without proper training and education of the population. However, it is necessary to install the latest fire prevention and extinguishing devices, but if citizens ignore warning signals, do not know how to handle these devices, and are unaware of desirable behaviors that may expose them to even greater danger, the latest technology will not be helpful or beneficial if a fire occurs (Nyankuru, Omuterema, & Nyandiko, 2017). Furthermore, significant steps in the process of improving fire protection include: educating and training citizens; implementing protection, rescue, and evacuation programs; ensuring clear signaling indicating exits in case of fire and the location of fire extinguishing equipment (Prashant & Tharmarajan, 2007).
Starting from the importance of reducing the number, fire prevention strategies began to be massively used by fire and rescue services (Shai, 2006). In certain countries, programs have been developed whereby the person responsible for safety identifies potential fire risks, informs citizens what to do to reduce and prevent the risk of fire, creates an evacuation plan in case of fire, and ensures the existence of functional smoke detectors in residential buildings. The program is primarily aimed at categories of the population exposed to higher risks, thus including other risks that may be present, such as vulnerable population categories (Diekman et al., 2008; Cvetković & Protić, 2022).
The design and implementation of preventive measures for fire protection must take into account various factors: a) procedural; b) organizational; c) environmental; d) architecture or structure; e) characteristics of people. Namely, key factors (Figure 6) for survival in case of fire are reflected in different profiles of people (demographic, socio-economic, and psychological characteristics), characteristics of buildings or constructed objects, and fire characteristics themselves. In addition, there are three different survival strategies in case of fire: attempting to extinguish, finding shelter and waiting for rescue, and finally evacuation (Kobes et al., 2010).
Figure 6. Factors influencing human behavior in fires. Source: (Hurley et al., 2015, p. 2118).
In numerous studies, it has been found that a lower socioeconomic status (lower income, lower employment levels, higher prevalence of vacant houses) is associated with a higher risk of fire occurrence (Chhetri, Corcoran, Stimson, & Inbakaran, 2010; Jennings, 2013; Lambie, Best, Tran, Ioane, & Shepherd, 2015; Shai, 2006). Despite their high exposure, people of low socioeconomic status show the least preparedness and awareness of disasters, contributed to by factors such as lack of housing accessibility and low literacy levels (Teo, Goonetilleke, Ahankoob, Deilami, & Lawie, 2018; Cvetković & Protić, 2022).
The Law on Disaster Risk Reduction and Emergency Management includes fire and explosion protection and rescue measures as a civil protection measure (Article 56). It is also stipulated that fire and explosion protection and rescue include the organization and implementation of preventive measures in all environments, especially in facilities storing flammable and explosive materials and areas where fire incidents may occur. To carry out disaster risk reduction activities, the Ministry of Internal Affairs maintains operational fire suppression maps.
The fire protection system, rights, and obligations of state organs, autonomous province organs, local self-government units, business entities, other legal and natural persons, and fire service organizations are regulated by the Fire Protection Law (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 87, 2018). Fire protection is realized by (Article 5): 1) organizing and preparing fire protection subjects for fire protection implementation; 2) providing conditions for fire protection implementation; 3) taking measures and actions for the protection and rescue of people, material goods, and the environment in the event of a fire outbreak; 4) supervising the implementation of fire protection measures. The law also prescribes the adoption of a Fire Protection Strategy (Article 15), which is adopted by the Government and determines the state of fire protection. It specifically includes: 1) a description and assessment of the state of fire protection; 2) basic goals and criteria for fire protection implementation as a whole, by areas, and spatial units with priority fire protection measures; 3) conditions for applying the most favorable economic, technical, technological, economic, and other measures for fire protection; 4) long-term and short-term measures to prevent outbreaks, mitigate fire consequences, and control the implementation of fire protection measures; 5) the method of ensuring funds for fire protection.
11.3.1. Fire protection structural measures
Under fire protection structural measures, all preventive measures in the process of construction, building, and operation of facilities are implied, aimed at preventing the occurrence and spread of fire in enclosed spaces. Such preventive structural measures include: the use of non-flammable materials in the construction process, inter-building distances, inter-floor constructions, fire-resistant walls (segments and sectors), and fire-resistant doors.
Inter-building distance implies leaving free space between certain objects to create a fire barrier and prevent the spread of fire. Regarding the purpose of the facilities, it is necessary to separate industrial facilities from residential ones, production from storage, etc. The value of the minimum distance depends on numerous factors such as purpose, type, specificity of the production process, etc.
Fire-resistant walls, which represent horizontal and vertical barriers, are a significant preventive structural measure. Hence, fire-resistant walls are used within facilities to prevent the spread of fire. All facilities are predominantly divided into fire segments (building floors) and fire sectors (part of the fire segment, several rooms on a floor). Fire-resistant walls serve the function of preventing the spread of fire from one space to another. It is also essential to use fire-resistant doors, tasked with containing the fire within a designated area, preventing its spread, and ensuring swift and reliable evacuation of people.
It is noteworthy that steel is widely used in contemporary architecture, and for good reason. Despite being non-flammable and having a high melting point (around 1500 degrees Celsius), an increase in steel temperature during a fire can have serious consequences. In the worst-case scenario, a steel structure would collapse during a fire, resulting in loss of life and destruction of property and belongings.
It is crucial to “extend the time” during a fire before the steel structure reaches a critical temperature, allowing the space to be evacuated and the fire extinguished before the steel structure is compromised. Passive fire protection materials, such as thermally insulated steel, are often used to achieve this goal. Sources of acid, sources of carbon (usually binders), and blowers are the three main components of classic flammable coatings. Sources of acid are the most common type of carbon source. When the coating is heated, acid is formed, and the carbon source is esterified, resulting in a more durable coating.
11.3.2. Technological measures for fire protection
In various technological processes, there are high risks of fire occurrence and rapid spread due to the presence of large quantities of hazardous materials. Besides the presence of hazardous materials, such technological processes are characterized by the use of various organic materials that are highly flammable or that can cause serious consequences to workers and equipment due to improper handling in the production process. Uncontrolled creation of explosive environments or accumulation of static electricity can easily lead to catastrophic fires. Technological fire protection measures encompass all structural and non-structural measures that directly or indirectly reduce the risk of fire occurrence in particularly vulnerable objects during production, storage, distribution of hazardous materials, or other easily flammable raw materials.
The design and implementation of preventive measures in various technological processes require knowledge of various factors: what is being done (detailed description of the technology); what it is being done with (character, physical-chemical properties of materials); how it is done (description of work and operations, or means); where it is done (description of working premises); who does it (trained, accustomed, qualified); under what conditions it is done (ventilation, heating, etc.); the condition of installations and equipment (durability, maintenance, etc.); and protection measures (technical and organizational) (Mlađan, 2009, p. 115). According to the Law on Fire Protection (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 87, 2018), technological processes that use or produce flammable liquids and gases or explosive materials are carried out in objects or parts of objects separated from other production and storage facilities and areas by fire-resistant walls that prevent fire spread. Furthermore, it is prescribed that such technological processes must be organized in such a way that, depending on the nature and conditions of work, the danger of fire is eliminated (Article 37).
In technological processes, specially designed dust removal installations are often applied with the purpose of removing dust that directly or indirectly originates in the technological process. Therefore, in industries where certain procedures of grinding, crushing, and similar processes are carried out, a large amount of dust is created, which disrupts the production process. On the other hand, if its concentration rises above a certain level, it can lead to the creation of an explosive atmosphere. For these reasons, devices are installed to extract dust, which, through certain systems, are conducted to their storage place. In such pipelines, devices for fire detection and extinguishing are installed, which are activated if a certain spark ignites.
11.3.3. Fire protection measures on electrical installations
Electrical energy is an indispensable factor in all developed production and technological processes. For this reason, the proper introduction and use of electrical energy are of paramount importance, considering that a large number of fires are caused by faulty electrical installations. Therefore, special attention should be paid to proper design, use, and maintenance of electrical installations. Faulty installations lead to overheating, which releases a large amount of heat causing fires. The cross-section of electrical cables, fuses, and the method of use must comply with the prescribed technical and technological standards.
When it comes to overhead lines, they must be calculated and designed to withstand various mechanical and thermal loads. In facilities with sensitive production technologies, as well as those where easily flammable raw materials are used, special types of lighting must be installed: general (lighting of premises, industrial halls, and workplaces), safety (auxiliary safety lighting that automatically switches to an auxiliary power supply in case of mains failure and illuminates the premises with prescribed minimum lighting, and panic – indicating the shortest way out of the facility); orientation (lighting main communication routes), and guard (controlling access of unauthorized persons) (Mlađan, 2009). Lighting installations must be carried out in accordance with specific standards that prevent fires in particularly sensitive industrial facilities. In such facilities, bulbs with conventional filament are not used; instead, specially designed bulbs are used that cannot ignite the external environment through bursting or overheating.
11.3.4. Wildfire protection measures
When performing tasks in nature that may cause a fire, especially when using open flames, fire protection measures must be implemented (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 87/2018). Lighting an open fire in a forest or within 200 meters from the forest edge is prohibited, except in designated and visibly marked areas, following prescribed fire protection measures (Article 46). Further provisions stipulate that the Manager of a protected area established on the basis of regulations governing nature protection is obliged to establish preventive fire protection measures through a management plan tailored to the size, type, and purpose of the managed area or objects (Article 47).
A company, agricultural cooperative, institution, or other legal entity, entrepreneur, and farmer engaged in harvesting activities must take special measures to protect stubble crops from fires. Special measures to protect stubble crops from fires include (Article 49): organizing continuous surveillance; setting up observation services; establishing communication and notification services; equipping machinery with appropriate fire-fighting equipment; inspecting fire-fighting equipment; inspecting the functionality of machinery; and inspecting crop storage. It is specifically prohibited to burn stubble crop residues, burn garbage in open areas, and burn plant residues (Article 50).
11.3.5. Fire protection measures for hazardous materials
The fire brigade is obliged to organize (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 87, 2018, Article 51): a person who transfers flammable liquids or flammable gases in quantities exceeding 5 m³; a person performing welding, cutting, or soldering works, using an open flame or equipment that sparks in a space not specifically adapted for such work or at a distance of 200 m from the edge of the forest; the organizer of a public gathering or event where there is a risk of fire outbreak.
The Law on Flammable and Combustible Liquids and Flammable Gases (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 54/2015) regulates safety conditions regarding the application of fire protection and explosion prevention measures during the installation, construction, reconstruction, upgrading, and remediation, and during the use of facilities and objects for the production, processing, refining, pouring, storage, holding, and transportation of flammable and combustible liquids and flammable gases, in order to prevent the occurrence and spread of fires and explosions and to extinguish fires.
Flammable and combustible liquids and flammable gases can only be stored in containers whose construction and equipment comply with the technical requirements contained in regulations on the transport of dangerous goods by rail, road, inland waterways, maritime, or air transport, as well as regulations governing the management of chemicals. In internal traffic within facilities with flammable and combustible liquids and flammable gases, containers that do not comply with the prescribed requirements may be used, but their specific construction, material, and equipment must ensure safe handling of flammable and combustible liquids and flammable gases. The specific construction of containers is evidenced by technical documentation (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 54/2015, Article 5).
11.4. Fire extinguishing means
The inclination to kindness is deeply rooted in human nature, to such an extent that, if it is not expressed towards humans, it will be expressed towards other living beings.
Francis Bacon
The history of firefighting dates back to the time of Ancient Egypt when manual pumps were used to extinguish fires. However, it wasn’t until 1699 in France that firefighting was modernized, with the introduction of the first commercial fire pump in Paris at that time. After 1800, helmets were also introduced to protect firefighters in various interventions (Sonsale, Gawas, Pise, & Kaldate, 2014).
The effects of extinguishing, cooling, and anticatalytic effects represent ways in which firefighting apparatuses influence the combustion process. The extinguishing effect occurs when the extinguishing agent, such as gas, mist, powder, or foam, is injected into the fire and covers the ignited surface, preventing complete or partial access to oxygen from the air into the combustion zone, thus interrupting the combustion process. The cooling effect involves a technique identical to the previous one, except this time the ignited material is cooled, i.e., heat is removed from it. The anticatalytic effect arises from the ability of the extinguishing material to rapidly bind fuel radicals from the combustion chain, forming non-combustible material, which forms a non-flammable layer surrounding the combustible substance, thereby stopping the combustion process (Mlađan, 2009).
Fire protection systems currently in use, such as sprinklers with fusible links, can automatically detect and act promptly to suppress accidental fires without human intervention. However, such systems lack the intelligence to direct measures (automatic or human) to maximize firefighting efficiency and reduce collateral damage from water or chemical fire suppressants. Fire protection systems currently developed address this drawback by utilizing recent advances in sensor technology and microprocessors (Richards et al., 1997).
11.4.1. Water as a fire extinguishing agent
Water represents one of the most commonly used fire extinguishing agents, considering its following characteristics: it is relatively cheap and readily available; it offers multiple methods of use; it forms the basis of other fire extinguishing agents; it can be used to extinguish various types or classes of fires; the tactics of using such a fire extinguishing agent depend on the characteristics of the fire itself and tactical capabilities. It is significant to note that it can be sourced from various natural and artificial sources such as rivers, lakes, water mains, wells, etc.
The primary method of extinguishing fires with water lies in its significant cooling power of the ignited material, as well as smothering, which prevents the utilization of oxygen in the combustion process. The effectiveness of using water depends on the method of dispersing water in the form of droplets or mist. Upon initial contact of water with the fuel material, its primary action involves cooling the fuel material, while its secondary action involves the transition of water from liquid to gaseous state, which prevents the binding of oxygen with the fuel material.
Considering the basic characteristics of water, certain substances are sometimes added to enhance its quenching power and thereby enable more effective extinguishing. Specifically, the ability of water mist to extinguish fire depends on the kinetic energy of its incredibly tiny particles, which makes it highly effective. In most cases, water mist is an extremely effective extinguishing agent that can be used in a wide range of applications, with a few exceptions where the use of water is prohibited. Among other things, it is effective due to its ability to extinguish flames and a range of other factors.
Several studies have shown that various firefighting effects can occur simultaneously when water mist is used. To maximize the surface area of the extinguishing agent when water mist is used to extinguish fires, the water particles in the combustion zone should be as small as possible. This will increase the cooling effect of the extinguishing agent while simultaneously reducing the required amount of water compared to traditional firefighting methods. It is possible to produce water mist at different pressure levels using various spray nozzles; however, the size of water particles in aerosols will vary depending on the pressure range.
11.4.2. Powder as a fire extinguishing agent
Powder serves as a fire extinguishing agent for electrical installations under voltage, as well as for other types of fires where the use of water is not recommended (e.g., fires in libraries). Its primary characteristic is harmlessness to living organisms, as well as high resistance to both high and low temperatures, making it particularly significant for extinguishing fires in various circumstances. It is used in firefighting equipment, as well as in stable installations with automatic activation. The basic principle of fire extinguishing is based on preventing the interaction between oxygen, fuel material, and ignition sources.
Considering the chemical composition of powder as a fire extinguishing agent, it is commonly made from sodium bicarbonate, among other substances. Special types of powder are manufactured with the aim of enhancing specific properties such as extinguishing metal fires. Based on its characteristics, powder as a fire extinguishing agent is applied in fires occurring in various residential spaces, business premises with significant documentation, as well as in all manufacturing processes where the functionality of certain devices must not be compromised or impaired. Based on its fundamental characteristics, there are different types of powder: ABCD, ABC, or BC powder.
11.4.3. Carbon dioxide as a fire extinguishing agent
Carbon dioxide is a gas that is specific in many of its characteristics; it has no color or odor, is present in all three states of matter, and does not contribute to the combustion process but rather hinders it. Considering the mentioned properties, it affects fire suppression by preventing the exchange of oxygen with combustible materials. It is used for extinguishing fires in electrical installations, fires in chemical plants and warehouses, as well as all other types of fires where water cannot be used. In the process of fire suppression, it can be used in the form of gas, snow, or aerosol.
In relation to all its characteristics, it can be used for extinguishing fires of flammable liquids and gases, as well as fires on electrical installations. For these reasons, it is mostly used for extinguishing fires in industrial plants that arise from electrical devices. The basic principle of carbon dioxide fire suppression lies in creating a suffocating effect, while the cooling effect is negligible.
When using carbon dioxide in the process of fire suppression, care must be taken regarding the occurrence of injuries due to the sudden release of gas, which can lead to serious frostbite. Also, when used in enclosed spaces, it is necessary to evacuate all individuals before its application, considering that the oxygen level may drop below the level necessary for human breathing. It should not be used for extinguishing certain metals and is stored in specially designed cylinders of various capacities.
11.4.4. Foam as a fire extinguishing agent
Foam as a fire extinguishing agent has wide and extensive application, considering that it eliminates all the shortcomings of water as a fire extinguishing medium. It is used for extinguishing fires of flammable liquids (petroleum derivatives), and the tactical possibilities of its use depend on the number of foam applications and the characteristics of the concentrate or extract for foam formation. It consists of bubbles filled with carbon dioxide, while the membrane itself is composed of water and extract. Besides carbon dioxide, the interior of the bubbles can also be filled with air. Therefore, the basic division of foam is into chemical (carbon dioxide) and air-mechanical. Also, concerning the number of foam applications, there is heavy foam (6-20), medium (20-200), and light foam (200-1000).
The extinguishing ability of foam depends on the following characteristics: number of foam applications, stability, fluidity-viscosity, and persistence at the fire temperature (Mlađan, 2009). It is significant to note that there is no indefinitely persistent foam, and the time of its decay varies. Such a property is essential and must be considered when discussing tactical possibilities in the fire extinguishing process. Depending on the quality of the foam, the time of its persistence will also differ.
The primary method of extinguishing fires with foam lies in creating a suffocating effect, while the secondary effect involves cooling the burning material. By covering the burning material, foam prevents the oxygen utilization process in the combustion, while simultaneously cooling it due to the presence of water. Depending on how long it is necessary to retain and maintain the foam on the fuel material, the fire intervention manager must choose the appropriate type of foam. It can also be used preventively to protect objects in the immediate vicinity of burning objects.
11.5. Basic tactical firefighting actions
If a man doesn’t think about problems that are far away, he will be full of worries when they approach.
Confucius
Notifications of a fire incident are received by territorial firefighting units through various means: from citizens – by phone or directly; through public information channels (radio, television) from organizations of joint work, other organizations, and state authorities; and through direct observation. When notified of a fire by phone, the on-duty staff at the fire unit collects the following information: the location of the fire (street, number, possible name of the area, and nearest routes to the fire scene); what is burning – the type of fire (residential building, industrial facility); whether there is a danger to human life; the extent and size of the fire, which part of the building (roof, floor), and whether neighboring objects are in danger; the last name and first name of the person reporting the fire and the phone number from which the report is made.
To verify the accuracy of the fire report, an investigation is conducted. The receipt of a fire report is done on a special form, in duplicate, one of which remains in the records, and the other is given to the firefighting action supervisor. Upon receiving a fire report, the on-duty staff at the territorial firefighting unit immediately informs the on-duty officer in the secretariat (department) for internal affairs in the municipality.
The on-duty staff at the firefighting and rescue unit, upon receiving a fire report, immediately informs the competent supervisors. After receiving and processing the fire report, an alarm is given to prepare for movement and intervention. The alarm is given by the supervisor, the on-duty staff at the fire unit, or another authorized person. The alarm is given by sound signal or by other usual means, depending on the conditions and technical equipment of the firefighting unit. Short instructions about the reason for the alarm are given via the public address system. Workers who are not in the fire unit at the time of the alarm are called in according to the established procedure. Alarm devices must be maintained in working order. After the preparation for movement is completed, the firefighting unit with the firefighting action supervisor goes on intervention. The number and type of firefighting tools and other equipment at the time of receiving the fire notification are determined by the supervisor of the territorial firefighting unit or the person replacing the supervisor, or the on-duty staff at the fire unit. Determining the type and number of firefighting vehicles, the number of motor pumps, and other equipment depends on the type and extent of the fire, the location of the fire, water sources, road conditions, and the height of the fire-affected buildings.
When the unit vehicles move towards the incident location, the shortest route with the least traffic frequency is taken. However, such vehicles have the right of way according to the traffic safety rules provided by the law in this area. Each vehicle has a designated team, one of whom is a supervisor. Consultations regarding the intervention tactics are conducted during the movement to the incident site. If the vehicle cannot reach the intervention site, appropriate measures are taken, such as using other means of transportation and appropriate towing devices.
Upon arrival at the scene, an inspection is conducted to determine: a) the presence and nature of danger to people, their location, methods, and means of rescue (protection), as well as the need for protection (evacuation) of property; b) the presence and potential for secondary manifestations of hazardous fire factors, including those caused by specific production technology and organization; c) the location and area of combustion, as well as the methods of fire spread; d) the availability and possibility of using fire protection equipment; e) the location of the nearest water sources and possible methods of their use; f) the presence of live electrical installations and the advisability of their disconnection; g) locations for opening and dismantling building structures; h) possible methods of introducing forces and means for fire suppression, and other necessary data for choosing the decisive direction. (Kusainov, 2013).
A fire can be extinguished in three ways: by cooling the ignited material (e.g., with water); by isolating the combustible material from access to air (e.g., with earth, sand, or covering); and by removing the combustible material from the combustion zone (e.g., with sand). In the early stages of a fire, characterized by odor or smoke appearance and heating of objects, the fire spreads relatively slowly, but if urgent measures are not taken, the fire can spread extremely quickly.
The process of extinguishing a fire is usually divided into two phases: localization and elimination. Localization involves limiting its further spread, while elimination involves completely stopping the combustion process. The primary goal of the first phase is to contain the flame spread and preserve lives, while the primary goal of the second phase is to directly extinguish the fire. Generally, fires should be extinguished from where they can most threaten human lives, cause the most damage, cause an explosion, or cause building collapse, not from the center of the fire. Extinguishing burning objects is mostly achieved by applying extinguishing chemicals (water, sand, or foam) to the burning parts. When extinguishing a fire, it is necessary first to prevent the spread of the fire and then to extinguish it in the areas of the most intense burning by spraying the jet not onto the flame but onto the ignited surface. (Kusainov, 2013).
When extinguishing a vertical surface, the jet must first be directed at the upper part of the surface, and then gradually lowered to extinguish the fire. A small fire in the house should be extinguished with water or covered with a thick damp towel to prevent the flame from spreading. In the event of a fire developing, precautions must be taken to prevent the spread of the fire to adjacent parts of the structure or neighboring buildings. People should be rescued through main and emergency entrances and exits, as well as fixed and portable ladders, in case of a fire. In a building, people displaced due to the fire seek refuge on higher levels or attempt to escape through windows and balconies. Most of them misinterpret the situation in case of a fire, allowing inappropriate measures to be taken. When leaving a smoke-filled room, cover the face with a towel or cloth soaked in water before exiting. (Kusainov, 2013).
11.5.1. Fire extinguishing in tall buildings and basement spaces
Fire extinguishing in the basement presents its unique set of challenges, both in terms of fire suppression and resident protection. Smoke and other combustion by-products are trapped in basement spaces as they are typically located below ground level. Additionally, basements may have multiple levels, be divided in various ways, and often involve a wide range of materials. The effectiveness level of fire-fighting and rescue units largely depends on the following factors: a) response time of fire-fighting and rescue units (from the time of the fire occurrence to the initiation of firefighting action); b) possession of adequate resources (equipment, means) for fire suppression; c) the manner of fire development in the building. Therefore, the effectiveness level of fire extinguishing is directly related to the speed of reaction, as it prevents the transition of the fire from the initial to the uncontrolled phase.
The assault team penetrates the basement after the initial reconnaissance (provided that a pump for water supply and firefighting water to the nozzle is secured). Short-term nozzle activity or increased intensity of thermal radiation can be used to determine where the fire is spreading most actively (Mlađan, 2009, p. 223). Extinguishing in the basement is carried out using a dispersed jet after extinguishing larger fires. Extinguishing is often done using C nozzles, with B nozzles appearing quite rarely. Entry should be made via basement stairs. To have two assistants, assault groups must be reinforced. Separation from the supply pump is strictly prohibited at all times as the only reliable exit from the basement. Only in very difficult circumstances for penetration into the interior (high temperature) can action from outside through windows be used, provided it can effectively act on the fire hotspot (Mlađan, 2009).
If a fire breaks out on the ceiling, there is a possibility of flame spreading upwards, and the impact of water in these circumstances is not favorable. Since warm air and smoke pass through one entrance, it is necessary to create further openings, and extinguishing should be done through other openings. It is important to bear in mind that the inter-floor construction could collapse, potentially burying individuals in the intervention. Outside the basement, carbon dioxide or foam nozzles can be used to extinguish flammable materials without sending an attack group inside. Shutting off gas and electrical lines and setting up safety devices are all requirements that must be observed during these interventions. Water should be pumped out of the basement once the fire is extinguished, and the basement should be cleaned (Mlađan, 2009, p. 223).
Fire protection problems in high-rise buildings include (Chow, 2004): direct ground rescue from the exterior of the building is impossible; applying water with fire hoses is impossible or hindered; the only escape routes are downwards using staircases and elevators; the only access for firefighters and delivery of equipment for rescuing people and firefighting is through staircases or elevators; firefighting techniques used by fire services can only be undertaken within the building itself.
There are several problems that increase the risk of uncontrolled fire spread and safe evacuation in tall residential buildings (Ma & Guo, 2012), including: a) rapid fire and smoke spread (due to the “chimney effect,” smoke and fire can spread to higher floors very quickly via staircases, openings, or lift shafts if smoke and fire control measures are inadequate; b) difficulties in fire suppression and rescue (factors such as building height, inadequate firefighting equipment, and firefighting at a certain height create additional difficulties for the fire service. Today, most buildings have insulation that contributes to vertical fire spread. In such situations, the fire engulfs the external part of the building, making access for firefighters, fire suppression, and rescue more difficult; c) difficulties in safe evacuation of residents, generally speaking, more people need to be rescued from tall buildings than from low-rise buildings. Often, the lack of a sense of fire safety and the ability to safely evacuate the building affects the evacuation time available; d) fires usually last longer, especially in tall buildings firefighting takes longer because they occupy a large area and are more difficult to control, and sometimes the fire spreads to neighboring buildings (Cvetković & Protić, 2022).
One study (Juneja, 2005) shows that the highest number of fires in residential buildings occur due to various reasons: 16.5% because electrical appliances are left unattended, 11% due to faults in electrical installations, 6.5% due to arson, 6.7% due to improperly stored ignition sources, and 7.1% due to other causes. Other sources of fire inside buildings include open flames, heaters and heated surfaces, electrical faults, fireworks, arson, and vandalism. After ignition, several factors can increase the severity of the fire, such as a large amount of flammable material in the household, improper storage of tools, garbage, equipment, and easily flammable materials (gas, paints, varnishes, ammunition); materials that produce toxic smoke when burned and flammable building materials such as wood. Additionally, the use of modern architecture, glass, false partition walls, and large windows can lead to accelerated fire growth and spread by providing a constant supply of oxygen (Buchanan & Abu, 2017).
On the other hand, building safety can be indirectly compromised, which later directly affects the implementation of fire protection measures and the effectiveness of fire service response. For example, inadequate legislative regulations, non-existent or inadequate fire protection regulations in residential properties, socially irresponsible behavior (ignoring fire alarms, disabling smoke detectors), lack of resources or funds for maintaining fire protection systems (insufficient water for sprinklers, fire extinguishers with expired dates, etc.), damages caused by other hazards. There is an increasingly strong need to understand how different risk factors and behaviors that vary from place to place can expose some ethnic groups to higher risks. Ethnicity itself is not what puts someone at higher risk, but rather the behavior and practices of that group encountered in certain cultures (Dean, Taylor, Francis & Clark, 2016). If a residential property is located near a forested area, it would be desirable to clear the area around the building from low vegetation that could cause fire spread. All these factors can lead to inadequate protection in the event of a fire and significantly increase the risk of fire exposure (Cvetković & Protić, 2022; Drysdale, 2011).
11.5.2. Fire extinguishing on vehicles
Fires in motor vehicles have become common, especially considering that a certain number of motor vehicles don’t meet appropriate standards, and the age of the vehicle itself increases the probability of its occurrence. There are different scenarios of motor vehicle fires: fires while the vehicle is on the road and in motion; fires when the vehicle is parked; fires during vehicle repairs or storage, etc. The greatest danger regarding motor vehicle fires relates to the fact that passengers are exposed to high risks due to the presence of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and the rapid spread of fire. Injured passengers usually cannot exit the vehicle on their own, making this situation particularly difficult for the trailer driver. Another common problem is the vehicle’s exit doors, which are often in a damaged or jammed state. These situations are the most common cause of death in car fires. Fires fueled by liquid fuel generate very high heat, making it difficult for firefighters-rescuers to approach the ignited vehicle and perform the rescue task they are trained for without special protective equipment and plenty of elbow grease (Mlađan, 2009).
Due to its nature, an open fire is susceptible to wind and thus endangers neighboring vehicles and objects. Consequently, if an appropriate and timely reaction is lacking, the fire often spreads to adjacent vehicles. When two vehicles collide, it’s possible for one to catch fire, endangering passengers in the other vehicle. For these reasons, extinguishing the vehicle’s flames allows passengers in the other vehicle to exit safely and leave the danger zone unhindered. Electrical components, carburetors or pumps in the vehicle, the gasoline tank, flammable parts of the body, and any flammable cargo in the vehicle can ignite in the event of a traffic accident. Conversely, the flame has the potential to spread quickly enough to engulf the entire vehicle, including the gasoline tank. The fire spreads rapidly and intensely, putting the tank with liquid gasoline at risk of explosion and the spilled fuel at risk of catching fire (Mlađan, 2009).
11.5.3. Fire extinguishing in industrial facilities
Depending on the technological processes and the production itself, the raw materials used in the processing or production process determine the level of fire hazard in industrial facilities. Mlađan (2009) emphasizes that all industrial facilities are classified according to their purpose as: facilities where some technological process takes place, facilities for storing raw materials and other products (warehouses), facilities for the sale of finished products (commercial facilities), and facilities for agricultural production (agricultural facilities).
In the process of extinguishing fires in industrial facilities, it is necessary to consider the layout of the premises in relation to their purpose. For this purpose, operational fire extinguishing can be used, in which the most important aspects relevant to fire extinguishing are designated. In all such facilities, there are usually built-in installations for fire detection and extinguishing. On the other hand, there are also other installations such as electrical, ventilation, etc. One of the significant characteristics of industrial fires is that they spread rapidly and cover a vast area. Considering the tactics of fire extinguishing in industrial facilities, it can be emphasized that extinguishing is a very complex and difficult task based on serious analyses and assessments. The intervention manager must, before proceeding with fire extinguishing, consider the specificities of the production process, the availability of internal and external fire extinguishing resources, as well as available tactical options.
11.7. Technical-rescue interventions
Today’s terrorism is not a product of traditional history of anarchism, nihilism, or fanaticism. It is, in fact, the contemporary partner of globalization.
Jean Baudrillard
Fire and rescue units, besides firefighting, are engaged in a large number of other technical interventions: traffic accidents, high-angle and confined space rescues, search and rescue operations, cutting certain objects, electrical power generation using generators, water pumping, urban search and rescue, technical interventions at the incident scene, hazardous materials incidents. Technical rescue interventions can generally be classified into interventions conducted in road, railway, river, and aviation traffic (Figure 7).
In technical interventions, vehicles for work at height are used, enabling firefighting and rescue operations from heights of 20 to 70 meters. Also, fire and rescue units are often engaged in water delivery from water sources to vehicles or directly to the incident scene. There are different types of such vehicles, varying in the amount of equipment they possess and the number of firefighters they can transport. In addition to the mentioned vehicles, all other machines that can directly or indirectly assist in mitigating the consequences of such disasters are used in these interventions: excavators, cranes, backhoes, dump trucks, etc. Considering the number of technical interventions in traffic, an application has been developed by Holmatro manufacturer, within which a database containing data for over 1500 types of vehicles is stored, along with a book detailing the intervention procedures depending on the type of vehicle.
Figure 7. Classification of technical interventions. Source: (Toplak, 2019, p. 7).
Fire and rescue vehicles for high-angle rescues are divided into: automotive fire ladders – used for rescuing people, providing first aid, conducting technical interventions, and firefighting. They consist of the chassis, superstructure, and rescue system with or without a basket; hydraulic articulated platforms – a special fire vehicle designed for rescuing people and property from heights and firefighting; and hydraulic telescopic platforms (Blazevic & Paluh, 2007).
When it comes to technical interventions in road traffic accidents, developed procedures exist for such technical interventions on-site (Kriznik, 2018): a) arrival at the intervention site and vehicle deployment (protective and logical aspects); b) setting up a protective stream (a rapid extinguishing nozzle, a fire extinguisher); c) forming work zones (safety zone, support zone, immediate action zone); d) preparing the workspace (equipment location, waste disposal area). The immediate action zone involves: a) reconnaissance; b) site inspection; c) agreement on work with other emergency services; d) work process conclusion (no extraction needed or extraction required involving: vehicle stabilization; accessing the endangered person; releasing the endangered person). Finally, completing the intervention involves securing the incident site, providing lighting for investigation purposes, removing vehicles and debris, and leaving the intervention site.
There are three types of scenarios that can occur during the rescue of endangered persons: a) immediate release (applied in cases of immediate life-threatening situations such as fire, fuel or gas leakage, vehicle submersion, etc. It involves releasing the endangered person in the shortest possible time); b) rapid release (no immediate danger, but it is necessary to provide first aid as quickly as possible. It is carried out under the supervision of emergency medical services. Due to speed, not all rescue principles are followed); controlled release (no additional danger, and there is no need for rapid first aid) (Mercer & Lozar, 2011).
In such situations, it is crucial that rescuers do not move the injured person until the condition of the endangered person is clearly determined. Potential improper movement without a clear assessment can lead to serious consequences for life and health. After initiating the extraction procedures of the injured person, it is essential to move vehicle parts or the bodywork away from the endangered person. Additionally, vibrations, loud noises, unnecessary vehicle part detonations, etc., should be avoided. Protecting the injured person during such operations is of paramount importance to prevent injuries due to bodywork, glass, etc. This protection is achieved by placing a plastic or other material protective plate. The rule is that at least three firefighters-rescuers extract the injured person. If there is heavy bleeding, loss of consciousness, no breathing, and no heartbeat, immediate first aid must be provided before extraction.
The tactics of firefighters-rescuers will depend on the type of traffic accident and the position of the vehicle: a) vehicle in a frontal or side collision; b) overturned vehicle on its side; c) overturned vehicle on its roof; d) collision with severe damage; e) vehicle trapped under another vehicle). Rescuers in such situations must adhere to the “See and be seen” rule. For this reason, fire and rescue vehicles must be positioned so as not to disrupt traffic flow or the work of other emergency services. A combined technical vehicle with a crew of six firefighters is used in such interventions. Appropriate signaling is also set up at a certain distance from the accident (Mercer & Lozar, 2011).
After that, the mentioned zones are formed to facilitate rescue activities. In the confined space where the vehicle is located, there is an immediate action zone where medical assistance is provided and endangered persons are freed. Within the support zone, preparation and storage of tools and equipment for rescue activities are carried out, while the safety zone is where vehicles of emergency rescue services are located. Considering that vehicles have airbags, measures must be taken to protect individuals in case of their activation.
It is vital at all times to monitor the fire’s development to prevent the fire from surrounding rescuers and firefighting equipment. Rescuers involved in firefighting must maintain visual contact with each other. The use of firefighting equipment with defective motors and technical systems is strictly prohibited. Refilling the motors of technical equipment located in close proximity to the fire is also prohibited. When extinguishing flammable petroleum derivatives in tanks, it must be considered that even a small amount of moisture can cause boiling (Kusainov, 2013).
The aim of search and rescue operations in fire-induced disasters is to locate, protect, and evacuate people from buildings affected by fire. Rescue operations in such disasters vary from country to country. In some places, a double search is applied, where the first team searches the room (primary search), and then the second team searches the same rooms because victims are often not found, reducing the likelihood of a victim being missed (secondary search). In the past, walking was used as a search method; however, crawling is now used. The reasons for this are that the temperature is lower at the bottom of the room, visibility is better, and the stability of firefighters-rescuers is improved. Additionally, victims often lie on the floor for air accessibility, making them easier to find (Lambert, Merci, Gryspeert, & Jekovec, 2021).
Rescuers who are not directly involved in firefighting should be removed from the danger zone if signs of boiling of petroleum derivatives are detected (increased burning, change in flame color, increased noise during combustion, appearance of individual cracks, and, in some cases, tank vibrations). To protect workers and the environment, backup equipment, foam generators, barrels for air foam and water, and earthmoving equipment for building earthworks on the road where petroleum derivatives have spilled are necessary. All backup equipment and devices should be kept at a safe distance of 150-200 meters from the burning tank to avoid damage. When installing foam blowers on a hot underground tank, rescuers should wear heat-reflective clothing and protection from the ropes they work with (Kusainov, 2013). The time a rescuer spends continuously and in close proximity to the fire should not exceed 30 minutes to ensure their safety in smoky and high-temperature conditions. After 20-30 minutes of rest outside the smoke zone and away from the fire, the rescuer is allowed to return to work (Kusainov, 2013).
The Ministry of Internal Affairs, within its scope of work, performs tasks significant for fire protection enforcement: 1) planning, organizing, and implementing fire protection measures; 2) preventive measures to prevent fires and mitigate the consequences of fires; 3) supervision of compliance with the provisions of this law and regulations based on it, fire protection plans, and other acts related to fire protection; 4) professional training of members of fire and rescue units; 5) education and training of persons for fire protection tasks; 6) development of Strategy; 7) cooperation with other fire protection subjects; 8) other tasks in the field of fire protection specified by law (Article 17).
An autonomous province, within the scope of jurisdiction determined by the Constitution and the law, provides conditions for the implementation of fire protection measures and assistance in removing or mitigating the consequences caused by fire and adopts acts to improve fire protection (Article 19). The autonomous province adopts a Fire Protection Plan containing in particular (Article 20): 1) an overview of the existing state of fire protection; 2) an assessment of the vulnerability to fire; 3) organization of fire protection; 4) proposals for technical and organizational measures to address deficiencies and improve fire protection; 5) calculation of necessary financial resources; 6) prescribed calculation and graphical attachments.
The local self-government unit, within the jurisdiction established by the Constitution and the law, organizes and provides conditions for the implementation of fire protection measures and assistance in the removal or mitigation of the consequences caused by fire, and adopts acts to improve the state of fire protection (Article 21). The local self-government unit adopts a Fire Protection Plan containing in particular (Article 22): 1) an overview of the existing state of fire protection; 2) an assessment of the vulnerability to fire; 3) organization of fire protection; 4) proposals for technical and organizational measures to address deficiencies and improve fire protection; 5) calculation of necessary financial resources; 6) prescribed calculation and graphical attachments. The Fire Protection Plan, including its amendments and supplements, is subject to approval by the Ministry. Fire protection in planning documents includes (Article 29): 1) water supply sources and the capacity of the city water supply network to provide sufficient quantities of water for firefighting; 2) the distance between zones designated for residential and public use and zones designated for industrial facilities and facilities of special purpose; 3) access roads and passages for firefighting vehicles to reach the facilities; 4) safety belts between facilities to prevent the spread of fire and explosions, safety distances between facilities, or their fire separation; 5) evacuation and rescue possibilities for people.
The state of fire protection is very unsatisfactory, and it is necessary to improve the system by engaging all fire protection subjects through the exchange of relevant information. It is also very important to highlight the most significant observed deficiencies in the Strategy (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 21/2012, p. 2) which precisely prompted the implementation of this research: insufficient preparedness of fire protection subjects for the implementation of preventive measures; improper maintenance of electrical and chimney installations, damage and alienation of firefighting equipment and resources; lack of risk management plans; insufficient safety culture of citizens; insufficient staffing of firefighting units with qualified, professional, and psychophysically capable human resources for fire protection tasks, including the engagement of persons with disabilities, etc. (Cvetković & Filipović, 2018).
Discussion questions
¤ Explain the conceptual definition, characteristics, and types of fires.
¤ Explain the basic processes of combustion and extinguishment.
¤ Explain preventive measures for fire protection: structural and technological fire protection measures.
¤ Explain preventive measures for fire protection: measures for wildfire protection and measures for protection from hazardous materials fires.
¤ Explain the methods and processes of using fire extinguishing agents.
¤ Provide an overview of the basic principles of firefighting in high-rise buildings and basement spaces.
¤ Provide an overview of the basic principles of firefighting in transportation vehicles and industrial facilities.
¤ Explain the methods of technical-rescue interventions.
¤ Explain the methods of determining the causes of fires.
Further reading recommendations
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¨ Cvetković, V., & Gačić, J. (2017). Požari kao ugrožavajuća pojava bezbednosti: činioci uticaja na znanje o požarima Međunarodna konferencija – 10th International Conference “Crisis management days” – security environment and challenges of crisis management, At 24, 25 and 26 May 2017.
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Prof. Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković
(email – vladimirkpa@gmail.com; vmc@fb.bg.ac.rs)
Faculty of Security, University of Belgrade, Gospodara Vucica 50
International Institute for Disaster Research, Dimitrija Tucovica 121, Belgrade
Scientific and Professional Society for Risk Management in Emergencies, Dimitrija Tucovica 121, Belgrade
Personal Website: www.vladimircvetkovic.upravljanje-rizicima.edu.rs/
- Basic biographical data
Prof. Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković was born on February 8, 1987, in Kragujevac. He completed the High School of Internal Affairs (police officer program) in Sremska Kamenica in 2006, graduating as one of the top students and recipient of the Vuk Karadžić Diploma. He also attended the elementary school “Sveti Sava” in Batočina, graduating in 2002 as the Vuk Karadžić Diploma holder. He defended his master’s thesis titled “Management in Emergency Situations Caused by the Misuse of Weapons of Mass Destruction” at the Criminalistic-Police Academy in Belgrade, now the Criminalistic-Police University, in 2012, obtaining the title of Master Criminalist. He graduated in 2010 as the best student of his generation with a perfect GPA of 10.00, becoming a Bachelor Criminalist. He earned his Ph.D. at the Faculty of Security, University of Belgrade, with a thesis on “Citizen Readiness to Respond to Natural Disasters Caused by Floods in the Republic of Serbia” in 2016, acquiring the academic title of Doctor of Science in Security Studies. In March 2022, he was selected by the United Nations as a Programme Officer for Emergency Situations in Asia, stationed in Hong Kong, for a five-year term.
Prof. Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković is the President and Founder of the National Scientific-Professional Society for Risk Management in Emergency Situations, a body of special significance for protection and rescue in the Republic of Serbia, and the President of the International Institute for Disaster Research. He serves as the Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Disaster Risk Management (IJDRM) and is a member of the editorial board of the international journal “Prevention and Treatment of Natural Disasters,” published by UK Scientific Publishing Limited. In 2011, he completed a professional internship at the Sector for Emergency Situations of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Serbia.
Furthermore, he completed a basic course for firefighter-rescuers lasting 5 months at the Emergency Situations Directorate of the City of Belgrade in 2012, obtaining a diploma for a firefighter-rescuer. He passed the professional exam for fire protection with high professional qualifications in 2012. He also completed a basic specialist course for inspectors in the field of civil protection and disaster risk management in 2014. He passed the professional exam for disaster risk assessment and the development of protection and rescue plans in emergency situations (license) in 2018, as well as the professional exam for risk assessment in the protection of persons, property, and business (license) in the same year. He holds a black belt in Jujutsu (2005) and completed the E-class amateur radio course in Sremska Kamenica in 2004.
Additionally, he attended a training on project design, proposal development, and project management for the EU Horizon 2020 Programme, organized by the European Training Academy in cooperation with UNDP in Belgrade, from October 4 to 12, 2017.
He has received numerous international and national awards and recognitions for his academic achievements during his undergraduate, master’s, and doctoral studies:
- He was selected as a Local Expert for Serbia in the field of disaster risk management in an international project titled “EU Support to Flood Prevention and Forest Fires Risk Management in the Western Balkans and Turkey,” supported by the General Directorate of ECHO, the European Commission’s Directorate-General for European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (DG ECHO), in 2021.
- He received the “Danubius Young Scientist Award 2017” for exceptional achievements in science, awarded by the Austrian Ministry of Science, Research and Economy (BMWFW) and the Institute for the Danube Region and Central Europe (IDM). This award, granted to 14 young scientists, one from each country participating in the EU Strategy for the Danube Region, aims to highlight scientific work and talent, promote the scientific community in the region, and encourage young scientists to engage in scientific research relevant to the Danube Region.
- He received a scholarship from the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) for his doctoral studies at the Faculty of Security, University of Belgrade.
- He received a talent scholarship from the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Serbia, “Grant by the Fund for Young Talents of the Republic of Serbia,” for undergraduate students in their final years in 2009/10.
- He was awarded the “Eurobank EFG Scholarship for the Best Students of Serbia” as part of the project “Investing in European Values” for outstanding achievements in the field of criminalistic and police-security studies in 2009.
- He received the award for the best student of the First Generation of students at the Criminalistic-Police Academy in Zemun for achieving a GPA of 10.00 in 2010.
- He received the award for the best student in the first, second, and third years of study at the Criminalistic-Police Academy in Belgrade in 2007, 2008, and 2009, respectively.
- He was awarded the prize for the best student in the history of the municipality of Lapovo in 2006.
- He received the award for one of the best cadets with a GPA of 5.00 at the High School of Internal Affairs in Sremska Kamenica.
- Teaching and Pedagogical Work
Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković has been engaged in teaching and pedagogical activities for over 11 years. From 2011 to 2017, he was employed at the Criminalistic-Police Academy, initially as a teaching associate, and later as an assistant professor in the following subjects: Security in Emergency Situations, Fire Prevention and Suppression, Explosions and Accidents, Risk Management in the Protection and Rescue System, Information Systems in Emergency Situations, Crisis Management. In 2010, he worked as a demonstrator in the subject of Traffic Safety at the Criminalistic-Police Academy. In 2011, he was elected as the secretary of the Department of Security Sciences and held that position until 2014. Therefore, Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković has six years of experience in teaching and pedagogical work at the current Criminalistic-Police University.
In addition to his teaching and pedagogical activities at the mentioned institution, he participated in all forms of teaching – training: basic police training with first-year students (handling and manipulation of firearms of the Ministry of Internal Affairs); basic police-safety training for emergency situations with second-year students of basic academic and vocational studies; summer field training at the Mitrovo Polje Training Center of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Serbia, on Mount Goč with third-year academic students and second-year vocational students. Since 2014, he has led the section for emergency situations at the Criminalistic-Police Academy, and since 2016, also the section for police self-defense. He was also involved in the school police outpost and as a member of the self-evaluation commission at the Criminalistic-Police Academy.
According to the results of a survey conducted among students of basic academic and basic vocational studies in criminology at the Criminalistic-Police Academy during his six-year engagement, Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković was rated with an average grade of 4.52.
Since 2017, Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković has been teaching at the Faculty of Security, University of Belgrade, on the following subjects:
- In basic academic studies, he teaches courses in: Risk Management in Emergency Situations, Security Risks and Disasters, and Protection from Natural and Technological Disasters. In addition to these subjects, he has taught courses in: Protection and Rescue Systems and Management in Protection and Rescue Systems;
- In master’s academic studies – Risk Management Studies from Elementary and Other Disasters, he teaches courses in the following subjects: Prevention and Reduction Systems of Risk from Elementary and Other Disasters, Methodology of Risk Assessment and Development of Protection and Rescue Plans from Elementary and Other Disasters, and Management of Protection and Rescue Activities in Disaster Conditions (subject coordinator);
- In master’s academic studies – Security Sciences Studies, he teaches a course in Crisis Management in Natural and Industrial Disasters;
- In doctoral academic studies – Security Sciences Studies, he teaches a course in Integrated Disaster Risk Reduction.
During 2021, he delivered guest lectures by invitation at the University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Law, within the Legal Clinic for Environmental Protection on the topic “Impact of Climate Change on Increasing Disaster Risks.” In 2019, he conducted a series of guest lectures at the Criminalistic-Police University as part of the master’s academic studies program “NatRisk,” on the subject of “Natural Disasters,” at the invitation of Prof. Dr. Slobodan Miladinović. As an expert in the field of disaster risk management, Prof. Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković was engaged by the Faculty of Geography, University of Belgrade, in an expert team for writing a thematic volume: disasters within the Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia for the period from 2021 to 2035, led by Prof. Dr. Slavoljub Dragićević.
In the teaching process, Prof. Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković has proven to be a conscientious and responsible teacher who applies modern and innovative teaching solutions to convey knowledge in the field of risk management in emergency situations to students to the fullest extent possible. He largely encourages students to engage in independent study and research and comprehensive use of literature in the mentioned field. In the teaching process, he applies modern teaching methods aimed at student autonomy and empowerment for direct use of various literature. He encourages students to connect and apply acquired knowledge to solve specific case studies in the field of disaster studies.
For the purpose of teaching, Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković has published a textbook, 2 practical manuals, and 1 collection of regulations through the Scientific-Professional Society for Risk Management in Emergency Situations: Cvetković, V. (2020). Risk Management in Emergency Situations. Belgrade: Scientific-Professional Society for Risk Management in Emergency Situations (700 pages); Cvetković, V. (2021). Security Risks and Disasters. Scientific-Professional Society for Risk Management in Emergency Situations, Belgrade (practical manual); Cvetković, V. (2019). Risk Management and Systems of Protection and Rescue from Disasters. Scientific-Professional Society for Risk Management in Emergency Situations, Belgrade (practical manual); Cvetković, V., Filipović, M., & Gachić, J. (2019). Collection of Regulations in the Field of Disaster Risk Management. Scientific-Professional Society for Risk Management in Emergency Situations, Belgrade, 1-1050.
According to the average results of the teacher evaluation by students through the Individual Statistical Report on Teacher Evaluation of the University of Belgrade, students rated the teaching-pedagogical work of Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković with an average grade of 4.62 – 2017/2018; 4.65 – 2018/2019; 4.46 – 2019/2020; 4.59 – 2020/2021.
In addition to teaching and pedagogical work at the Faculty of Security, Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković founded the organization “Scientific-Professional Society for Risk Management in Emergency Situations,” which gathers scientists, experts, and interested students in the field of disaster risk management. Within the Society, numerous training sessions, courses, seminars, national, and international research projects have been implemented. Within the Society, publishing activities have been developed, and several books, monographs, practical manuals, and collections of papers used in education at numerous faculties have been published. Within the mentioned society, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković organized the first national seminar for students in the field of disasters entitled “Tactics of Protection and Rescue in Emergency Situations: Field Experiences and Lessons,” from April 16 to 18, 2021, in the Grand Hall of the Kolarac Endowment. On that occasion, there were more than 250 students from various faculties and universities in Serbia, and more than 50 professors and experts in the field of disasters were present.
Furthermore, Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković is the organizer and implementer of several training sessions for students from various faculties in Serbia in the field of disasters: first basic security training in the field of disasters, Stara Planina, from July 13 to 16, 2019; second basic security training in the field of risk management and protection and rescue in emergency situations, Ovčarsko-Kablarska Gorge, from November 29 to December 1, 2019; third basic security training in the field of protection and rescue in emergency situations, Ovčarsko-Kablarska Gorge, from October 29 to November 1, 2020; training for student response in inaccessible terrains, Košutnjak, 2019; participated together with students in the international field exercise in disaster management “SERBIA 2018” organized by the Ministry of Internal Affairs – Sector for Emergency Situations and the Euro-Atlantic Coordination Center for Emergency Situations of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO EDRCC), from October 8 to 11, 2018, Mladenovac.
Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković is the organizer of numerous lectures on disasters: Student City, lecture “Experiences and Lessons in the Protection and Rescue of Citizens of Serbia during the Armed Aggression of 1999” during 2019; operational police skills in emergency situations (online) during 2020; command-simulation exercise on the topic of landslide remediation and work of the Urban Emergency Situations Headquarters in 2019; with the support of the Secretariat for Defense, Disaster Management, Communication, and Relations with the Public, a panel discussion on the state of disasters in the area of the city of Belgrade was held in 2019; lecture “Natural Disasters – Challenges for Society and Security” at the Petnica Research Station (ISP) in Valjevo, 2018. In the past period, he was engaged as a lecturer and implementer of the seminar “Student Safety in School Facilities,” catalog number 9 from the Catalog of Professional Development Programs for Teachers, Educators, and Professional Associates of the Institute for Improvement of Education for the school year 2014/2015 and 2015/2016, and for the school year 2016/2017.
- Scientific activity
In addition to teaching and pedagogical work, Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković has published over 250 scientific papers in international and national scientific journals, conferences, and proceedings, as well as scientific monographs, manuals, and collections of regulations in the field of risk management in emergencies. His research interests include security, disasters, emergencies, natural and man-made hazards, risk management, and civil protection. According to official data from the “Research Gate” scientific network as of November 2021, he has achieved an RG score of 26.6, an h-index of 15, a total research interest of 1009, 830 citations, 407 recommendations, and over 77,100 reads of scientific papers. According to “Google Scholar Citations,” he has achieved 1170 citations. According to the “Scopus” database, he has 15 scientific papers cited 128 times, with an h-index value of 6.
By quantifying the total scientific results, Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković has achieved over 511.2 points.
He is involved in the following international scientific research projects:
- Horizon 2020 project – Danube River Region Resilience Exchange Network (DAREnet) – Call topic: SEC-21–GM-2016/2017: Pan European Networks of practitioners and other actors in the field of security. DAREnet is a 5-year Coordination and Support Action funded by the European Commission. The DAREnet consortium forms the backbone of the transnational, multi-disciplinary network. It brings together a unique combination of renowned institutions and players in flood mitigation and civil protection. This consortium provides broad and complementary coverage of the needed capabilities, geographic balance, and strategic motivation to succeed. A long history of previous collaboration provides the basis for effective execution of DAREnet and beyond (2017-2022).
- IPA FF project – EU Support to Flood Prevention and Forest Fires Risk Management in the Western Balkans and Turkey. The 3-year EU-funded IPA Floods and Fires program aims at improving capacities for flood and forest fire risk management in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo*, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia, and Turkey. The international consortium established by the Italian Civil Protection Department jointly with the Administration of the Republic of Slovenia for Civil Protection and Disaster Relief (URSZR), the Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency (MSB), the Romanian General Inspectorate for Emergency Situations (IGSU), the Fire Rescue Brigade of Moravian-Silesian Region, Czech Republic (FRB-MSR), the National Center for Disaster Management Foundation, Romania (CN APELL-RO), and CIMA Research Foundation, Italy (CIMA).
He was engaged in the following national scientific research projects:
– Management of Police Organization in Prevention and Suppression of Security Threats in the Republic of Serbia, from 2015 to 2018, a scientific research project implemented by the Criminalistic-Police Academy in Belgrade;
– National Security of the Republic of Serbia and Security Integrations, 2014-2015, a scientific research project implemented by the Criminalistic-Police Academy in Belgrade;
– Development of Institutional Capacities, Standards, and Procedures for Confronting Organized Crime and Terrorism in the Context of International Integration (No. 179045), implemented by the Criminalistic-Police Academy in Belgrade, 2011-2016, a scientific research project funded by the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia.
He also wrote the project “Strengthening integrated disaster risk management system in Serbia: DISARIMES,” which is in the process of participating in public calls for project financing.
Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković participated in a two-day study visit to the “Joint Research Centre – the Commission’s science and knowledge service EU” in Italy, Ispra, where he visited the European Crisis Management Laboratory. He completed a summer school on international security organized by the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) in Serbia from August 15 to 19, 2018.
Based on the decision on education of the Commission for the preparation of reports, the Department Council of Criminalistics at the session held on July 1, 2020, at the Criminalistic-Police University, and based on Article 2 of the Statute of the Criminalistic-Police University and the Regulations on the Manner and Procedure for Acquiring Titles of Teachers and Associates, following a competition published in the official gazette of the National Employment Service “Jobs” dated July 1, 2020, he was appointed as a member of the Commission for the preparation of reports for the selection of one full-time teacher in the position of senior lecturer or lecturer for the narrower scientific field of Security Sciences for the subject National Security – for a period of 5 years.
Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković reviewed more than 80 scientific papers in domestic and international journals, proceedings of national and international scientific conferences. He reviewed papers for the following national journals: Security; Science, Security and Police; Military Affairs; Topics; Sociological Review; Fire Protection and Fire Management, etc. In addition, he reviewed for numerous international journals, many of which are indexed in Web of Science: International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (8 papers); International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction (5 papers); International Journal of Architectural Heritage; International Journal – Heliyon; Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness; Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk (3 papers); Health Science Journal; Journal of Infection and Public Health; Preventive Medicine Reports; Risk Analysis; SAGE Open Medicine; Behavioral Sciences; Biomedical and Environmental Sciences; Sustainability; World Medical & Health Policy; Eastern European Economics, etc.
He participated in numerous international and scientific conferences and seminars:
- 5th Global Summit of GADRI Engaging Sciences with Action, Organized by the Global Alliance of Disaster Research Institutes together with the support of the Regional Alliances, 2021;
- 12 International Scientific Conference “30 years of independent Macedonian state”;
- Study visit to the academic institutions and Think Tanks in the Republic of France, 03 – 07 September 2018 – Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe;
- XI International Scientific Conference, Archibald Reiss Days, 2021;
- 7th Annual Forum of the EU Strategy for the Danube Region (EUSDR) taking place on 18-19 October 2018 in Sofia, Bulgaria;
- The VIII International Scientific Conference Archibald Reiss Days, University of Criminal Investigation and Police Studies, Zemun, Belgrade, 2-3 October 2018.;
- Annual Meeting of the International Nuclear Security Education Network, International Atomic Energy Agency in UN Vienna International Centre, from 9 July 2018 to 13 July 2018;
- 12th International Conference on Environmental Legislation, Safety Engineering and Disaster Management, on 17-19 May 2018, in Cluj-Napoca, Romania;
- Danube Rectors’ Conference 2017, Responsibilities of Danube Universities as promoters of EUSDR, November 9-10, 2017, University of Zagreb, Croatia;
- Regional Workshop on Human Resources Development in Podgorica, Montenegro from 30 October to 3 November 2017, organized by International Atomic Energy Agency and Ministry of Sustainable Development and Tourism of Montenegro;
- European Geosciences Union GmbH – EGU General Assembly 2017, At Vienna, Austria, Volume: Vol. 19, EGU2017-6720: Session HS1.9/NH1.18 Hydrological risk under a gender and age perspective, Vienna.
- Contribution to the academic and wider community
Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković has participated in numerous activities, which also entail contributions to the academic and professional community. He organized the first national seminar for students in the field of disasters titled “Tactics of Protection and Rescue in Emergency Situations: Field Experiences and Lessons Learned,” from April 16th to 18th, 2021, in the Great Hall of the Kolarac Foundation. On that occasion, there were more than 250 students from various faculties and universities in Serbia and over 50 professors and experts from the field of disasters present.
Additionally, Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković is the organizer and implementer of several training sessions for students from various faculties in Serbia in the field of disasters: the first basic safety training in the field of disasters, Stara planina, from July 13th to 16th, 2019; the second basic safety training in the field of risk management and protection and rescue in emergency situations, Ovčarsko-Kablarska Gorge, from November 29th to December 1st, 2019; the third basic safety training in the field of protection and rescue in emergency situations, Ovčarsko-Kablarska Gorge, from October 29th to November 1st, 2020; training for student response in inaccessible terrains, Košutnjak, 2019; participation with students in the international field exercise in disaster management “SERBIA 2018” organized by the Ministry of Internal Affairs – Sector for Emergency Situations and the Euro-Atlantic Disaster Response Coordination Center (NATO EDRCC), from October 8th to 11th, 2018, in Mladenovac.
Assistant Professor Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković has organized numerous lectures in the field of disasters: Student City, lecture “Experiences and Lessons in Citizen Protection and Rescue in Serbia During the Armed Aggression of 1999” in 2019; operational police skills in emergency situations (online) in 2020; command-simulation exercise on landslide remediation and the work of the City Emergency Situations Staff in 2019; with the support of the Secretariat for Defense, Disasters, Communication, and Coordination with Citizens, a panel discussion was held on the state of disasters in the city of Belgrade in 2019; lecture “Natural Disasters – Challenges for Society and Security” at the Petnica Research Station (ISP) in Valjevo, 2018. During the past period, he was engaged as a lecturer and organizer of seminars “Student Safety in School Facilities,” catalog number 9 from the Catalog of Programs for Professional Development of Teachers, Educators, and Professional Associates of ZUOV for the school year 2014/2015 and 2015/2016 and for the school year 2016/2017.
On the website of the Scientific and Professional Society for Risk Management in Emergency Situations, Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković initiated the implementation of a project to develop free courses in the field of disasters available to all students and citizens of the Republic of Serbia. Within the Faculty of Security at the University of Belgrade, he was involved in committees for admission to the Faculty of Security, the International Cooperation Commission, the Library Commission, etc. Also, as the deputy head of the Center for Emergency Situations, he conducted numerous sections, lectures, and training sessions.
- Collaboration with other higher education institutions, research institutions, as well as cultural or artistic institutions both domestically and internationally
During 2021, he gave a guest lecture at the invitation of the University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Law, within the Legal Clinic for Environmental Protection, on the topic “Impact of Climate Change on Increasing Disaster Risks.” In 2019, he conducted a series of guest lectures at the University of Criminalistics and Police Studies within the master’s academic studies program “NatRisk,” on the subject of “Natural Disasters,” at the invitation of Prof. Dr. Slobodan Miladinović.
As an expert in the field of disaster risk management, Prof. Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković was engaged by the Faculty of Geography, University of Belgrade, as part of an expert team for writing a thematic section on disasters within the Spatial Plan of the Republic of Serbia for the period from 2021 to 2035, led by Prof. Dr. Slavoljub Dragićević.
Prof. Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković has organized and implemented numerous international and national scientific research activities under the auspices of scientific organizations he has founded and leads, such as the Scientific-Expert Society for Risk Management in Emergencies (with over 500 members – professors, researchers, practitioners, students) and the International Institute for Disaster Research. He also gave lectures by invitation at the Petnica Research Station (PRS) in Valjevo in 2018 on the topic “Natural Disasters – Challenges for Society and Security.”
In front of the Scientific-Expert Society for Risk Management in Emergencies, Prof. Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković has several times organized and coordinated cooperation and joint scientific and professional activities with the Russian-Serbian Humanitarian Center from Niš and the Faculty of Law from Novi Sad. In numerous scientific and research and professional activities, he maintains continuous cooperation with the Sector for Emergency Situations of the Republic of Serbia, the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Serbia. In addition, he has participated in numerous activities and cooperates with the Secretariat for Defense, Disaster Management, and Communication in the City of Belgrade.
Moreover, Prof. Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković has appeared multiple times on various television programs discussing current topics in the field of disasters, such as Serbia’s capacities for responding to emergencies caused by forest fires, on the RTS 1 program “Dnevnik 2”; the state of fire protection in residential buildings, on RTS 1’s “Belgrade Chronicle”; civil protection in the Republic of Serbia, also on RTS 1, etc.
He participated in the organization of a Round Table – “Learned Lessons from the Floods of 2014 – 5 Years Later” at the Institute for International Politics and Economy in Belgrade, on May 24, 2019. The round table was organized within the international Horizon 2020 project DAREnet, with the participation of representatives from the Faculty of Security, University of Belgrade, the Sector for Emergency Situations of the Ministry of the Interior of the Republic of Serbia, the Permanent Conference of Cities and Municipalities – Union of Cities and Municipalities of Serbia, the Office for Public Investment Management, the Red Cross of Serbia, and others.
In the organization of the OSCE (Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe) project “Consolidating the Democratization Process in the Security Sector in Serbia,” he conducted a study visit to academic institutions and Think Tanks in France from September 3rd to 7th, 2018. Additionally, Prof. Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković is a member of the alumni academic network of members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe in Serbia. Furthermore, he participated in the International Atomic Energy Agency’s (IAEA) Annual Meeting at the UN International Center in Vienna within the International Nuclear Security Education Network (INSEN) as a representative from Serbia.
Prof. Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković was on a two-day study visit to the Joint Research Centre – the Commission’s science and knowledge service EU in Ispra, Italy, and on that occasion, visited the European Crisis Management Laboratory and established cooperation with eminent EU researchers in the field of disasters.
Selected references and recommendations for further reading
Cvetković, V. M., Nikolić, N., Ocal, A., Martinović, J., & Dragašević, A. (2022). A Predictive Model of Pandemic Disaster Fear Caused by Coronavirus (COVID-19): Implications for Decision-Makers. International journal of environmental research and public health, 19(2), 654.
Cvetković, V., Nikolić, N., Nenadić, R. U., Ocal, A., & Zečević, M. (2020). Preparedness and Preventive Behaviors for a Pandemic Disaster Caused by COVID-19 in Serbia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(11), 4124.
Janković, B., & Cvetković Vladimir, M. (2020). Public perception of police behaviors in the disaster COVID-19 – The case of Serbia. Policing: An International Journal, 43(6), 979-992. doi:10.1108/PIJPSM-05-2020-0072. (2020). doi:10.1108/PIJPSM-05-2020-0072.
Ocal, A., Cvetković, V. M., Baytiyeh, H., Tedim, F., & Zečević, M. (2020). Public reactions to the disaster COVID-19: A comparative study in Italy, Lebanon, Portugal, and Serbia. Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk, 11(1), 1864-1885.
Cvetković, V. M., Öcal, A., & Ivanov, A. (2019). Young adults’ fear of disasters: A case study of residents from Turkey, Serbia and Macedonia. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 101095.
Cvetković, V., Roder, G., Öcal, A., Tarolli, P., & Dragićević, S. (2018). The Role of Gender in Preparedness and Response Behaviors towards Flood Risk in Serbia. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(12), 2761.
Cvetković, V., Noji, E., Filipović, M., Marija, M. P., Želimir, K., & Nenad, R. (2018). Public Risk Perspectives Regarding the Threat of Terrorism in Belgrade: Implications for Risk Management Decision-Making for Individuals, Communities and Public Authorities. Journal of Criminal Investigation and Criminology/, 69(4), 279-298.
Cvetković, V., Kevin, R., Shaw, R., Filipović, M., Mano, R., Gačić, J., & Jakovljević, V. (2018). Household earthquake preparedness in Serbia – a study from selected municipalities. Acta Geographica, 59(1), 27-43.
Cvetković, V., Ristanović, E., & Gačić, J. (2018). Citizens Attitudes about the Emergency Situations Caused by Epidemics in Serbia – Stavovi građana o vanrednim situacijama izazvanim epidemijama: studija slučaja Srbije. Iranian Journal of Public Health, 47(8), 1213-1214.
Cvetković, V., Dragićević, S., Petrović, M., Mijaković, S., Jakovljević, V., & Gačić, J. (2015). Knowledge and perception of secondary school students in Belgrade about earthquakes as natural disasters. Polish journal of environmental studies, 24(4), 1553-1561.
Gačić, J., Jović, J. S., Terzić, N., Cvetković, V., Terzić, M., Stojanović, D., & Stojanović, G. (2019). Gender differences in stress intensity and coping strategies among students – Future emergency relief specialist. Vojnosanitetski pregled. Military-medical and pharmaceutical review, 78(5).
Cvetković, V., Tomašević, K., & Milašinović, (2019). Bezbednosni rizici klimatskih promena: studija slučaja Beograda. Sociološki pregled, 53(2), 596–626.
Cvetković, V., Milašinović, S., & Lazić, Ž. (2018). Examination of citizens’ attitudes towards providign support to vulnerable people and voluntereeing during disasters. Journal for social sciences, TEME, 42(1), 35-56.
Cvetković, V., Lipovac, M., & Milojković, B. (2016). Knowledge of secondary school students in Belgrade as an element of flood preparedness. Journal for social sciences, TEME, 15(4), 1259-1273.
Cvetković, V. (2016). Fear and floods in Serbia: Citizens preparedness for responding to natural disaster. Matica Srpska Journal of Social Sciences, 155(2), 303-324.
Janković, B., Cvetković, V., & Ivanov, A. (2019). Perceptions of private security: А case study of students from Serbia and North Macedonia. Journal of Criminalistic and Law, NBP, 24(3).
Cvetković, V. (2020). Upravljanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama. Beograd: Naučno-stručno društvo za upravljanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama (750 str.)
Cvetković, V. (2019). Upravljanje rizicima i sistemi zaštite i spasavanja od katastrofa. Beograd: Naučno-stručno društvo za upravljanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama (praktikum).
Cvetković, V. (2017). Metodologija naučnog istraživanja katastrofa – teorije, koncepti i metode. Beograd: Zadužbina Andrejević.
Cvetković, V., Filipović, M., & Gačić, J. (2019). Zbirka propisa iz oblasti upravljanja rizicima u vanrednim situacijama. Beograd: Naučno-stručno društvo za upravljanje rizicima u oblasti vanrednih situacija
Jakovljević, V., Cvetković, V., & Gačić, J. (2015). Prirodne katastrofe i obrazovanje. Beograd: Fakultet bezbednosti, Univerzitet u Beogradu.
Cvetković, V. (2016). Policija i prirodne katastrofe. Beograd: Zadužbina Andrejević.
Cvetković, V., Gačić, J. (2016). Evakuacija u prirodnim katastrofama. Beograd: Zadužbina Andrejević.
Ivanov, A., Cvetković, V. (2016). Prirodni katastrofi – geoprostorna i vremenska distribucija. Univerzitet „Sv. Kliment Ohridski“- Bitola, Fakultet za bezbednost, Skopje.
Bošković, D., Cvetković, V. (2017). Procena rizika u sprečavanju izvršenja krivičnih dela eksplozivnim materijama. Beograd: Kriminalističko-policijska akademija.
Cvetković, V., Bošković, D., Janković, B., & Andrić, S. (2019). Percepcija rizika od vanrednih situacija. Beograd: Kriminalističko-policijska akademija.
Miladinović, S., Cvetković, V., & Milašinović, S. (2017). Upravljanje u kriznim situacijama izazvanim klizištima. Beograd: Kriminalističko-policijska akademija.
Cvetković, V., Filipović, M. (2017). Pripremljenost za prirodne katastrofe – preporuke za unapređenje pripremljenosti. Beograd: Zadužbina Andrejević.
Cvetković, V., Milašinović, S., & Gostimirović, L. (2018). Istorijski razvoj policijskog obrazovanja u Srbiji. Doboj: Visoka poslovna tehnička škola.
Cvetković, V. (2013). Interventno-spasilačke službe u vanrednim situacijama. Beograd: Zadužbina Andrejević.
Cvetković, V. M. (2019). Risk Perception of Building Fires in Belgrade. International Journal of Disaster Risk Management, 1(1), 81-91.
Perić, J., & Cvetković, V. (2019). Demographic, socio-economic and phycological perspective of risk perception from disasters caused by floods: case study Belgrade. International Journal of Disaster Risk Management, 1(2), 31-43
Cvetković, V. (2018). Percepcija javnosti o pripremljenosti za biosferske katastrofe izazvane epidemijama: implikacije na proces upravljanja rizicima. Bezbednost, 60(3), 5-25.
Nikolić, N., Cvetković, V., & Zečević, M. (2019). Human Resource Management in Environmental Protection in Serbia. Bulletin of the Serbian Geographical Society, 100(1), 51-72.
Cvetković, V. (2017). Prepreke unapređenju spremnosti građana za reagovanje u prirodnim katastrofama. Vojno delo, 69(2), 132-150.
Cvetković, V. (2018). Baze podataka o rizicima i informacioni servisi podrške odlučivanju u vanrednim situacijama – Risk database and management support information services for emergencies.
Cvetković, V., & Filipović, M. (2017). Posledice prirodnih katastrofa: faktori uticaja na percepciju građana Srbije – Consequences of natural disasters: factors of influence on Serbian citizens perception. Ecologica, 24(87), 572-578.
Cvetković, V., & Filipović, M. (2018). Ispitivanje percepcije rizika o požarima u stambenim objektima: demografski i socio-ekonomski faktori uticaja – Examination of the fire risk perception in residential buildings: the impact of demographic and socio-economic factors. Vojno delo, 70(5), 82-98.
Cvetković, V., & Filipović, M. (2018). Ispitivanje stavova učenika o uvodjenju nastavnog predmeta bezbednosna kultura u srednjim školama – Examination of students’ attitudes about the introduction of a course “safety culture” in secondary schools. Kultura polisa, 15(35), 277-286.
Cvetković, V., & Filipović, M. (2018). Koncept otpornosti na katastrofe – Theory of disaster resilience. Ecologica, 25(89), 202-207.
Cvetković, V., Filipović, M., & Gačić, J. (2018). Teorijski okvir istraživanja u oblasti katastrofa. Ecologica, 25(91), 545-551.
Cvetković, V., Filipović, M., & Jakovljević, V. (2017). A survey of subjective opinions of population about seismic resistance of residential buildings. J. Geogr. Inst. Cvijic, 67(3), 265-278.
Cvetković, V., Filipović, M., Popović, D., & Ostojić, G. (2017). Činioci uticaja na znanje o prirodnim katastrofama. Ecologica, 24(85), 121-126.
Cvetković, V., Gačić, J., & Babić, S. (2017). Religiousness level and citizen preparedness for natural disasters. Vojno delo, 69(4), 253-262.
Cvetković, V., Giulia, R., Ocal, A., Filipović, M., Janković, B., & Eric, N. (2018). Childrens and youths’ knowledge on forest fires: Discrepancies between basic perceptions and reality. Vojno delo, 70(1), 171-185.
Cvetković, V., Jakovljević, V., Gačić, J., & Filipović, M. (2017). Obuka građana za reagovanje u vanrednim situacijama – Citizens’ training for emergency situations. Ecologica, 24(88), 856-882.
Cvetković, V., & Miladinović, S. (2017). Ispitavanje stavova i znanja učenika o klizištima kao prirodnim opasnostima. Ecologica, 24(85), 121-126.
Cvetković, V., & Milašinović, S. (2017). Teorija ugroženosti i smanjenje rizika od katastrofa. Kultura polisa, 14(33), 217-228.
Cvetković, V. M., & Filipović, M. (2018). Ispitivanje uloge porodice u edukaciji dece o prirodnim katastrofama. Nauka, bezbednost, policija, 23(1), 71-85.
Sultana, O., Cvetković, V., & Kutub, J. (2017). Problems of inhabitants of Muktagacha town in Mymenssingh district in terms of urban services important for security in natural disaster. Vojno delo, 70(1), 112-155.
Cvetković, V. (2017). Spremnost građana za reagovanje u prirodnim katastrofama izazvanim poplavama u Republici Srbiji. Vojno delo, 69(1), 153-190.
Cvetković, V. (2017). Uticaj personalnih i sredinskih faktora na očekivanje pomoći od interventno-spasilačkih službi i humanitarnih organizacija za vreme prirodnih katastrofa. Bezbednost, 59(3), 28-53.
Cvetković, V. (2017). Krizne situacije – pripremljenost države, lokalne zajednice i građana. Vojno delo, 69(7), 122-136.
Cvetković, V. (2017). Percepcija rizika od prirodnih katastrofa izazvanih poplavama. Vojno delo, 69(5), 160-175.
Cvetković, M. V., & Miladinović, S. (2018). Spremnost sistema zaštite i spasavanja Republike Srbije za implementaciju integrisanog upravljanja rizicima od katastrofa – preporuke za sprovođenje istraživanja. Ecologica, 25(92), 995-1001.
Cvetković, V. (2016). Uticaj demografskih, socio-ekonomskih i psiholoških faktora na preduzimanje preventivnih mera. Kultura polisa, XIII(32), 393-404.
Cvetković, V. (2016). The relationship between educational level and citizen preparedness for responding to natural disasters. Journal of the Geographical Institute “Jovan Cvijić” SASA, 66(2), 237-253.
Cvetković, V. (2014). Analiza geoprostorne i vremenske distribucije vulkanskih erupcija. NBP – Žurnal za kriminalistiku i pravo, 2/2014, 153-171.
Cvetković, V., & Dragicević, S. (2014). Spatial and temporal distribution of natural disasters. Journal of the Geographical Institute Jovan Cvijic, SASA, 64(3), 293-309.
Popović, M., & Cvetković, V. (2012). Žene kao učesnici u mirovnim operacijama i donosioci odluka u sektoru bezbednosti.. Žene Kultura – Polis: časopis za negovanje demokratske kulture, 9(2), 273-291.
Veličković, M., Cvetković, V. (2013). Uloga i obučavanje pripadnika vojske Srbije za eskortnu pratnju. Vojno delo, 55(2), 262-276.
Vraćević, N., & Cvetković, V. (2014): Uloga privatnih oružanih snaga u tradicionalnim konceptima bezbednosti. Vojno delo, 64 (2), 126-144.
Cvetković, V., & Mijalkovic, S. (2013). Spatial and temporal distribution of geophysical disasters. Journal of the Geographical Institute Jovan Cvijic, SASA, 63(3), 345-359.
Cvetković, V., Milojković, B., & Stojković, D. (2014). Analiza geoprostorne i vremenske distribucije zemljotresa kao prirodnih katastrofa. Vojno delo, 66(2), 166-185, 2014.
Cvetković, V., Gaćić, J., & Petrović, D. (2015). Spremnost studenata Kriminalističko-policijske akademije za reagovanje na prirodnu katastrofu izazvanu poplavom u Republici Srbiji. Ecologica, 22(78), 302-309.
Cvetković, V., & Stojković, D. (2015). Knowledge and perceptions of secondary school students in Kraljevo about natural disasters. Ecologica, 22(77), 42-49, 2015.
Mijalković, S., & Cvetković, V. (2015): Viktimizacija ljudi prirodnim katastrofama – geoprostorna i vremenska distribucija. Temida, časopis o viktimizaciji, ljudskim pravima i rodu. 4(17), 19-43.
Cvetković, V. (2016). Marital status of citizens and floods: citizen preparedness for response to natural disasters. Vojno delo, 66 (8), 89-116.
Cvetković, V., Vučić, S., & Gačić, J. (2015). Klimatske promene i nacionalna odbrana. Vojno delo, 67 (5), 181-203.
Cvetković, V., Gačić, J., & Jakovljević, V. (2015). Uticaj statusa regulisane vojne obaveze na spremnost građana za reagovanje na prirodnu katastrofu izazvanu poplavom u Republici Srbiji. Ecologica, 22(80), 584-590.
Cvetković, V., Janković, B., & Milojević, S. (2016). Bezbednost učenika od posledica prirodnih katastrofa u školskim objektima. Ecologica, 23(84), 809-815.
Мерћер, М., Лозар, Ј. (2011). Спашавање у прометним несрећама. Загреб: Хрватска ватрогасна заједница.
Milojević, S., Janković, B., & Cvetković, V. (2014). Prediction Model of Effective Studies at the Academy of Criminalistics and Police Studies. NBP – Journal of criminalistics and law, 135-149.
Cvetković, V. (2016). Uticaj motivisanosti na spremnost građana Republike Srbije da reaguju na prirodnu katastrofu izazvanu poplavom. Vojno delo, 67(3), 141-171.
Lipovac, M., & Cvetković, V. (2015). Problemi u implementaciji evropskih standarda u Republici Srbiji u oblasti integrisanog sistema zaštite i spasavanja u vanrednim situacijama – broj 112 za hitne pozive. Evropsko zakonodavstvo, 54/2015, 300-306.
Sandić, M., Mlađan, D., Cvetković, V. (2016). Spremnost građana Loznice za reagovanje na prirodnu katastrofu izazvanu zemljotresom. Ecologica, 81, 40-48.
Cvetković, V. (2016). Influence of income level on citizen preparedness for response to natural disasters. Vojno delo, 66(4).
Cvetković, V., Gačić, J., & Jakovljević, V. (2015). Impact of climate change on the distribution of extreme temperatures as natural disasters. Vojno delo, 66(6), 21-42.
Cvetković, V., Sandić, M. (2016). The fear of natural disaster caused by flood. Ecologica, 23 (82), 202-209.
Cvetković, V. (2016). Uticaj zaposlenosti na spremnost građana za reaogovanje na prirodnu katastrofu izazvanu poplavom. NBP – Žurnal za kriminalistiku i pravo, 20 (2), 49-94.
Cvetković, V., Gačić, J., & Jakovljević, V. (2016). Geoprostorna i vremenska distribucija šumskih požara kao prirodnih katastrofa. Vojno delo, 68 (2), 108-127.
Janković, B., & Cvetković, V. (2016). Mesto i uloga FRONTEKS-a u sprovođenju nove politike granične bezbednosti Evropske unije. Evropsko zakonodavstvo, 55 (56-57), 265-277.
Filipović, M., & Cvetković, M. V. (2019). Projekat,,Prirodne Albanije“ kao pretnja teritorijalnom integritetu Republike Srbije. Vojno delo, 71(4), 114-125.
Cvetković, V., & Katarina, A. (2019). Edukacija građana o smanjenju rizika od katastrofa korišćenjem multimedijalnih sadržaja – društvene igre, kompjuterske igrice i simulacije. Vojno delo, 71(6), 122-151.
Mumović, N., & Cvetković, V. (2019). Činioci uticaja na donošenje odluka o sprovođenju evakuacije u uslovima katastrofa izazvanih požarima u stambenim objektima: studija slučaja Beograda. Vojno delo, 71(7), 142-163.
Janković, B., Cvetković, M. V., Vučković, G., & Milojević, S. (2019). Uticaj akutnog mentalnog stresa na perfomanse gađanja: implikacije na obuku pripadnika bezbednosnih službi. Vojno delo, 71(6), 112-121.
Svrdlin, M., & Cvetković, V. (2019). Mobilni komunikacioni sistemi i aplikacije od značaja za integrisano upravljanje katastrofama. Vojno delo, 71(7), 164-177.
Vraćević, N., & Cvetković, M. V. (2019). Značaj i uloga privatnih vojnih kompanija u rešavanju savremenih problema nacionalne i međunarodne bezbednosti. Vojno delo, 71(3), 73-94.
Ivanov, A., & Cvetković, V. (2014). The role of education in natural disaster risk reduction. Horizons, international scientific journal, year X, Volume 16,115-131, 2014. Editor: Elena Kitanovska-Ristoska, ISSN 1857- 856X, UDC of work 37.017:504.4. Keywords: education, natural disaster, reduction of risk, emergency situations, security.
Mlađan, D., Cvetković, V., Veličković, M. (2012). Sistem upravljanja u vanrednim situacijama u Sjedinjenim Američkim državama. Vojno delo, proleće/2012, UDK članka: 351.759.6(73); 351.862.21(73), YU ISSN 0042-8426. Urednik – Milan Tepšić.
Cvetković, V., Popović, M. (2011). Mogućnosti zloupotrebe oružja za masovno uništavanje u terorističke svrhe. Bezbednost 2/2011, 149-168.
Cvetković, V., & Bošković, D. (2015). Analiza geoprostorne i vremenske distribucije suša kao prirodnih katastrofa. Bezbednost, 3/2014, 148-165.
Cvetković, V.: Faktori uticaja na znanje i percepciju učenika srednjih škola u Beogradu o prirodnim katastrofama izazvanim klizištima. Bezbednost, 1/2015, 32-51.
Cvetković, V., & Milojković, B. (2016). Uticaj demografskih faktora na nivo informisanosti građana o nadležnostima policije u prirodnim katastrofama. Bezbednost, 38 (2), 2016, 5-31.
Cvetković, V., & Stojković, D. (2014). Komparativna analiza nacionalnih strategija bezbednosti Albanije, Makedonije i Crne Gore. Bezbjednost, policija i građani (3-4), 239-251, 2014.
Cvetković, V. (2016). The impact fo demographic factors on the expetation of assistance from the police inn natural disaster. Serbian Science Today, 1 (1), 8–17, 2016.
Cvetković, V. (2015). Fenomenologija prirodnih katastrofa – teorijsko određenje i klasifikacija prirodnih katastrofa. Bezbjednost, policija i građani, 3 – 4, 311-335, 2015.
Cvetković, V., Andrejević, T. (2016). Qualitative research readiness of citizens to respond to natural disasters. Serbian science today, 1 (3), 393-404.
Cvetković, V. (2017) Spremnost za reagovanje na prirodnu katastrofu – pregled literature. Bezbjednost, policija i građani, 1-2/15(XI), 165-183.
Cvetković, V. (2016). Povezanost uspeha u srednjoj školi i spremnosti građana za reagovanje u prirodnim katastrofama. Bezbjednost, policija i građani.
Kutub, J. R., Cvetković, V. M., & Huq, S. (2017). Assessment of Women’s Vulnerability and their Coping Mechanism Living in Flood prone Areas: A Case Study of Belkuchi Upazila, Sirajganj. Serbian Science Today.
Cvetković, V. (2013).Mogućnosti zloupotrebe biološkog oružja u terorističke svrhe. Beograd: časopis Bezbednost, godina LV, 1/2013, 122-140.
Cvetković, V., Filipović, M., Dragićević, S., & Novković, I. (2018). The role of social networks in disaster risk reduction. Paper presented at the Eight International Scientific Conference “Archibald Reiss Days” October 2–3, 2018.
Mlađan, D., Cvetković, V. (2012). Police Deployment in Emergency Situations Caused by the Abuse of Weapons of Mass Destruction. Beograd: Međunarodni naučni skup,,Dani Arčibalda Rajsa“, tematski zbornik radova međunarodnog značaj, organizacije Kriminalisticko-policijske akademije, 1-2 mart, 2012. godine, 533-547, Volume 2, ISBN 978-86-7020-190-3.
Mlađan, D., Milojković, B., Baras, I., Cvetković, V. (2013). Cooperation of South-East European countries in Emergency Situations. International Scientific Conference, The Balkans between Past and Future: Security, Conflict Resolution and Euro-Atlantic Integration, 05-08 June 2013, Ohrid, 279-291, Tom II.
Cvetković, V., Gačić, J., & Jakovljević, V. (2017). Household supplies for natural disaster: factor of influence on the possession of supplies. Paper presented at the 8th International Scientific Conference – Security concepts and policies – new generation of risks and threats, at ohrid, republic of macedonia 4 – 5 june, 2017.
Cvetković, V., Ivanov, A., & Sadiyeh, A. (2015). Knowledge and perceptions of students of the Academy of criminalistic and police studies about natural disasters. International scientific conference “Archibald Reiss days” Thematic conference proceedings of international significance., Belgrade, The Academy of Criminalistic and Police Studies, Volume II, 181-195.
Mlađan, D., Cvetković, V. (2013). Classification of Emergency Situations. International scientific conference “Archibald Reiss days” Thematic conference proceedings of international significance., Belgrade, The Academy of Criminalistic and Police Studies, 275-291.
Mijalković, S., Cvetković, V. (2013). Vulnerability of Critical Infrastructure by Natural Disasters. Belgrade, zbornik radova – National Critical Infrastructure Protection, Regional Perspective, 2013, 91-102, ISBN 978-86-84069-84-1, UDC 726.9:75.041.5 ID 176374796.
Cvetković, V. (2014). Spatial and temporal distribution of floods like natural emergency situations. International scientific conference “Archibald Reiss days” Thematic conference proceedings of international significance (3-4 march 2014), Belgrade, The Academy of Criminalistic and Police Studies, 371-389, volume II. Editor in Chief – Dragana Kolarić.
Цветковић, В. (2014). Заштита критичне инфраструктуре од последица катастрофа. Седма међународна знаствено-стручна конференција,,Дани кризног управљања“. Хрватска: Велика Горица, 22. и 23. мај, 1281-1295, 2014. Уредник – Иван Нађ.
Cvetković, V., & Ivanov, A. (2014). Comparative analysis of national strategies for protection and rescue in emergencies in Serbia and Montenegro with emphasis on Croatia. International conference: Macedonia and the Balkans, a hundred years after the world war I – security and euroatlantic integrations (3-5 june 2014). Skopje: University St. Kliment Ohridski – Bitola, Faculty of Security, 200-216.
Sudar, S., Aleksandar, I., & Cvetković, V. (2016). Environmental and social management framework (esmf) for fostering environmental protection and security in Drina river basin riparian countries. Paper presented at 7th International Scientific Contemporary Trends in Social Control of Crime.
Cvetković, V., & Ivanov, A. (2016). Analiza faktora uticaja na znanje i percepciju učenika srednjih škola u Beogradu o epidemijama. Deveta međunarodna znastveno-stručna konferencija,,Dani kriznog upravljanja“, Veleučilište Velika Gorica, Hrvatska, 12-13 aprila, Split, 859-868.
Cvetković, V., Stojković, D. (2016). Analysis of geospatial and temporal distribution of storms as a natural disaster, 2016. The international conference is organized by the Faculty of Security – Skopje – University St. Kliment Ohridski – Bitola in collaboration with Faculty of detectives and security – FON University – Skopje. International scientific conference – criminalistic education, situation and perspectives – 20 years after Vodinelic. Skopje, Republic of Macedonia, from 24th to 25th October 2014.
Aleksandar, I., Cvetković, V., & Sudar, S. (2016). Theoretical foundations related to Natural disasters and measuring the resilience of the communities before disasters happens – Establishing proposal variables“. Paper presented at the 7th International Scientific Contemporary Trends in Social Control of Crime.
Gačić, J., Jakovljević, V., & Cvetković, V. (2015). Floods in the Republik of Serbia – vulnerability and human security. Twenty Years of Human Security: Theoretical Foundations and Practical Applications, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Security Studies, 277-286, April 2015.
Cvetković, M. V., Ivanov, A., & Milojković, B. (2016). Influence of parenthood on citizen preparedness for response to natural disaster caused by floods. VI International scientific conference “Archibald Reiss days” Thematic conference proceedings of international significance, Belgrade, The Academy of Criminalistic and Police Studies.
Cvetković, V., & Ivanov, A. (2016). Uticaj udaljenosti naselja od reke na spremnost građana za reagovanje na poplave u republici Srbiji. Deveta međunarodna znastveno-stručna konferencija,,Dani kriznog upravljanja“, Veleučilište Velika Gorica, Hrvatska, 12-13 aprila, Split.
Ivanov, A., Cvetković, V., & Sudar, S. (2015). Recognition and perception of risks and environmental hazards on the part of the student population in the republic of Macedonia. In: Zlatko Žlogev i Oliver Bacanović, International scientific conference – Researching security – approaches, concepts and policies, 02-03. University “St. Kliment Ohridski”- Bitola Faculty of Security – Skopje, 173-199.
Mlađan, D., Cvetković, V. (2012). Police Deployment in Emergency Situations Caused by the Abuse of Weapons of Mass Destruction. Beograd: Međunarodni naučni skup,,Dani Arčibalda Rajsa“, tematski zbornik radova međunarodnog značaj, organizacije Kriminalisticko-policijske akademije, 1-2 mart, 2012. godine, 533-547.
Mlađan, D., Milojković, B., Baras, I., Cvetković, V. (2013). Cooperation of South-East European countries in Emergency Situations. International Scientific Conference, The Balkans between Past and Future: Security, Conflict Resolution and Euro-Atlantic Integration, 05-08 June 2013, Ohrid, 279-291, Tom II.
Cvetković, V., Ivanov, A., & Sadiyeh, A. (2015). Knowledge and perceptions of students of the Academy of criminalistic and police studies about natural disasters. International scientific conference “Archibald Reiss days” Thematic conference proceedings of international significance., Belgrade, The Academy of Criminalistic and Police Studies, Volume II, 181-195.
Mlađan, D., Cvetković, V. (2013). Classification of Emergency Situations. International scientific conference “Archibald Reiss days” Thematic conference proceedings of international significance., Belgrade, The Academy of Criminalistic and Police Studies, 275-291, 2013.
Mijalković, S., Cvetković, V. (2013). Vulnerability of Critical Infrastructure by Natural Disasters. Belgrade, zbornik radova – National Critical Infrastructure Protection, Regional Perspective, 2013, 91-102.
Cvetković, V. (2014). Spatial and temporal distribution of floods like natural emergency situations. International scientific conference “Archibald Reiss days” Thematic conference proceedings of international significance (3-4 march 2014), Belgrade, The Academy of Criminalistic and Police Studies, 371-389, volume II.
Cvetković, V., & Filipović, M. (2017). Information systems and disaster risk management.. Paper presented at the International scientific and professional conference – 40 years of higher education in the field of security – Theory and Practice, Skopje, Republic of Macedonia.
Cvetković, V., & Gačić, J. (2017). Fires as threatening security phenomenon: factors of influence on knowledge about fires. Paper presented at the Conference: 10th International Conference “Crisis management days“ – security environment and challenges of crisis management, At 24, 25 and 26 May 2017.
Цветковић, В. (2014). Заштита критичне инфраструктуре од последица катастрофа. Седма међународна знаствено-стручна конференција,,Дани кризног управљања“. Хрватска: Велика Горица, 22. и 23. мај, 1281-1295, 2014. Уредник – Иван Нађ.
Cvetković, V., & Ivanov, A. (2014). Comparative analysis of national strategies for protection and rescue in emergencies in Serbia and Montenegro with emphasis on Croatia. International conference: Macedonia and the Balkans, a hundred years after the world war I – security and euroatlantic integrations (3-5 june 2014). Skopje: University St. Kliment Ohridski – Bitola, Faculty of Security, 200-216.
Sudar, S., Aleksandar, I., & Cvetković, V. (2016). Environmental and social management framework (esmf) for fostering environmental protection and security in Drina river basin riparian countries. Paper presented at 7th International Scientific Contemporary Trends in Social Control of Crime.
Mlađan, D., Babić, Đ., Cvetković, V. (2012). Potreba za većim uključivanjem društvenih nauka u razvoj nauke o požarnoj bezbednosti. Treća međunarodna naučna konferencija,,Bezbednosni inžinjering, požar, životna sredina, radna okolina, integrisani rizici i 13. međunarodna konferencija zaštite od požara i eksplozije, Novi Sad, 18-19. oktobar 2012. godine, Visoka tehnička škola strukovnih studija.
Mlađan, D., Marić, P., Baras, I., Cvetković V. (2011). Aktivnosti Sektora za vanredne situacije na usklađivanju politike Republike Srbije sa bezbednosnom politikom EU u oblasti civilne zaštite, zbornik radova: „Usklađivanje spoljne politike Republike Srbije sa zajedničkom spoljnom i bezbednosnom politikom Evropske unije“, Instutut za međunarodnu politiku i privredu. – Beograd, 10-11. oktobar 2011, str. 479 – 492.
Cvetković, V., Milojković, B., Mlađan, D. (2013). Climate Change as a Modern Security Threat. Belgrade, Jaroslav Černi Institute for the Development of Water Resources, International Conference Climate change Impacts on Water Resources, 17-18 October 2013, Belgrade, Serbia, ISBN 978-86-82565-41-3, 168-174.
Cvetković, V., Janković, B., & Banović, B. (2014). Analiza geoprostorne i vremenske distribucije cunamija kao prirodnih katastrofa. Četvrta međunarodna naučna konferencija,,Bezbednosni inženjering, požar, životna sredina, radna okolina, integrisani rizici“ i Četrnaesta međunarodna konferencija zaštita od požara i eksplozija, 02-03. oktobar 2014. Novi Sad: Visoka tehnička škola strukovnih studija u Novom Sadu, Tehnički univerzitet u Zvolenu i Fakultet tehničkih nauka, Departman za građevinarstvo i geodeziju, str. 352-361, 2014.
Ranđelović, D., Popović, B., Cvetković, V. (2010). Kompjuterski virusi. Zbornik radova, Naučni skup sa međunarodnim učešćem Pravo i forenzika u kriminalistici, Kragujevac, 15 – 17- septembra, Beograd, Kriminalističko – policijska akademija, 2010. godine, 187-198.
Cvetković, V. (2014). Upravljanje u terorističkim vanrednim situacijama izazvanim upotrebom opasnih materija. Naučna konferencija: sigurnost urbanih sredina. Eldan Mujanović. Sarajevo, Fakultet za kriminalistiku, kriminologiju i sigurnosne studije: 63-72.
Cvetković, V. & Mlađović, I. (2015). Mogućnosti zloupotrebe nuklearnog oružja u terorističke svrhe i krivično pravna zaštita. Osmi međunarodni naučni skup „Dani bezbjednosti“ na temu: Subjekti sistema bezbjednosti u ostvarivanju bezbjednosne funkcije države, Fakultet za bezbjednost i zaštitu, Banja Luka 12. jun 2015, 397-407
Cvetković, V., & Filipović, M. (2017d). Vanredne situacije izazvane upotrebom radiološkog oružja u terorističke svrhe – Emergency situations caused by use of the radiological weapons for terrorist purposes. Paper presented at the First International Conference Environmental Safety and Health at Work, Zrenjanin.
Filipović, M., Cvetković, V., & Jakovljević, V. (2017). Uticaj klimatskih promena na zaštitu i očuvanje biodiverziteta kao preduslova ekološke bezbednosti u Srbiji. Paper presented at the First Conference with International participation – Environmental Safety and Health at Work Zrenjanin.
Mlađan, D., Milojković, B., Baras, I., Cvetković, V. (2013). Cooperation of south-east european countries in emergency situations. International scientific conference: The Balkans between Past and Future: Security, Conflict Resolution and Euro-Atlantic Integration, 05-08 June 2013, Ohrid, Book of abstracts, 46-47.
Cvetković, V., Mijalković, S. (2013). Spatial and Temporal distribution of geophysical disasters. Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts and Geographical Institute Jovan Cvijic, SASA, International Conference Natural Hazards – Links between Science and Practice, 8-11 October.
Mijalković, S., Cvetković, V. (2013). Vulnerability of Critical Infrastructure by Natural Disasters. Belgrade, International Scientific Conference, Regional Perspective, October 24th, 2013, Belgrade (Organization University of Belgrade – Faculty of Security Studies), Book of Abstracts, 28-29, ISBN 978-86-84069-82-7, COBISS.SR-ID 201998604.
Cvetković, V., Milojković, B., Mlađan, D., & Miladinović, S. (2014). The role of police in achieving security on the Danube as international waterways in Serbia. The third romanian-bulgarian-hungarian-serbian conference: University of Belgrade, Faculty of Geography University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Managament: Geographical Research and Cross-Border Cooperation within the Lower Basin of the Danube, Book of Abstracts, Srebrno jezero, 18-21. september, 42-43, 2014.
Cvetković, V., & Ivanov, A. (2014). Comparative analysis of national strategies for protection and rescue in emergencies in Serbia and Montenegro with emphasis on Croatia. International conference: Macedonia and the Balkans, a hundred years after the world war I – security and euroatlantic integrations, 03-05 june 2014.
Cvetković, V. (2014). Upravljanje u terorističkim vanrednim situacijama izazvanim upotrebom opasnih materija. XIV Međunarodna naučna konferencija,,Sigurnost urbanih sredina“, maj 2014. Zbornik sažetaka. Sarajevo: Fakultet za kriminalistiku, kriminologiju i sigurnosne studije, str. 82-84.
Cvetković, V. (2014). Zaštita kritične infrastrukture od posledica prirodnih katastrofa. Sedma međunarodna znastveno-stručna konferencija,,Dani kriznog upravljanja“, 22-23 maj, 2014. Zbornik sažetaka. Hrvatska: Velika Gorica, 231-233. UDK 005.334:338.49 – 351:504.4. CIP zapis dostupan u katalogu Nacionalne i sveučilišne knjižice u Zagrebu pod brojem 877998, ISBN 978-953-7716-55.
Gaćić, J., Jakovljević, V., Cvetković, V. (2014). Floods in the Republic of Serbia – Vulnerability and Human Security. Second International Conference on Human Security: Twenty Years of Human Security Y20HS, Book of Abstracts, November 7th and 8th, 2014, 33-34. Editor – Dr Ivica Djordjevic, Dr Svetlana Stanarević, Dr Jasmina Gačić and Stevan Tatalovic, Faculty of Security Studie. ISBN 978-86-84069-92-6.
Cvetković, M.V., Gačić, J., Petrović, D. (2015). Spremnost studenata Kriminalističko-policijske akademije za reagovanje na prirodnu katastrofu izazvanu poplavomu Republici Srbiji, 2015. Zbornik apstrakata. Međunarodni naučni skup „Životna sredina i adaptacija privrede na klimatske promene“ 22 – 24. april 2015. godine, Beograd. Naučno-stručno društvo za zaštitu životne sredine Srbije – Ecologica.
Ivanov, A., Cvetković, V., & Sudar, S. (2015). Recognition and perception of risks and environmental hazards on the part of the student population in the republic of Macedonia. In: Zlatko Žlogev i Oliver Bacanović, International scientific conference – Researching security – approaches, concepts and policies, 02-03. 06. 2015. University “St. Kliment Ohridski”- Bitola Faculty of Security – Skopje, 112-113.
Cvetković, V., & Ivanov, A. (2016). Uticaj udaljenosti naselja od reke na spremnost građana za reagovanje na poplave u republici Srbiji. Deveta međunarodna znastveno-stručna konferencija,,Dani kriznog upravljanja“, Veleučilište Velika Gorica, Hrvatska, Zbornik apstrakata, 2016.
Cvetković, V., Sandić, M. (2016). The fear of natural disaster caused by flood. Međunarodni naučni skup: ekološka kriza: tehnogeneza i klimatske promene, 31-32, 2016. Book of abstract. CIP – 502/504(048) 3:551.583 (048) 316.334.5 (048), ISBN 978-86-89061-09-3, COBISS.SR-ID222768652.
Cvetković, V., & Ivanov, A. (2016). Analiza faktora uticaja na znanje i percepciju učenika srednjih škola u Beogradu o epidemijama. Paper presented at the Deveta međunarodna znastveno-stručna konferencija,,Dani kriznog upravljanja“,, Veleučilište Velika Gorica, Hrvatska, Zbornik apstrakata, 2016.
Aleksandar, I., Cvetković, V., & Sudar, S. (2016). Theoretical foundations related to Natural disasters and measuring the resilience of the communities before disasters happens – Establishing proposal variables“. Paper presented at the 7th International Scientific Contemporary Trends in Social Control of Crime (in press). Keywords: Natural disaster; Community; Resilience; Sustainability.
Sudar, S., Aleksandar, I., & Cvetković, V. (2016). Environmental and social management framework (esmf) for fostering environmental protection and security in Drina river basin riparian countries. Paper presented at the Paper presented at the 7th International Scientific Contemporary Trends in Social Control of Crime.
Cvetković, V., Roder, G., Tarolli, P., Öcal, A., Ronan, K., & Dragićević, S. (2017). Gender disparities in flood risk perception and preparedness: a Serbian case study. Paper presented at the European Geosciences Union GmbH – EGU General Assembly 2017, At Vienna, Austria, Volume: Vol. 19, EGU2017-6720: Session HS1.9/NH1.18 Hydrological risk under a gender and age perspective, Wiena.
Mlađan, D., Cvetković, V. (2011). Sistem obuke pripadnika Sektora za vanredne situacije Ministarstva unutrašnjih poslova Republike Srbije u: Zbornik radova, Nacionalna konferencija sa međunarodnim učešćem, Zaštita na radu u XXI veku,- terorija i praksa, Tara, 04 – 08. oktobara 2011., ISBN: 978-86-87495-24-1, CSR – ID 186569996, CIP 331.45/46(082) 502/504(082), 35-44.
Cvetković, V., Aksentijević, V., & Ivović, M. (2015). Uloga službe hitne medicinske pomoći u vanrednim situacijama izazvanim terorističkim aktima. Suprotstavljanje savremenim oblicima kriminaliteta – analiza stanja, evropski standardi i mere za unapređenje (26-29. maj 2015), Kriminalističko-policijska akademija i Fondacija „Hans Zajdel” u saradnji sa Ministarstvom unutrašnjih poslova Republike Srbije, Tom III, 355-367. Urednik: prof. dr Dragana Kolarić. CIP – 343.85:343.9.02(082), ISBN 978-86-7020-324-2, COBISS.SR-ID 216840972.
Cvetković, V., Jakovljević, V., & Stanić, M. (2016) Osiguranje i smanjenje rizika od prirodnih katastrofa. VII naučno-stručni skup sa međunarodnim učešćem „Evropske integracije: pravda, sloboda i bezbednost“ Kriminalističko-policijska akademija i Fondacija „Hans Zajdel” u saradnji sa Ministarstvom unutrašnjih poslova Republike Srbije, 24-26. maj 2016. godine Tara.
Cvetković, V., & Filipović, M. (2017). Risk management of natural disasters: Concepts and Methods – Upravljanje rizicima od prirodnih katastrofa: koncepti i metode. Paper presented at the New directions and challenges in transforming societies through a multidisciplinary approach.
Cvetković, V. (2012). Zadaci vatrogasno-spasilačkih jedinica u terorističkom napadu izazvanom upotrebom oružja za masovno uništavanje. U zbornik radova, Suprostavljanje organizovanom kriminalu i terorizmu, Kriminalističko – policijska akademija, 2012. godina, 146-160, ISBN – 978-86-7020-232-0, COBISS.SR – ID 195570188.
Mlađan, D., Cvetković, V. (2011). Stanje i novi izazazovi vatrogasno – spasilačkih službi u svetu. Zbornik radova, Suprostavljanje organizovanom kriminalu i terorizmu, Kriminalističko – policijska akademija, 2011. godina, 95-109, ISBN 978-86-7020-201-6, COBISS. SR – ID 188134156.
Popović, M., Cvetković, V. (2013). Suprostavljanje savremenom terorizmu kao doprinos zaštiti ljudske bezbednosti u Republici Srbiji. U zbornik radova, Suprostavljanje organizovanom kriminalu i terorizmu, Kriminalističko – policijska akademija, 2013. godina, 169-177, ISBN – 978-86-7020-267-2, COBISS.SR – ID 203874060.
Cvetković, V., Popović, M., Sadiah, A. (2014). Mogućnosti zloupotrebe hemijskog oružja u terorističke svrhe. U S. Mijalković. Beograd: Kriminalističko-policijska akademija, 341-357, 2014. ISBN 978-86-7020-302-0, CIP – 343.9.02(082), 343.341(082), 323.28(082), COBISS.SR-ID 212066828.
Cvetković, V., Petrović, D. (2015). Integrisano upravljanje prirodnim katastrofama. U C. Mijalković, Razvoj institucionalnih kapaciteta, standarda i procedura za suprotstavljanje organizovanom kriminalu i terorizmu u uslovima međunarodnih integracija, knjiga VIII.
Cvetković, V. (2014) Analiza geoprostorne i vremenske distribucije klimatskih katastrofa. Tranzicija i ekonomski kriminal II, tematski zbornik radova (pp. 163-183).
Cvetković, V. (2013). The impacts of climate changes on the risk of natural disasters. In Toma Batkovski (Editor in chief), International yearbook of the Faculty of security (pp. 51-62), 2013. Skopje: Faculty of security. UDC: 551.583:504.4.
Cvetković, V. (2014). Uloga policije u prirodnim katastrofama. Elementarne nepogode i vanredne situacije. Urednici – Nataša Mrvić, Dragan Petrović, Dragan Mlađan. Beograd, Institut za uporedno pravo i Kriminalističko-policijska akademija: 215-243, 2014.
Publication of a book and scientific monograph
- Цвеtković, V. (2020). Upravlјanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama. Beograd: Naučno-stručno društvo za upravlјanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama (750 str.)
- Cvetković, V., & Marina, J. (2021). Mitovi o katastrofama: istine i zablude. Beograd: Naučno-stručno društvo za upravlјanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama.
- Cvetković, V., Martinović, J. (2021). Upravlјanje u nuklearnim katastrofama. Beograd: Naučno-stručno društvo za upravlјanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama.
- Cvetković, V. (2021). Bezbednosni rizici i katastrofe. Beograd: Naučno-stručno društvo za upravlјanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama.
- Cvetković, V. (2019). Upravlјanje rizicima i sistemi zaštite i spasavanja od katastrofa. Beograd: Naučno-stručno društvo za upravlјanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama.
- Cvetković, V., Filipović, M., & Gačić, J. (2019). Zbirka propisa iz oblasti upravlјanja rizicima u vanrednim situacijama. Beograd: Naučno-stručno društvo za upravlјanje rizicima u oblasti katastrofa.
- Cvetković, V. (2021). Bezbednosni rizici i katastrofe. Beograd: Naučno-stručno društvo za upravlјanje rizicima u vanrednim situacijama.
- Cvetković, V. (2017). Metodologija naučnog istraživanja katastrofa – teorije, koncepti i metode. Beograd: Zadužbina Andrejević.
- Jakovlјević, V., Cvetković, V., & Gačić, J. (2015). Prirodne katastrofe i obrazovanje. Beograd: Fakultet bezbednosti, Univerzitet u Beogradu.
- Cvetković, V. (2016). Policija ikatastrofe. Beograd: Zadužbina Andrejević.
- Cvetković, V., Gačić, J. (2016). Evakuacija u katastrofama. Beograd: Zadužbina Andrejević.
- Ivanov, A., Cvetković, V. (2016). Prirodni katastrofi – geoprostorna i vremenska distribucija. Univerzitet „Sv. Kliment Ohridski“- Bitola, Fakultet za bezbednost, Skopje.
- Bošković, D., Cvetković, V. (2017). Procena rizika u sprečavanju izvršenja krivičnih dela eksplozivnim materijama. Beograd: Kriminalističko-policijska akademija.
- Cvetković, V., Bošković, D., Janković, B., & Andrić, S. (2019). Percepcija rizika od katastrofa. Beograd: Kriminalističko-policijska akademija.
- Miladinović, S., Cvetković, V., & Milašinović, S. (2017). Upravlјanje u kriznim situacijama izazvanim klizištima. Beograd: Kriminalističko-policijska akademija.
- Cvetković, V., Filipović, M. (2017). Pripremlјenost zakatastrofe – preporuke za unapređenje pripremlјenosti. Beograd: Zadužbina Andrejević.
- Cvetković, V., Milašinović, S., & Gostimirović, L. (2018). Istorijski razvoj policijskog obrazovanja u Srbiji. Doboj: Visoka poslovna tehnička škola.
- Cvetković, V. (2013). Interventno-spasilačke službe u vanrednim situacijama. Beograd: Zadužbina Andrejević.
The books are available for ordering through the Society’s website (upravljanje-rizicima.vs) or via email – upravljanje.rizicima.vs@gmail.com.
SCIENTIFIC-PROFESSIONAL SOCIETY FOR DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT
In accordance with the provisions of Articles 12 and 78 of the Law on Associations (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, No. 51/09), at a session held on June 15, 2018, Prof. Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković founded the Scientific-Professional Society for Risk Management in Emergency Situations. The founding assembly of this association was attended by Dr. Vladimir M. Cvetković, Associate Professor at the Faculty of Security of the University of Belgrade; Dr. Slavoljub Dragićević, Full Professor at the Faculty of Geography, University of Belgrade; Dr. Vladimir Jakovljević, Full Professor at the Faculty of Security of the University of Belgrade; Dr. Boban Milojković, Full Professor at the Faculty of Forensic Sciences, University of Belgrade; Dr. Jasmina Gačić, Associate Professor at the Faculty of Security, University of Belgrade; Dr. Stanimir Kostadinov, Full Professor at the Faculty of Forestry, University of Belgrade; Dr. Srđan Milašinović, Full Professor at the Faculty of Forensic Sciences, University of Belgrade; Dr. Želimir Kešetović, Full Professor at the Faculty of Security, University of Belgrade; Dr. Dragan Mlađan, Full Professor at the Faculty of Forensic Sciences, University of Belgrade; Marina Filipović, PhD candidate at the Faculty of Security, University of Belgrade; Milosav Avramov, specialist in security management at the Emergency Situations Directorate in Belgrade; and Miloš Veličković, chief of operational-logistic affairs at the Logistics Department of the Military Medical Facilities Directorate in Belgrade, as part of the Ministry of Defense.
The Scientific-Professional Society for Risk Management in Emergency Situations (hereinafter referred to as the Association) is a non-governmental, non-profit association, founded indefinitely, for the purpose of advancing the existing body of theoretical knowledge in the field of risk management in emergency situations, conducting quantitative and qualitative research, organizing national and international conferences, launching and managing journals, conducting training and risk assessments, and other academic activities in the mentioned field. Accordingly, the objectives of the Association include the following:
1) Establishing and managing an international scientific journal entitled International Journal of Disaster Risk Management in English, which will primarily publish the results of original, quantitative, and qualitative research by interested academic citizens from Serbia and abroad.
2) Conducting research based on quantitative or qualitative national and international research traditions in the field of risk management in emergency situations.
3) Preparation, application, and realization of national and international projects on various aspects of risk management in emergency situations.
4) Promoting, designing, implementing, and improving preventive measures to strengthen institutional and non-institutional capacities to respond to emergencies, and based on conducted research, designing campaigns, programs, and plans to raise awareness among citizens about the need to improve their preparedness for disasters.
5) Organizing national and international scientific conferences on risk management in emergency situations.
6) Conducting professional risk assessments and developing protection and rescue plans in emergency situations at the level of legal entities, companies, and local communities in the field of disasters—preparing vulnerability assessments from elementary and other disasters and protection and rescue plans, as well as drafting risk assessment acts in protecting individuals, property, and operations in accordance with the Law on Private Security.
7) Organizing and conducting various types of training for citizens, students, and employees in relevant institutions to enable suitable personnel for jobs in risk management in emergency situations, and
8) Performing other tasks in accordance with the law and its Statute.
To achieve the stated objectives, the Association particularly conducts the following activities:
1) Organizes and conducts field research to collect primary data for scientific research activities in the field of risk management in emergency situations;
2) Establishes scientific databases based on the collection of primary and secondary data (analysis of domestic and international literature, as well as research);
3) Publishes scientific monographs, proceedings from national and international conferences, collections of regulations, journals, and other publications in the field of risk management in emergency situations;
4) Establishes cooperation with all relevant entities and organizations (government bodies, faculties, legal entities) involved in risk management in emergency situations in the country and abroad;
5) Gathers interested scientific and professional communities to improve theoretical thinking in the field of risk management in emergency situations, as well as to enhance the actions of competent entities and the strength of the protection and rescue system;
6) Organizes campaigns to promote a culture of disaster risk reduction and develops disaster risk assessment acts and private security, protection, and rescue plans;
7) Conducts education of citizens, students, and pupils according to the adopted education programs within the Association, and
8) Influences decision-makers in the state to base their decisions on reducing disaster risks on the results of the latest research and recommendations of relevant international organizations in the field of risk management in emergency situations.
Anyone who accepts the goals of the Association and its Statute and submits an application for membership to the Association’s Board of Directors can become a member of the Association. The decision on admission to membership is made by the Assembly and the applicant is informed of it without delay. A member can resign from membership by submitting a written statement of resignation. Membership in the Association may cease due to a member’s prolonged inactivity, failure to comply with the provisions of the Statute, or damage to the reputation of the Association. The decision to terminate membership is made by the Assembly upon the reasoned proposal of the Board of Directors. The member must be given the opportunity to state the reasons for which a proposal has been made to terminate his membership in the Association.
Become a member by filling out the application form and sending an email to – upravljanje.rizicima.vs@gmail.com
Website: www.upravljanje-rizicima.com
Email: upravljanje.rizicima.vs@gmail.com
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT (IJDRM)
The publisher is Scientific-Professional Society for Disaster Risk Management, Belgrade, Serbia. The founder of the journal is Assist. Prof. Vladimir M. Cvetković from the University of Belgrade, Faculty of Security Studies.
ISSN (printed edition) 2620-2662, ISSN (electronic edition) 2620-2786, UDC: 614.8.069
Submission of the articles doesn’t involve article processing charges (APCs) neither submission charges.
Dear Professor/Researcher,
International Journal of Disaster Risk Management is a peer-reviewed (twice a year) journal serves all aspects of disaster studies, policy, and man- agement. It provides a platform for academics, policymakers and practition- ers to publish high-quality research and practice concerning natural disasters, anthropogenic disasters, complex political emergencies and crises around the world. The journal crosses and affects interdisciplinary boundaries to pro- mote communication, collaboration and teamwork between professions and disciplines to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) the adverse impacts of hazards, within the broad context of sustainable devel- opment. The journal encourages to the interchange of ideas and experience, to decrease the risk of disasters and build community resilience within the context of sustainable development and planetary boundaries.
Journal will cover all aspects of disaster risk management from a global perspective, including but not limited to:
- Disaster and crisis management theory and practice,
- Risk awareness and assessment,
- Hazard and vulnerability analysis,
- Knowledge development including education, training, research and information on disasters,
- Public commitment and institutional frameworks, including organiza- tional, policy, legislation and community action,
- Disaster prevention, mitigation, response, recovery planning, policies, and implementation,
- Promotes the interchange of ideas between practitioners, policy-makers and academics.
Keywords
Disasters, disaster risk management, natural disaster, technological disaster, emergency situations, crisis management, theory and practice, mitigation, preparedness, hazards, policy, natural, complex, emergencies, political, aid, relief, developing, humanitarian, field, reports, refugee, journal, research, analysis, review.
Abstracting and Indexing Information
- ERIH PLUS (European Reference Index for the Humanities or ERIH)
- CEOOL (Central and Eastern European Online Library)
- National Library of Serbia – COBISS.SR-ID – 275644172
- Crossref
- ROAD – Directory of Open Access Scholarly Resources
- Fatcat
- Google scholar citations
Submission Process
Authors are kindly invited to submit their formatted full papers. All paper submissions will be blind peer reviewed and evaluated based on originality, Research content, correctness, relevance to conference and readability. Please read complete submission and formatting guidelines before submitting your paper. You can submit your paper through the following link (http://vanrednesituacije.com/ojs/index.php/Vol1/about/submissions) or to send via disaster.risk.management.serbia@gmail.com if you have a problem with the online platform.
CIP – Katalogizacija u publikaciji
Narodna biblioteka Srbije, Beograd
351.78(075.8)
351.759.6(075.8)
CVETKOVIĆ, Vladimir M., 1987-
Taktika zaštite i spasavanja u katastrofama / Vladimir M.
Cvetković. – Beograd: Naučno-stručno društvo za upravlјanje
rizicima u vanrednim situacijama, 2022 (Beograd: Neven). – XIII, 647
str. : ilustr. ; 24 cm
Autorova slika. – Tiraž 1.000. – Biografija autora: str. 605-639. –
Napomene i bibliografske reference uz tekst. – Bibliografija:
str.553-604.
ISBN 978-86-81424-09-4
- a) Vanredne situacije — Zaštita b) Vanredne situacije — Bezbednost
— Spasavanje
COBISS.SR-ID 62624009
